The Journal of Pharmacy & Pharmacognosy Research (JPPRes) is an international, specialized and peer-reviewed open access journal, which publishes studies in the pharmaceutical and herbal fields concerned with the physical, botanical, chemical, biological, toxicological properties and clinical applications of molecular entities, active pharmaceutical ingredients, devices and delivery systems for drugs, vaccines and biologicals, including their design, manufacture, evaluation and marketing.
The document discusses the process of new drug development, which involves several lengthy and costly stages. In preclinical testing, potential drug candidates are screened in animal and laboratory testing to evaluate toxicity, safety, and efficacy. If successful, compounds enter clinical trials involving 4 phases with human subjects to further assess safety and effectiveness. Only about 1-2% of initially investigated compounds ultimately result in an approved drug. The entire process from discovery to regulatory approval can take over 12 years and cost over $1 billion. Rigorous testing and regulatory standards aim to bring only safe and effective drugs to market.
An Abbreviated New Drug Application (ANDA) contains data to allow the FDA to review and approve a generic drug. The ANDA process provides a way for generic drug applications to be approved without requiring clinical trials by demonstrating bioequivalence to an existing brand name drug. The FDA reviews the ANDA for bioequivalence, chemistry and manufacturing controls, labeling, and conducts inspections to ensure quality before final approval of a generic drug.
21CFR 320- BIO AVAILABILITY AND BIO EQUIVALENCE REQUIREMENTSPallavi Christeen
this presentation describes briefly about Bioavailability and Bioequivalence requirements as per US FDA Code of Federal Regulations under title 21 and chapter 320
This document discusses supplemental new drug applications (SNDA) which are submitted to the FDA for approval of changes to approved drugs. It defines what types of changes require an SNDA, including manufacturing changes, formulation changes, and labeling changes. It categorizes changes as major, moderate, or minor based on their potential impact on quality, safety, or efficacy. Major changes require prior approval, moderate changes require 30 days' notice, and minor changes are reported annually. Examples are provided for each category of change.
The document discusses drug regulations and central testing laboratories in India. It provides information on the Central Drugs Standard Control Organization (CDSCO), which is responsible for regulating drugs in India. It oversees several laboratories across India that test drugs. The document also discusses ethics committees, new drug approvals, and the benefits of accreditation by the National Accreditation Board for Testing and Calibration Laboratories (NABL).
The document provides information on the New Drug Application (NDA) process, including its history and requirements. An NDA application must include extensive information on chemistry, manufacturing, non-clinical and clinical studies, and statistical analysis to prove a drug's safety and efficacy. It undergoes review by the FDA including an advisory panel review before final approval or disapproval is granted.
Pharmaceutical and Medical Device Developmentahelicher
This document summarizes the key steps in pharmaceutical and medical device development and regulatory approval processes. It discusses target identification, drug discovery methods, clinical trials, FDA approval pathways, post-marketing surveillance, and efforts to improve medical device safety. It also analyzes the comparative processes and a case study on Vioxx. The development timelines can take over 10 years and involve extensive testing and regulatory oversight by the FDA to ensure public safety.
The document discusses the process of new drug development, which involves several lengthy and costly stages. In preclinical testing, potential drug candidates are screened in animal and laboratory testing to evaluate toxicity, safety, and efficacy. If successful, compounds enter clinical trials involving 4 phases with human subjects to further assess safety and effectiveness. Only about 1-2% of initially investigated compounds ultimately result in an approved drug. The entire process from discovery to regulatory approval can take over 12 years and cost over $1 billion. Rigorous testing and regulatory standards aim to bring only safe and effective drugs to market.
An Abbreviated New Drug Application (ANDA) contains data to allow the FDA to review and approve a generic drug. The ANDA process provides a way for generic drug applications to be approved without requiring clinical trials by demonstrating bioequivalence to an existing brand name drug. The FDA reviews the ANDA for bioequivalence, chemistry and manufacturing controls, labeling, and conducts inspections to ensure quality before final approval of a generic drug.
21CFR 320- BIO AVAILABILITY AND BIO EQUIVALENCE REQUIREMENTSPallavi Christeen
this presentation describes briefly about Bioavailability and Bioequivalence requirements as per US FDA Code of Federal Regulations under title 21 and chapter 320
This document discusses supplemental new drug applications (SNDA) which are submitted to the FDA for approval of changes to approved drugs. It defines what types of changes require an SNDA, including manufacturing changes, formulation changes, and labeling changes. It categorizes changes as major, moderate, or minor based on their potential impact on quality, safety, or efficacy. Major changes require prior approval, moderate changes require 30 days' notice, and minor changes are reported annually. Examples are provided for each category of change.
The document discusses drug regulations and central testing laboratories in India. It provides information on the Central Drugs Standard Control Organization (CDSCO), which is responsible for regulating drugs in India. It oversees several laboratories across India that test drugs. The document also discusses ethics committees, new drug approvals, and the benefits of accreditation by the National Accreditation Board for Testing and Calibration Laboratories (NABL).
The document provides information on the New Drug Application (NDA) process, including its history and requirements. An NDA application must include extensive information on chemistry, manufacturing, non-clinical and clinical studies, and statistical analysis to prove a drug's safety and efficacy. It undergoes review by the FDA including an advisory panel review before final approval or disapproval is granted.
Pharmaceutical and Medical Device Developmentahelicher
This document summarizes the key steps in pharmaceutical and medical device development and regulatory approval processes. It discusses target identification, drug discovery methods, clinical trials, FDA approval pathways, post-marketing surveillance, and efforts to improve medical device safety. It also analyzes the comparative processes and a case study on Vioxx. The development timelines can take over 10 years and involve extensive testing and regulatory oversight by the FDA to ensure public safety.
Outsourcing bioavailibility and bioequivalence studies to contract researchGauravchaudhary199
This document defines a contract research organization (CRO) and outlines their goals and services. CROs provide outsourced clinical research services to the pharmaceutical industry. Their services include clinical trials, preclinical research, pharmacovigilance, and biological assay development. Companies outsource to CROs due to lack of in-house capacity, skills, or to control costs. When selecting a CRO, companies should assess their clinical, bioanalytical, and pharmacokinetic capabilities. They should also qualify CRO sites to ensure compliance with Good Clinical Practices and laboratory standards.
An ANDA (Abbreviated New Drug Application) allows manufacturers to develop generic versions of brand-name drugs. It contains information showing the generic drug is bioequivalent to the reference listed drug. The goal of an ANDA is to provide a safe, effective and low-cost alternative to the public while reducing development time and costs compared to a full NDA. An ANDA includes application forms, labeling, manufacturing information, bioequivalence data and patent certifications.
OUTSOURCING BIOAVAILABILITY AND BIOEQUIVALENCE TO CROKushal Saha
The document discusses outsourcing bioavailability (BA) and bioequivalence (BE) studies to contract research organizations (CROs). Outsourcing such studies is common for smaller pharmaceutical companies and generic drug companies that lack internal clinical and bioanalytical capabilities. When selecting a CRO, companies should qualify the CRO's clinical, bioanalytical, and pharmacokinetic capabilities to ensure compliance with good practices. The document provides details on evaluating a CRO's facilities, personnel, validation procedures, and ability to coordinate different stages of BA and BE studies.
Generic drug companies are relying heavily on qualified contract research organizations (CROs) to accelerate their development processes and be first to market after patents expire on branded drugs. CROs provide expertise across development areas like preclinical research, clinical trials management, bioequivalence studies, analytical testing, and ANDA submissions that help generics meet tight deadlines. Successfully demonstrating bioequivalence through bioavailability and dissolution studies is key for regulatory approval and requires CROs with strong laboratory capabilities and experience navigating regulatory requirements.
Central drug standard control organisationbdvfgbdhg
The CDSCO is the main regulatory body for pharmaceuticals, medical devices, and clinical trials in India. It is headquartered in New Delhi and functions under the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. The DCGI is responsible for approving new drugs, medical devices, and clinical trials in India and is advised by technical committees. The CDSCO has zonal, sub-zonal, and port offices that perform regulatory functions like GMP audits and drug testing. State drug control organizations also regulate drugs and enforce drug standards at the local level.
Non-clinical contract research organizations (CROs) have become an integral part of drug discovery and development to support sponsors research needs, expedite timelines and provide an extension of technical and scientific support.
Introduction
Brief description of the drug and the therapeutic class to which it belongs
Chemical and pharmaceutical information
Animal Pharmacolog
Animal Toxicology
Human/Clinical Pharmacology phase I
Therapeutic exploratory trials (Phase II)
Therapeutic confirmatory trials (Phase III)
Special Studies Geriatrics, pediatrics, pregnant or nursing women
Regulatory status in other countries
Prescribing information
Samples and Testing Protocol/s
The document discusses the requirements and guidance for Investigational Medicinal Product Dossiers (IMPDs) and Investigator Brochures (IBs) for clinical trials conducted in the European Union. It provides an overview of the key elements that must be included in an IMPD when applying for clinical trial authorization, such as quality, manufacturing, and non-clinical and clinical study summaries. It also summarizes the sections and information that should be contained in an IB, including physical/chemical properties, non-clinical pharmacology and toxicology results, known human effects, and guidance for investigators.
Regulation Governing Clinical Trials In India,USA and Europe. KapilKumar198
This presentation contain detailed information about the "Regulation Governing Clinical Trials In India,USA and Europe".And about the clinical trails and medical devices regulations in India.
This document summarizes a presentation on Investigational Medicinal Product Dossier (IMPD) and Investigation Brochure (IB). The presentation covered:
1. An introduction to IMPD, including that it is submitted to the European Union for clinical trial authorization and contains quality, nonclinical, and clinical data. Two types of IMPDs were described - full and simplified.
2. An introduction to the IB, which compiles relevant clinical and nonclinical data on investigational products to inform investigators. Key contents of an IB like title page, summary, and clinical data sections were outlined.
3. The differences between IMPD and IB, with IMPD focusing more on nonclinical development data and IB
The document discusses supergenerics, which are generic drugs that offer improved features over existing generics. Supergenerics can provide a lower-risk alternative to developing new drugs and offer shorter development timelines compared to new chemical entities. The 505(b)(2) regulatory pathway allows supergenerics to incorporate existing clinical data, reducing development costs versus the traditional 505(b)(1) new drug application process. Supergenerics aim to create value through improved formulations, delivery methods, or other enhancements compared to existing generics while maintaining a known safety profile. This offers the potential for temporary market exclusivity and competitive advantages for generic drug companies.
The document discusses the requirements for a New Drug Application (NDA) submitted to the FDA for approval of a new pharmaceutical product. An NDA must provide extensive data on the chemistry, manufacturing, animal and human clinical studies of the drug to allow the FDA to determine if the drug is safe, effective and of adequate quality for approval. Guidance documents provide recommendations to applicants on the content and format of an NDA to streamline the review process.
1. The document discusses the process of generic drug product development. It defines a generic drug as a drug that is comparable to a brand name drug in dosage, strength, quality and performance, and intended use.
2. The key steps in generic drug development include selecting a product, addressing legislative and regulatory requirements like bioequivalence studies, seeking approval via an Abbreviated New Drug Application (ANDA) by demonstrating bioequivalence to the branded reference drug, and referencing patent and approval information in sources like the Orange Book.
3. Generic drugs can be approved and marketed after relevant patents for the branded counterpart expire. The ANDA process allows generic drugs to avoid duplicating preclinical and clinical trials
This document summarizes key aspects of non-clinical drug development. It discusses how non-clinical studies are performed in silico, in vitro, and in vivo to assess safety, efficacy, pharmacokinetics, and manufacturing viability before human clinical trials. It also describes the Investigational New Drug application process which is required to begin clinical trials in humans, and provides an overview of the New Drug Application submitted for marketing approval. The document concludes by outlining the contents of an Investigational Medicinal Products Dossier which forms the basis for approval of multinational clinical trials in the European Union.
Pharmaceutical industrial management covers topics like quality assurance, quality control, good manufacturing practices, good laboratory practices, and total quality management. Quality assurance aims to prevent defects and ensure products meet requirements, while quality control detects defects. Good practices provide guidelines for manufacturers to consistently produce high quality and safe products. Process and analytical method validation are important to demonstrate that procedures are suitable and reliable for their intended purposes. Documentation and change control are also important parts of pharmaceutical quality systems.
How to access and process FDA drug approval packages for use in researchErick Turner
FDA reviews on new drugs can be used to learn the results of unpublished studies. Unfortunately, the FDA website (Drugs@FDA) is not user-friendly, nor are these review documents. These slides explain how to navigate Drugs@FDA, and they provide tips on how to make documents easier to use.
These slides are based on, and expand upon, an article in the BMJ, available at http://www.bmj.com/content/347/bmj.f5992 .
The document discusses regulatory requirements for non-clinical drug development, including guidelines from the European Medicines Agency. It describes the types of non-clinical studies done in silico, in vitro, and in vivo to determine efficacy, safety, delivery methods, and manufacturing viability before clinical trials. Key submissions to regulators include the Investigational New Drug Application, New Drug Application, and Abbreviated New Drug Application.
This document discusses bioavailability and bioequivalence studies. It defines bioavailability as the fraction of a drug that reaches systemic circulation, and bioequivalence as drugs reaching circulation at the same rate and to the same extent. It describes various methods to measure bioavailability including plasma level time studies, urinary excretion studies, and pharmacological or therapeutic response. The document outlines study designs for bioequivalence testing including randomization, cross-over, and Latin square designs. It discusses the importance of these studies for drug development and quality control.
An Analysis on the UV-Visible Spectrophotometry MethodAI Publications
In the pharmaceutical industry, quality control is a necessary process. Pharmaceutical medicinal products must be advertised as safe, therapeutically active formulations with predictable qualities and performance. The main aim of the study is an analysis on the UV-Visible Spectrophotometry Method. UV spectroscopy was performed on Shimadzu 1700 uv spectrometer, 1cm cell quartz cuvette. Mode was set as UV mode and Detector wavelength was kept at 231 nm and 276 nm. A simple, rapid, accurate, sensitive and cost economical methodology for simultaneous estimation and precise ultraviolet radiation methodology has been developed and valid as per ICH guidelines for simultaneous Estimation of MET and AGP in Their Combined dose form.
Dr. Krunal M. Patel has over 1 year of experience as a research associate in pharmacovigilance. He currently works at Lambda Therapeutic Research Limited in Ahmedabad, where his responsibilities include quality review of ICSRs, regulatory submissions, case processing, and preparation/revision of SOPs and training documents. He has a PhD in Pharmaceutical Sciences from Jodhpur National University and expertise in pharmacovigilance, regulatory affairs, and quality systems.
Outsourcing bioavailibility and bioequivalence studies to contract researchGauravchaudhary199
This document defines a contract research organization (CRO) and outlines their goals and services. CROs provide outsourced clinical research services to the pharmaceutical industry. Their services include clinical trials, preclinical research, pharmacovigilance, and biological assay development. Companies outsource to CROs due to lack of in-house capacity, skills, or to control costs. When selecting a CRO, companies should assess their clinical, bioanalytical, and pharmacokinetic capabilities. They should also qualify CRO sites to ensure compliance with Good Clinical Practices and laboratory standards.
An ANDA (Abbreviated New Drug Application) allows manufacturers to develop generic versions of brand-name drugs. It contains information showing the generic drug is bioequivalent to the reference listed drug. The goal of an ANDA is to provide a safe, effective and low-cost alternative to the public while reducing development time and costs compared to a full NDA. An ANDA includes application forms, labeling, manufacturing information, bioequivalence data and patent certifications.
OUTSOURCING BIOAVAILABILITY AND BIOEQUIVALENCE TO CROKushal Saha
The document discusses outsourcing bioavailability (BA) and bioequivalence (BE) studies to contract research organizations (CROs). Outsourcing such studies is common for smaller pharmaceutical companies and generic drug companies that lack internal clinical and bioanalytical capabilities. When selecting a CRO, companies should qualify the CRO's clinical, bioanalytical, and pharmacokinetic capabilities to ensure compliance with good practices. The document provides details on evaluating a CRO's facilities, personnel, validation procedures, and ability to coordinate different stages of BA and BE studies.
Generic drug companies are relying heavily on qualified contract research organizations (CROs) to accelerate their development processes and be first to market after patents expire on branded drugs. CROs provide expertise across development areas like preclinical research, clinical trials management, bioequivalence studies, analytical testing, and ANDA submissions that help generics meet tight deadlines. Successfully demonstrating bioequivalence through bioavailability and dissolution studies is key for regulatory approval and requires CROs with strong laboratory capabilities and experience navigating regulatory requirements.
Central drug standard control organisationbdvfgbdhg
The CDSCO is the main regulatory body for pharmaceuticals, medical devices, and clinical trials in India. It is headquartered in New Delhi and functions under the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. The DCGI is responsible for approving new drugs, medical devices, and clinical trials in India and is advised by technical committees. The CDSCO has zonal, sub-zonal, and port offices that perform regulatory functions like GMP audits and drug testing. State drug control organizations also regulate drugs and enforce drug standards at the local level.
Non-clinical contract research organizations (CROs) have become an integral part of drug discovery and development to support sponsors research needs, expedite timelines and provide an extension of technical and scientific support.
Introduction
Brief description of the drug and the therapeutic class to which it belongs
Chemical and pharmaceutical information
Animal Pharmacolog
Animal Toxicology
Human/Clinical Pharmacology phase I
Therapeutic exploratory trials (Phase II)
Therapeutic confirmatory trials (Phase III)
Special Studies Geriatrics, pediatrics, pregnant or nursing women
Regulatory status in other countries
Prescribing information
Samples and Testing Protocol/s
The document discusses the requirements and guidance for Investigational Medicinal Product Dossiers (IMPDs) and Investigator Brochures (IBs) for clinical trials conducted in the European Union. It provides an overview of the key elements that must be included in an IMPD when applying for clinical trial authorization, such as quality, manufacturing, and non-clinical and clinical study summaries. It also summarizes the sections and information that should be contained in an IB, including physical/chemical properties, non-clinical pharmacology and toxicology results, known human effects, and guidance for investigators.
Regulation Governing Clinical Trials In India,USA and Europe. KapilKumar198
This presentation contain detailed information about the "Regulation Governing Clinical Trials In India,USA and Europe".And about the clinical trails and medical devices regulations in India.
This document summarizes a presentation on Investigational Medicinal Product Dossier (IMPD) and Investigation Brochure (IB). The presentation covered:
1. An introduction to IMPD, including that it is submitted to the European Union for clinical trial authorization and contains quality, nonclinical, and clinical data. Two types of IMPDs were described - full and simplified.
2. An introduction to the IB, which compiles relevant clinical and nonclinical data on investigational products to inform investigators. Key contents of an IB like title page, summary, and clinical data sections were outlined.
3. The differences between IMPD and IB, with IMPD focusing more on nonclinical development data and IB
The document discusses supergenerics, which are generic drugs that offer improved features over existing generics. Supergenerics can provide a lower-risk alternative to developing new drugs and offer shorter development timelines compared to new chemical entities. The 505(b)(2) regulatory pathway allows supergenerics to incorporate existing clinical data, reducing development costs versus the traditional 505(b)(1) new drug application process. Supergenerics aim to create value through improved formulations, delivery methods, or other enhancements compared to existing generics while maintaining a known safety profile. This offers the potential for temporary market exclusivity and competitive advantages for generic drug companies.
The document discusses the requirements for a New Drug Application (NDA) submitted to the FDA for approval of a new pharmaceutical product. An NDA must provide extensive data on the chemistry, manufacturing, animal and human clinical studies of the drug to allow the FDA to determine if the drug is safe, effective and of adequate quality for approval. Guidance documents provide recommendations to applicants on the content and format of an NDA to streamline the review process.
1. The document discusses the process of generic drug product development. It defines a generic drug as a drug that is comparable to a brand name drug in dosage, strength, quality and performance, and intended use.
2. The key steps in generic drug development include selecting a product, addressing legislative and regulatory requirements like bioequivalence studies, seeking approval via an Abbreviated New Drug Application (ANDA) by demonstrating bioequivalence to the branded reference drug, and referencing patent and approval information in sources like the Orange Book.
3. Generic drugs can be approved and marketed after relevant patents for the branded counterpart expire. The ANDA process allows generic drugs to avoid duplicating preclinical and clinical trials
This document summarizes key aspects of non-clinical drug development. It discusses how non-clinical studies are performed in silico, in vitro, and in vivo to assess safety, efficacy, pharmacokinetics, and manufacturing viability before human clinical trials. It also describes the Investigational New Drug application process which is required to begin clinical trials in humans, and provides an overview of the New Drug Application submitted for marketing approval. The document concludes by outlining the contents of an Investigational Medicinal Products Dossier which forms the basis for approval of multinational clinical trials in the European Union.
Pharmaceutical industrial management covers topics like quality assurance, quality control, good manufacturing practices, good laboratory practices, and total quality management. Quality assurance aims to prevent defects and ensure products meet requirements, while quality control detects defects. Good practices provide guidelines for manufacturers to consistently produce high quality and safe products. Process and analytical method validation are important to demonstrate that procedures are suitable and reliable for their intended purposes. Documentation and change control are also important parts of pharmaceutical quality systems.
How to access and process FDA drug approval packages for use in researchErick Turner
FDA reviews on new drugs can be used to learn the results of unpublished studies. Unfortunately, the FDA website (Drugs@FDA) is not user-friendly, nor are these review documents. These slides explain how to navigate Drugs@FDA, and they provide tips on how to make documents easier to use.
These slides are based on, and expand upon, an article in the BMJ, available at http://www.bmj.com/content/347/bmj.f5992 .
The document discusses regulatory requirements for non-clinical drug development, including guidelines from the European Medicines Agency. It describes the types of non-clinical studies done in silico, in vitro, and in vivo to determine efficacy, safety, delivery methods, and manufacturing viability before clinical trials. Key submissions to regulators include the Investigational New Drug Application, New Drug Application, and Abbreviated New Drug Application.
This document discusses bioavailability and bioequivalence studies. It defines bioavailability as the fraction of a drug that reaches systemic circulation, and bioequivalence as drugs reaching circulation at the same rate and to the same extent. It describes various methods to measure bioavailability including plasma level time studies, urinary excretion studies, and pharmacological or therapeutic response. The document outlines study designs for bioequivalence testing including randomization, cross-over, and Latin square designs. It discusses the importance of these studies for drug development and quality control.
An Analysis on the UV-Visible Spectrophotometry MethodAI Publications
In the pharmaceutical industry, quality control is a necessary process. Pharmaceutical medicinal products must be advertised as safe, therapeutically active formulations with predictable qualities and performance. The main aim of the study is an analysis on the UV-Visible Spectrophotometry Method. UV spectroscopy was performed on Shimadzu 1700 uv spectrometer, 1cm cell quartz cuvette. Mode was set as UV mode and Detector wavelength was kept at 231 nm and 276 nm. A simple, rapid, accurate, sensitive and cost economical methodology for simultaneous estimation and precise ultraviolet radiation methodology has been developed and valid as per ICH guidelines for simultaneous Estimation of MET and AGP in Their Combined dose form.
Dr. Krunal M. Patel has over 1 year of experience as a research associate in pharmacovigilance. He currently works at Lambda Therapeutic Research Limited in Ahmedabad, where his responsibilities include quality review of ICSRs, regulatory submissions, case processing, and preparation/revision of SOPs and training documents. He has a PhD in Pharmaceutical Sciences from Jodhpur National University and expertise in pharmacovigilance, regulatory affairs, and quality systems.
Dr. Krunal M. Patel has over 1 year of experience as a research associate in pharmacovigilance. He currently works at Lambda Therapeutic Research Limited in Ahmedabad, where his responsibilities include quality review of ICSRs, regulatory submissions, case processing, and preparation/revision of SOPs and training documents. He has a PhD in Pharmaceutical Sciences from Jodhpur National University and expertise in pharmacovigilance, regulatory affairs, and quality systems.
Dr. Krunal M. Patel has over 1 year of experience as a research associate in pharmacovigilance. He currently works at Lambda Therapeutic Research Limited in Ahmedabad, where his responsibilities include quality review of ICSRs, regulatory submissions, case processing, and preparation/revision of SOPs and training documents. He has a PhD in Pharmaceutical Sciences from Jodhpur National University and expertise in pharmacovigilance, regulatory affairs, and quality systems.
Regulatory requirements for drug approval - industrial pharmacy IIJafarali Masi
Regulatory requirements for drug approval - industrial pharmacy IIDrug Development Teams, Non-Clinical Drug Development, Pharmacology, Drug Metabolism and Toxicology, General considerations of Investigational New Drug (IND) Application, Investigator’s Brochure (IB) and New Drug Application (NDA), Clinical research / BE studies, Clinical Research Protocols, Biostatistics in Pharmaceutical Product Development, Data Presentation for FDA Submissions, Management of Clinical Studies.
This SlideShare gives an overview on how a drug is discovered, researched, developed, tested and reviewed for approval. It follows the current standard of approval set by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), a federal agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services. The process is generally divided into 4 Stages: Pre-Clinical, Clinical, New Drug Application (NDA) Review & Post-Marketing.
Preparation of Clinical Trial Protocol of India.Aakashdeep Raval
The document provides information on clinical trial protocols in India. It discusses the purpose of clinical trials and phases of clinical trials from Phase 0 to Phase 4. It explains that the clinical trial protocol is a document that states the background, objectives, design, methodology and statistical considerations of a clinical trial. The protocol describes inclusion/exclusion criteria, assessments of efficacy and safety, data management, quality control and other key elements to ensure proper conduct of the clinical trial. An effective clinical trial protocol provides all the necessary details to guide researchers in safely and ethically evaluating a medical treatment.
PART 1 _ Documentation of drug trials and regulatory filings (1).pptxDilsarGohil1
The document discusses documentation required for Investigational New Drug (IND) applications submitted to regulatory authorities like the FDA. An IND application is required to get approval to start clinical trials of an investigational drug. It must include preclinical animal study and toxicity data, manufacturing information, clinical trial protocols, and prior human research data. If approved, the IND allows the sponsor to begin clinical trials to investigate safety and efficacy of the new drug in humans. The clinical trials are divided into four phases with increasing number of participants.
Pharmaceutical QbD concepts for drug developmentGuru Balaji .S
The document discusses quality by design (QbD) in pharmaceutical development. It defines QbD as a systematic approach that begins with predefined objectives and emphasizes product and process understanding based on science and risk management. Under QbD, the desired product performance profile, target product quality attributes, and critical material attributes are defined to identify and control sources of variability. QbD provides increased flexibility while maintaining quality standards compared to traditional quality testing approaches. Key aspects of implementing QbD include knowledge management, risk management, designing controls based on scientific understanding, and continual improvement using knowledge gained over a product's lifecycle.
Post-marketing surveillance involves monitoring drug safety after market release. It identifies rare or long-term adverse effects not seen in clinical trials. Manufacturers must report serious adverse events to regulatory agencies. Outsourcing bioavailability and bioequivalence studies to contract research organizations allows companies to access expertise and resources while reducing costs and time to market. CROs conduct clinical trials, data analysis, and reporting according to Good Clinical Practice standards. Qualification of appropriate CROs involves assessing capabilities, infrastructure, compliance history, and collaboration effectiveness.
The document discusses the process of developing, optimizing, characterizing, and commercializing a pharmaceutical product. It involves designing a manufacturing process to consistently deliver the intended effects of the drug product. Process development includes determining facility, equipment, materials, procedures, and validation. Optimization compares lead compounds to select those with the greatest potential to be safe and effective medicines. Characterization tests understand the physical and chemical properties of materials. Commercialization requires approvals from regulators and establishing manufacturing, distribution, and marketing capabilities to introduce the product into markets. The goal is to produce a drug that is safe, effective, and affordable to improve patient health.
An Investigational New Drug (IND) application allows a sponsor to legally test an unapproved or investigational drug in clinical trials. The sponsor must provide preclinical data on pharmacology, toxicology and manufacturing to show the drug is reasonably safe for initial human testing. After submitting an IND, clinical trials can begin if FDA does not disapprove the application within 30 days. The IND application process and clinical trials are regulated to ensure data quality and subject safety.
DISSERTATION on NEW DRUG DISCOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT STAGES OF DRUG DISCOVERYNEHA GUPTA
The process of drug discovery and development is a complex and multi-step endeavor aimed at bringing new pharmaceutical drugs to market. It begins with identifying and validating a biological target, such as a protein, gene, or RNA, that is associated with a disease. This step involves understanding the target's role in the disease and confirming that modulating it can have therapeutic effects. The next stage, hit identification, employs high-throughput screening (HTS) and other methods to find compounds that interact with the target. Computational techniques may also be used to identify potential hits from large compound libraries.
Following hit identification, the hits are optimized to improve their efficacy, selectivity, and pharmacokinetic properties, resulting in lead compounds. These leads undergo further refinement to enhance their potency, reduce toxicity, and improve drug-like characteristics, creating drug candidates suitable for preclinical testing. In the preclinical development phase, drug candidates are tested in vitro (in cell cultures) and in vivo (in animal models) to evaluate their safety, efficacy, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics. Toxicology studies are conducted to assess potential risks.
Before clinical trials can begin, an Investigational New Drug (IND) application must be submitted to regulatory authorities. This application includes data from preclinical studies and plans for clinical trials. Clinical development involves human trials in three phases: Phase I tests the drug's safety and dosage in a small group of healthy volunteers, Phase II assesses the drug's efficacy and side effects in a larger group of patients with the target disease, and Phase III confirms the drug's efficacy and monitors adverse reactions in a large population, often compared to existing treatments.
After successful clinical trials, a New Drug Application (NDA) is submitted to regulatory authorities for approval, including all data from preclinical and clinical studies, as well as proposed labeling and manufacturing information. Regulatory authorities then review the NDA to ensure the drug is safe, effective, and of high quality, potentially requiring additional studies. Finally, after a drug is approved and marketed, it undergoes post-marketing surveillance, which includes continuous monitoring for long-term safety and effectiveness, pharmacovigilance, and reporting of any adverse effects.
This is the presentation on Role of advancement in instrumentation in pharmacodynamic evaluation of drugs
in clinical trials.
CONTENTS
Concept of medical instrument and instrumentation
Centrifuge
PCR
HPLC
Flow cytometry
Mass SPECTROMETRY
Minimally invasive technologies in PD
Conclusion
The document introduces four students who are members of the team "Pakistan Pharma Career Door". It provides brief descriptions of each student, noting their educational achievements and strengths. Sameeta Malik is an energetic student engaged in scientific activities at Dow College of Pharmacy. Iffrah Naushad is a meritorious student with experience attending national events. Abira Khalid is an associate of Dow College of Pharmacy who is talented and one of the genius students. Qaisara Boota is one of the most active students who is highly courageous and ready to take on difficult tasks. The document was prepared by these four students from Dow College of Pharmacy.
Venkatesh Kalva is seeking a position that utilizes his 2+ years of experience in drug safety and pharmacovigilance. He has worked as a Senior Drug Safety Associate handling adverse event reports, performing data entry in safety databases, medical coding, and report submission. He has strong skills in ARISg and Argus databases as well as literature screening and training others. Venkatesh holds an M.Pharm degree and was awarded for high productivity during his previous role. He is proficient in English, Hindi, and Telugu and seeks opportunities in Bangalore.
The stages of Drug Discovery and Development processA M O L D E O R E
Drug development is the process of bringing a new pharmaceutical drug to the market once a lead compound has been identified through the process of drug discovery. It includes preclinical research on microorganisms and animals, filing for regulatory status, such as via the United States Food and Drug Administration for an investigational new drug to initiate clinical trials on humans, and may include the step of obtaining regulatory approval with a new drug application to market the drug
Generic drugs can be approved through an Abbreviated New Drug Application (ANDA) which relies on the safety and efficacy data of the branded drug. The ANDA process requires generic manufacturers to show bioequivalence to the branded drug through bioavailability and bioequivalence studies rather than completing full clinical trials. If bioequivalence is established, it demonstrates that the generic drug delivers the same amount of active ingredients into a patient's bloodstream in the same amount of time as the branded drug. The Hatch-Waxman Act established the modern ANDA approval process and aims to balance promoting generic drugs to reduce costs while also compensating branded manufacturers for regulatory time lost from patents.
Similar to Journal of Pharmacy & Pharmacognosy Research volume 2, issue 1, 2014 (20)
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/Pt1nA32sdHQ
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STUDIES IN SUPPORT OF SPECIAL POPULATIONS: GERIATRICS E7shruti jagirdar
Unit 4: MRA 103T Regulatory affairs
This guideline is directed principally toward new Molecular Entities that are
likely to have significant use in the elderly, either because the disease intended
to be treated is characteristically a disease of aging ( e.g., Alzheimer's disease) or
because the population to be treated is known to include substantial numbers of
geriatric patients (e.g., hypertension).
PGx Analysis in VarSeq: A User’s PerspectiveGolden Helix
Since our release of the PGx capabilities in VarSeq, we’ve had a few months to gather some insights from various use cases. Some users approach PGx workflows by means of array genotyping or what seems to be a growing trend of adding the star allele calling to the existing NGS pipeline for whole genome data. Luckily, both approaches are supported with the VarSeq software platform. The genotyping method being used will also dictate what the scope of the tertiary analysis will be. For example, are your PGx reports a standalone pipeline or would your lab’s goal be to handle a dual-purpose workflow and report on PGx + Diagnostic findings.
The purpose of this webcast is to:
Discuss and demonstrate the approaches with array and NGS genotyping methods for star allele calling to prep for downstream analysis.
Following genotyping, explore alternative tertiary workflow concepts in VarSeq to handle PGx reporting.
Moreover, we will include insights users will need to consider when validating their PGx workflow for all possible star alleles and options you have for automating your PGx analysis for large number of samples. Please join us for a session dedicated to the application of star allele genotyping and subsequent PGx workflows in our VarSeq software.
Breast cancer: Post menopausal endocrine therapyDr. Sumit KUMAR
Breast cancer in postmenopausal women with hormone receptor-positive (HR+) status is a common and complex condition that necessitates a multifaceted approach to management. HR+ breast cancer means that the cancer cells grow in response to hormones such as estrogen and progesterone. This subtype is prevalent among postmenopausal women and typically exhibits a more indolent course compared to other forms of breast cancer, which allows for a variety of treatment options.
Diagnosis and Staging
The diagnosis of HR+ breast cancer begins with clinical evaluation, imaging, and biopsy. Imaging modalities such as mammography, ultrasound, and MRI help in assessing the extent of the disease. Histopathological examination and immunohistochemical staining of the biopsy sample confirm the diagnosis and hormone receptor status by identifying the presence of estrogen receptors (ER) and progesterone receptors (PR) on the tumor cells.
Staging involves determining the size of the tumor (T), the involvement of regional lymph nodes (N), and the presence of distant metastasis (M). The American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) staging system is commonly used. Accurate staging is critical as it guides treatment decisions.
Treatment Options
Endocrine Therapy
Endocrine therapy is the cornerstone of treatment for HR+ breast cancer in postmenopausal women. The primary goal is to reduce the levels of estrogen or block its effects on cancer cells. Commonly used agents include:
Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulators (SERMs): Tamoxifen is a SERM that binds to estrogen receptors, blocking estrogen from stimulating breast cancer cells. It is effective but may have side effects such as increased risk of endometrial cancer and thromboembolic events.
Aromatase Inhibitors (AIs): These drugs, including anastrozole, letrozole, and exemestane, lower estrogen levels by inhibiting the aromatase enzyme, which converts androgens to estrogen in peripheral tissues. AIs are generally preferred in postmenopausal women due to their efficacy and safety profile compared to tamoxifen.
Selective Estrogen Receptor Downregulators (SERDs): Fulvestrant is a SERD that degrades estrogen receptors and is used in cases where resistance to other endocrine therapies develops.
Combination Therapies
Combining endocrine therapy with other treatments enhances efficacy. Examples include:
Endocrine Therapy with CDK4/6 Inhibitors: Palbociclib, ribociclib, and abemaciclib are CDK4/6 inhibitors that, when combined with endocrine therapy, significantly improve progression-free survival in advanced HR+ breast cancer.
Endocrine Therapy with mTOR Inhibitors: Everolimus, an mTOR inhibitor, can be added to endocrine therapy for patients who have developed resistance to aromatase inhibitors.
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is generally reserved for patients with high-risk features, such as large tumor size, high-grade histology, or extensive lymph node involvement. Regimens often include anthracyclines and taxanes.
NAVIGATING THE HORIZONS OF TIME LAPSE EMBRYO MONITORING.pdfRahul Sen
Time-lapse embryo monitoring is an advanced imaging technique used in IVF to continuously observe embryo development. It captures high-resolution images at regular intervals, allowing embryologists to select the most viable embryos for transfer based on detailed growth patterns. This technology enhances embryo selection, potentially increasing pregnancy success rates.
Know the difference between Endodontics and Orthodontics.Gokuldas Hospital
Your smile is beautiful.
Let’s be honest. Maintaining that beautiful smile is not an easy task. It is more than brushing and flossing. Sometimes, you might encounter dental issues that need special dental care. These issues can range anywhere from misalignment of the jaw to pain in the root of teeth.
Travel vaccination in Manchester offers comprehensive immunization services for individuals planning international trips. Expert healthcare providers administer vaccines tailored to your destination, ensuring you stay protected against various diseases. Conveniently located clinics and flexible appointment options make it easy to get the necessary shots before your journey. Stay healthy and travel with confidence by getting vaccinated in Manchester. Visit us: www.nxhealthcare.co.uk
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a simplified look into the mechanisms involved in the regulation of respiration:
Learning objectives:
1. Describe the organisation of respiratory center
2. Describe the nervous control of inspiration and respiratory rhythm
3. Describe the functions of the dorsal and respiratory groups of neurons
4. Describe the influences of the Pneumotaxic and Apneustic centers
5. Explain the role of Hering-Breur inflation reflex in regulation of inspiration
6. Explain the role of central chemoreceptors in regulation of respiration
7. Explain the role of peripheral chemoreceptors in regulation of respiration
8. Explain the regulation of respiration during exercise
9. Integrate the respiratory regulatory mechanisms
10. Describe the Cheyne-Stokes breathing
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 42, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 36, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 13, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
The biomechanics of running involves the study of the mechanical principles underlying running movements. It includes the analysis of the running gait cycle, which consists of the stance phase (foot contact to push-off) and the swing phase (foot lift-off to next contact). Key aspects include kinematics (joint angles and movements, stride length and frequency) and kinetics (forces involved in running, including ground reaction and muscle forces). Understanding these factors helps in improving running performance, optimizing technique, and preventing injuries.
Summer is a time for fun in the sun, but the heat and humidity can also wreak havoc on your skin. From itchy rashes to unwanted pigmentation, several skin conditions become more prevalent during these warmer months.
Discover the benefits of homeopathic medicine for irregular periods with our guide on 5 common remedies. Learn how these natural treatments can help regulate menstrual cycles and improve overall menstrual health.
Visit Us: https://drdeepikashomeopathy.com/service/irregular-periods-treatment/
Journal of Pharmacy & Pharmacognosy Research volume 2, issue 1, 2014
1. Volume 2, Issue 1 (Jan-Feb), 2014
ISSN 0719-4250
Content: Pages
IFC (Journal of Pharmacy & Pharmacognosy Research) ii
Revisión│Reviewer
Graciela Granados-Guzmán, Noemí Waksman de Torres, Rocío Castro-Ríos, Ricardo Salazar-
Aranda (2014) Ensayos de alto rendimiento utilizados en farmacognosia: Selección, optimización y
validación de métodos de inhibición enzimática por espectrofotometría UV-visible [High-
throughput screening assay used in pharmacognosy: Selection, optimization and validation of
methods of enzymatic inhibition by UV-visible spectrophotometry].
1-13
Original article│Artículo original
Iasmim C. Lima, Rosane Nora, Mário G. de Carvalho, Douglas S.A. Chaves (2014) Distribution and
chemotaxonomic significance of phenolic compounds in Spermacoce verticillata (L.) G. Mey
[Distribución e importancia quimiotaxonómica de los compuestos fenólicos en Spermacoce
verticillata (L.) G. Mey].
14-18
J Pharm Pharmacog Res
JPPRes
2. http://jppres.com/jppres J Pharm Pharmacogn Res (2014) 2(1):ii
Volume 2, Issue 1 (Jan-Feb), 2014
Journal of Pharmacy & Pharmacognosy Research
EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor-in-Chief: Editorial Board Members:
Gabino Garrido Garrido (Chile) Carla Delporte. Universidad de Chile, Chile.
Damaris Silveira. Universidade de Brasília, Brazil.
Executive Editor: Douglas Siqueira de Almeida Chaves. Universidade Federal Rural do
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
Marisela Valdés González (Chile) Edgar Pastene. Universidad de Concepción, Chile.
Etile Spegazzini. Universidad de Belgrano, Argentina.
Editorial and Design Manager: Farid Chemat. Université Avignon et des Pays de Vaucluse, France.
Xavier Garrido Valdés (Chile) Fidel O. Castro. Universidad de Concepción, Chile.
Guilherme Nobre L. do Nascimento. Universidade Federal de
Tocantins. Brazil.
JPPRes address: Jacqueline Sepúlveda. Universidad de Concepción, Chile.
Edificio Ñ3, Angamos 0610, Antofagasta, Chile Jelena Nadinic. Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina.
URL: http://jppres.com/jppres José H. Isaza-Martínez. Universidad del Valle, Colombia.
E-mails: editor@jppres.com Juan C. Sepúlveda-Arias. Universidad Tecnológica de Pereira,
Colombia.
jppres12@gmail.com M. M. Gupta. The University of the West Indies, Trinidad & Tobago.
Mahomoodally M. Fawzi. University of Mauritius. Mauritius.
Marisol Fernández Alfonso. Universidad Complutense de Madrid,
España.
Mayank Gangwar. Banaras Hindu University, India.
Silvia Debenedetti. Universidad de Belgrano, Argentina.
Vikash Kumar Ruhil. PDM College of Pharmacy, India.
Yasser Shahzad. University of Huddersfield, United Kingdom.
The Journal of Pharmacy & Pharmacognosy Research (JPPRes) is an international, specialized and peer-reviewed open access
journal, which publishes studies in the pharmaceutical and herbal fields concerned with the physical, botanical, chemical,
biological, toxicological properties and clinical applications of molecular entities, active pharmaceutical ingredients, devices and
delivery systems for drugs, vaccines and biologicals, including their design, manufacture, evaluation and marketing. This journal
publishes research papers, reviews, commentaries and letters to the editor as well as special issues and review of pre-and post-
graduate thesis from pharmacists or professionals involved in Pharmaceutical Sciences or Pharmacognosy.
The journal is abstracted or indexed with Google Scholar, LATINDEX, PERIODICA, HINARI, SHERPA/RoMEO, Urlich´s Periodical
Directory, PSOAR (Pharmaceutical Sciences Open Access Resources), Geneva Foundation for Medical Education and Research,
BibSonomy, Research Bible, JournalTOCs, Academia.edu, Journalindex-Academic Journals Web Addresses.
4. Granados-Guzman et al. Validación de ensayos de alto rendimiento
http://jppres.com/jppres J Pharm Pharmacogn Res (2014) 2(1): 2
INTRODUCCIÓN
Los ensayos de alto rendimiento surgieron
hace dos décadas y se han convertido en una
herramienta ampliamente utilizada en la
búsqueda de nuevos fármacos. Debido a que se
trata de métodos in vitro, han sido fuertemente
promovidos por todos los sectores industriales
con el propósito de poder generar datos
confiables que sean más relevantes para
humanos, además de disminuir el uso de
animales de estudio (Szymański et al., 2012).
Los ensayos de alto rendimiento son bási-
camente procesos de rastreo y ensayo que se
enfocan en un solo mecanismo. Son utilizados
tanto por científicos industriales como por inves-
tigadores académicos. Su propósito principal es
acelerar el descubrimiento de nuevos fármacos,
mediante el rastreo de una gran cantidad de
compuestos a una velocidad que puede exceder
los varios cientos de compuestos por día o por
semana, lo cual es de vital importancia ya que en
síntesis química se genera un gran número de
nuevos compuestos. Esta alta demanda de resul-
tados hace necesario que los ensayos se lleven a
cabo en placas de 96 o más pozos, siendo el
sistema de detección UV-Vis el más ampliamente
utilizado, aunque existen otros como, por
ejemplo, la fluorescencia. Los ensayos de alto
rendimiento son también utilizados para la
caracterización metabólica y farmacocinética, así
como para obtener datos toxicológicos sobre
nuevos fármacos (Szymański et al., 2012; Martis et al.,
2011; Schroeder et al., 2011). Uno de los puntos más
interesantes de la tecnología de estos ensayos, es
que puede reducir costos, lo cual ha hecho que se
consideren como métodos alternativos a aquellos
que utilizan equipos especializados como HPLC y
su utilidad no se restringe sólo al desarrollo de
nuevos fármacos, sino que se utilizan en el moni-
toreo de contaminantes en agua y suelos, en el
estudio del metabolismo de plantas, evaluación
de la actividad de extractos de plantas, estudios
en la calidad de carnes y otros alimentos, estudio
de la toxicidad de diversas sustancias, etcétera.
Sin embargo, para considerar a los bioensayos
como una alternativa real a procesos cuanti-
tativos más costosos, en necesario llevar a cabo
una validación analítica de éstos.
El objetivo general de llevar a cabo la
validación analítica de cualquier procedimiento,
es demostrar que el método es aceptable para los
propósitos previstos, los cuales en el caso que nos
ocupa pueden ser determinar la actividad bio-
lógica o farmacológica de una nueva entidad
química. En general, la calidad de un ensayo está
definida por la robustez y reproducibilidad de
una señal detectable que permite que un proceso
biológico sea cuantificado, ya sea en ausencia de
cualquier compuesto de prueba o en la presencia
de compuestos (Elli-Lilly, 2007). Sin embargo, como
lo expresa Stevenson (2011) “uno de los retos es
obtener medidas absolutas de exactitud, lo cual es
de suma importancia, ya que la falta de exactitud
dificulta comparar los resultados de dos ensayos,
así como su capacidad para ser reproducidos”. Si
bien se pueden realizar comparaciones de
precisión, basadas en replicados, esto no es
directamente transferible a la exactitud. Aun
utilizando la mejor tecnología disponible, dos
ensayos pueden mostrar diferencias en las medias
y la precisión, incluso asumiendo que uno de los
ensayos precede al segundo, por lo que no se
puede elegir con confianza entre alguno de los
dos resultados. Todo esto se vuelve sumamente
relevante cuando se quiere transferir un método
de un laboratorio a otro.
Esta problemática se ejemplifica con el méto-
do cromogénico de inhibición de α-glucosidasa.
Una síntesis de los resultados obtenidos de una
búsqueda bibliográfica acerca de la aplicación de
dicho método se puede ver en la Tabla 1. La
evaluación de la inhibición enzimática (Fig. 1) se
realiza midiendo la producción del p-nitrofenol
liberado a partir del p-nitrofenil-α-D-glucopira-
nosido a 405 nm. En presencia de un inhibidor se
aprecia una disminución en la absorbancia.
Diversos trabajos de investigación incluyen el
compuesto acarbosa como control positivo o
compuesto de referencia.
A partir de los datos de la Tabla 1 se puede obser-
var que los resultados de inhibición enzimática
reportados por el control positivo, acarbosa son
muy diferentes con un rango de valores de CI50
desde 0,00037 hasta 17 mg/mL. Incluso, los
resultados son diferentes cuando se utilizó el
mismo método con “pequeñas variaciones”, como
5. Granados-Guzman et al. Validación de ensayos de alto rendimiento
http://jppres.com/jppres J Pharm Pharmacogn Res (2014) 2(1): 3
Tabla 1. Revisión del procedimiento de inhibición de α-glucosidasa, de levadura.
CI50
acarbosa
(mg/mL)
Autor Enzima
(U/mL)
PNPG
(mM)
PNPG
(mg)
Buffer
fosfatos
(M)
pH Temp.
(°C)
Incu-
bación
(min)
λ
(nm)
Vol.
Total
(mL)
Otros componentes DMSO Método utilizado
< 0,010 Ren et al., 2011 0,040 0.5 0,003 N.I. 6,8 37 5/30 405 0,2 0,1 M Na2CO3 no Kim et al., 2004
0,00037 Apostolidis & Lee,
2010
1,000 5 0,075 0,1 6,9 25 10/5 405 0,2 N.I. no N.I.
0,029 Lee et al., 2008 3,000 20 0,063 N.I. 6,5 37 10/35 405 0,1 N.I. no Pistia-Brueggeman &
Hollingsworth, 2001
0,15 Wang et al., 2012 1,000 5 0,075 0,1 6,9 25 10/5 405 0,2 N.I. meOH Apostolidis & Lee, 2010
0,27 Wu et al., 2011 0,500 N.I. N.I. 0,1 6,9 37 10/60 400 2 N.I. meOH Chapdelaine et al., 1978;
Matsui et al., 1996
0,437 Chan et al., 2010 0,032 2 0,090 0,1 7 37 20 400 320 N.I. si Matsui et al., 1996
0,504 Choudhary et al.,
2010
0,250 0,7 N.I. 0,05 6,9 37 N.I. 400 N.I. N.I. no Matsui et al., 1996
0,678 Heo et al., 2009 0,700 5 0,075 0,1 7 T. amb 5/5 405 0,11 2 g/L AB+0,2 g/L NaN3 si Watanabe et al., 1997
0,678 Lee et al., 2010 0,700 5 0,075 0,1 7 T. amb 5/5 405 0,11 2 g/L AB+0,2 g/L NaN3 si Watanabe et al., 1997
0,894 Kang et al., 2011 0,200 2,5 0,015 N.I. 6,8 37 15/15 405 0,24 0,2 M Na2CO3 si Kang et al., 2009
1,081 Kang et al., 2012 0,200 2,5 0,015 N.I. 6,8 37 15/15 405 0,24 0,2 M Na2CO3 si Kang et al., 2011
6,2 Subramanian et al,,
2008
0,100 N.I. N.I. 0,1 7 T. amb 5/5 405 N.I. 2 g/L AB+0,2 g/L NaN3 si Kim et al., 2000
10 Linwei et al., 2012 0,075 3 1,247 0,67 6,8 37 30 400 3,48 0,1 M Na2CO3 no Kim et al., 2004
17 Shai et al., 2010 0,600 2,9 N.I. N.I. 6,9 25 5 405 N.I. hervir 2 min si Matsui et al., 1996
N.I. Hou et al., 2009 0,010 10 N.I. N.I. n. i. 37 30 400 0,5 0,1 M Na2CO3 no Matsui et al., 1996
AB: Albúmina bovina; CI50: Concentración inhibitoria 50; DMSO: Dimetilsulfóxido; meOH: Metanol; N.I.: Dato no indicado; PNPG: p-Nitrofenil-α-D-glucopiranosido; T.
amb.: Temperatura ambiente.
6. Granados-Guzman et al. Validación de ensayos de alto rendimiento
http://jppres.com/jppres J Pharm Pharmacogn Res (2014) 2(1): 4
Figura 1. Reacción del sustrato p-nitrofenil-α-D-gluco-
piranosido con α-glucosidasa.
en el caso de Chan et al. (2010), Choudhary et al. (2010),
Shai et al. (2010) y Hou et al. (2009) quienes utilizaron
como método base el propuesto por Matsui et al.
(1996).
Los valores de CI50 que se presentan en la
Tabla 1, se obtuvieron utilizando acarbosa, en una
solución de reacción totalmente transparente. Sin
embargo, en todos los trabajos que se listan en la
Tabla 1, se evaluó la actividad de extractos
naturales: de plantas, de hongos o de algas. En
ninguno de esos trabajos se menciona si los
extractos presentaban alguna coloración; sin
embargo, se sabe que las plantas contienen una
gran cantidad de compuestos polifenólicos como
los flavonoides, que por sí mismos tienen color.
Los compuestos polifenólicos (puros o en
extractos) reaccionan con Na2CO3 produciendo el
ion fenóxido, que presenta una coloración
amarilla. Si la medición se realiza a una longitud
de onda entre 400-405 nm, la presencia del ion
fenóxido constituye una interferencia importante,
por lo que pudieran descartarse compuestos
útiles por fallas en el manejo de la técnica
instrumental. Esta interferencia de color, debe ser
tomada en cuenta pues afecta la exactitud de la
determinación. Una opción para lograrlo, es
tomar la absorbancia de la muestra como blanco
para eliminar la interferencia de la matriz.
Si bien no existe un consenso general acerca
de cómo se debería llevar a cabo un proceso de
validación para bioensayos, en la literatura se
ofrecen diferentes guías prácticas. Por ejemplo,
Ederveen (2010) en su reporte “A practical approach
to biological assay validation” propone cuatro
etapas a seguir para desarrollar y validar un
ensayo biológico. Estas se presentan en la Fig. 2.
La presente revisión se enfoca en ensayos que
utilizan la técnica espectrofotométrica UV-Vis,
que además se caracteriza por ser sencilla,
económica y versátil.
Figura 2. Etapas del proceso para el desarrollo y validación
de un ensayo bioanalítico.
Selección del método
Es importante recordar que los ensayos in vitro
se desarrollan en ambientes artificiales en los que
los sistemas biológicos estudiados pueden ser
inestables o bien exhibir actividad por debajo de
su potencial. Además, existe un gran número de
bioensayos en los cuales los métodos base se
llevan a cabo en volúmenes superiores a 1 mL; sin
embargo, para que puedan considerarse de alto
rendimiento, tienen que llevarse a cabo la
miniaturización en placas de 96 o más pozos,
para poder cumplir así con el principal requisito
de este tipo de ensayos, que es el poder analizar
un gran número de muestras en corto tiempo.
En este tipo de ensayos, se utilizan soluciones
diluidas almacenadas por largos períodos de
tiempo y es necesario mantener una baja varia-
bilidad y respuestas suficientemente altas.
Como una primera fase es recomendable
seleccionar un método base. Dicha selección está
relacionada con el propósito y resultados que se
requieren del experimento, así como de otros
factores logísticos y limitaciones en la operación
como pueden ser costos, equipo y reactivos
disponibles, tiempo y bioseguridad (Ederveen, 2010).
En lo relativo al equipo con el que se lleva a
cabo el análisis, es necesario tomar en cuenta las
condiciones en que se utiliza, sus características
técnicas y limitaciones. En el caso de la espectro-
fotometría UV, se debe considerar la longitud de
7. Granados-Guzman et al. Validación de ensayos de alto rendimiento
http://jppres.com/jppres J Pharm Pharmacogn Res (2014) 2(1): 5
onda de trabajo, además si el instrumento cuenta
con un monocromador o filtros, el material de las
celdas de lectura, la precisión y sensibilidad
propia del instrumento, así como las limitaciones
de la ley de Beer.
De acuerdo con Macarrón y Hertzberg (2011), la
estabilidad de los reactivos debe ser evaluada
utilizando las mismas condiciones previstas para
el experimento, así mismo debe monitorearse si
la señal va disminuyendo con el tiempo, ya que
en los ensayos de alto rendimiento los requeri-
mientos de estabilidad son mayores que en otras
áreas de investigación. La guía para el desarrollo
de ensayos y ensayos de alto rendimiento (Elli-
Lilly, 2007) recomienda determinar la estabilidad
de los reactivos tanto en condiciones de almace-
namiento como de ensayo tomando en cuenta:
las especificaciones del fabricante, las condicio-
nes de almacenamiento y los resultados de un
monitoreo de la señal del reactivo a través del
tiempo.
La calidad de un ensayo está determinada por
su capacidad para distinguir con exactitud una
diana de otra que no lo es. Para este propósito es
indispensable el uso de controles positivos y
negativos o blancos. Un análisis cuidadoso de los
controles permitirá identificar errores en la
manipulación de reactivos o el procesamiento de
muestras. Los problemas obvios deben resolverse
antes de validar el ensayo. Aún después de
solucionar estas fallas, se pueden esperar errores
aleatorios debidos a fallas en el equipo o fallas
usuales en el laboratorio. Estos errores deben ser
tomados en cuenta cuando se realice la vali-
dación del ensayo (Macarrón & Hertzberg, 2011).
Optimización del método
Un ensayo de alto rendimiento debe realizare
bajo las condiciones óptimas. Establecer dichas
condiciones se facilita con el uso de un diseño de
experimentos. Es importante señalar que cuando
se realiza una búsqueda bibliográfica de un ensa-
yo particular, generalmente se encuentra que se
hicieron “pequeñas modificaciones” a los méto-
dos base, sin embargo no se menciona si se rea-
lizó una optimización o incluso si se evaluó algún
parámetro de validación.
Un gran número de factores pueden ser
evaluados en un proceso de optimización; sin
embargo, el conocimiento previo de las variables
involucradas es de mucha ayuda en la selección
de los más apropiados. Los factores más comu-
nes en los ensayos in vitro son los siguientes:
Concentración de reactivos (sustrato, fuen-
te de radicales libres, buffers, etc.).
Tiempo y temperatura de incubación.
Solvente utilizado.
Longitud de onda de lectura.
Sensibilidad a la luz.
Forma en que se detiene la reacción.
Origen de los reactivos (p. ej. fuente de
enzimas, marca, grado de pureza).
Además, es necesario considerar las limita-
ciones propias de la técnica, como por ejemplo el
cumplimiento de la Ley de Lambert-Beer o el
efecto del ruido instrumental. La ley de Lambert-
Beer enuncia que para una radiación monocro-
mática, la absorbancia es directamente propor-
cional al camino óptico a través del medio y la
concentración de la especie absorbente (Skoog et
al., 2008). Si esta ley no se cumple, se pierde la
proporcionalidad y, por lo tanto, no se tiene la
relación entre la absorbancia que se obtiene expe-
rimentalmente y la concentración del analito en
cuestión.
Diseño de experimentos
Si bien la optimización clásica de los factores
experimentales se lleva cabo variando un factor
mientras el resto se mantienen constantes, en el
proceso de optimización de ensayos bioanalítcos
el número de variables a estudiar puede ser muy
grande. Abordarlas de manera individual resulta
poco conveniente, ya que puede ser un proceso
largo por el gran número de pruebas necesarias.
Además, las conclusiones obtenidas en el estudio
de cada factor tendrán validez restringida, porque
no es posible estudiar la interacción entre los
mismos. Adicionalmente, en la mayoría de los
casos es inviable debido al alto costo y el tiempo
invertidos.
Los diseños de experimentos se definen como
una secuencia completa de pasos que aseguran
que se obtendrán los datos apropiados, de modo
que permitan un análisis objetivo que conduzca a
8. Granados-Guzman et al. Validación de ensayos de alto rendimiento
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deducciones válidas con respecto al problema
establecido (Mercado Hernández y Santoyo Stephano,
2005).
El objetivo de un diseño de experimentos es
estudiar si el cambio en un factor produce una
mejora en el proceso, para lo cual es necesario
realizar pruebas que lo demuestren. La meto-
dología de los diseños de experimentos estudia
como variar las condiciones (factores) habituales
de realización de un proceso, para aumentar la
probabilidad de detectar cambios significativos
en la respuesta, de esta forma se obtiene un
mayor conocimiento del comportamiento del
proceso de interés.
En el diseño de experimentos clásico se elige
cierto número de factores que se considera tienen
efecto sobre la respuesta. Dependiendo del
número de factores y de sus posibles rangos, se
puede elegir entre diferentes diseños. Todos los
factores se varían de manera simultánea y
sistemática, lo cual permite que puedan ser medi-
das la significancia de un factor específico o bien
la interacción entre ellos. Por lo general, los
factores que se utilizan son los extremos de los
rangos de operación y se puede utilizar una fun-
ción lineal o polinominal para interpolar la región
entre esos extremos (Lutz et al., 1996).
Entre los diseños de experimentos disponibles,
la elección está determinada por el objetivo del
experimento y el conocimiento que se tenga de
las condiciones experimentales del ensayo. Entre
estos diseños se pueden mencionar los de rastreo,
los factoriales, ya sea fraccionados o completos,
los de superficie de respuesta y los generados por
computadora (Altekar et al., 2006).
Los diseños de rastreo son conocidos también
como de Resolución III y se utilizan para explorar
condiciones experimentales cuando se conoce
poco del ensayo. Con este tipo de diseños es
posible encontrar el efecto de cada factor, pero
no se pueden interpretar las interacciones.
El diseño factorial completo es conceptual-
mente el más sencillo de establecer y de inter-
pretar. Los datos que se obtienen para todas las
combinaciones de factores, permiten el estudio
de cada factor y de la interacción entre ellos. Por
su parte, en el diseño factorial fraccionado se
realiza una menor cantidad de experimentos y,
por lo tanto, no se obtiene información de todas
las interacciones, mientras que en el factorial
completo al haber una mayor cantidad de
pruebas si puede conseguirse esta información.
El modelo de superficie de respuesta se utiliza
para obtener información precisa sobre los
efectos de un factor incluyendo su magnitud y
dirección. Este tipo de diseño proporciona una
predicción precisa de las respuestas dentro de la
región experimental y es muy útil para identificar
las condiciones óptimas. El diseño Box-Behnken,
una variante del modelo de superficie de res-
puesta, permite la estimación de los efectos
principales, interacción de dos factores y efectos
cuadráticos. Es útil cuando un conjunto de
factores puede ser considerado como las condi-
ciones estándar después de algunos diseños de
rastreo factorial.
El diseño D-óptimo es un diseño generado por
computadora en el que el usuario elige un nú-
mero aceptable de corridas, identifica los efectos
principales y las interacciones de interés y permi-
te a la computadora generar un diseño.
Actualmente se cuenta con una gran variedad
de programas para realizar el diseño de
experimentos, entre los cuales se encuentran:
STATGRAPHICS, MODDE, STATA, etc. en sus
diferentes versiones.
Optimización del parámetro con mayor influencia
Una vez realizada la valoración de los
parámetros más influyentes se procede a
encontrar las condiciones óptimas para cada
factor. El camino a seguir depende de los resul-
tados del diseño de experimentos. Si más de un
factor o la interacción de éstos tienen efecto
significativo sobre el ensayo, se puede realizar un
método simplex o un diseño de superficie de
respuesta para encontrar las condiciones óptimas.
Pero si sólo un factor tiene efecto relevante sobre
el ensayo, se deben realizar pruebas variando la
concentración de éste, hasta encontrar las
mejores condiciones experimentales.
Validación de ensayos de alto rendimiento
Los ensayos de alto rendimiento requieren de
experimentos basados en principios científicos
aceptados, en los que se utilicen controles apro-
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piados que puedan demostrar que el trabajo
experimental se lleva a cabo de manera adecuada;
por lo que, además de optimizar las condiciones
experimentales para lograr el mejor desempeño,
es muy importante asegurar que los resultados de
los experimentos sean exactos, confiables y repro-
ducibles. Con este propósito se utiliza la valida-
ción analítica de cualquier ensayo, la cual además
puede establecer las limitaciones de dicho
ensayo.
Los parámetros que deben evaluarse durante
una validación analítica de los ensayos de alto
rendimiento aparecen en diversos reportes y artí-
culos de revisión como los de Ederveen (2010),
Tuomela et al. (2005) y Rozet et al. (2011) en los cuales se
hace referencia a guías Internacionales como las
de la ICH, la IUPAC, la AOAC y la EURACHEM.
Además, recientemente han surgido guías espe-
cíficas para bioensayos o ensayos bioanalíticos
tales como: la guía para la industria relacionada
con validación de métodos bioanalíticos emitida
por el Departamento de Salud de Estados Unidos
y la FDA (US DHHS & FDA, 2001); la Guía de valida-
ción específica para ensayos de alto rendimiento
realizada por la compañía Eli Lilly (2007), el reporte
para ensayos biológicos realizado por Ederveen
(2010); y el capítulo 1033 de la USP dedicado a la
validación de ensayos biológicos (USP, 2010).
Uniformidad de placa y evaluación de la variabi-
lidad de la señal
Un ensayo de alto rendimiento debe realizarse
en placas de 96 o más pozos. La evaluación de la
uniformidad de placa es básicamente la evalua-
ción de la precisión dentro de una misma placa y
entre ellas.
Para realizar esta determinación se utilizan
tres niveles de señal, que se traducen en tres
niveles de concentración:
Señal máxima: es la medida de la señal
máxima que puede presentarse.
Señal mínima: mide el ruido de fondo de la
señal. En ensayos de inhibición se trata de
una reacción sin estímulo.
Señal media: estima la variabilidad de la
señal en un punto entre la señal máxima y
mínima. Para ensayos de inhibición es la
CI50 del control positivo.
Las pruebas deben realizarse con reactivos
preparados de forma independiente y preferente-
mente debe repetirse la prueba en diferentes días.
Para cada señal debe calcularse el coeficiente de
variación en cada placa, el cual deberá ser menor
al 20% (Elli-Lilly, 2007).
Factor Z
Este parámetro, descrito por Zhang et al., (1999),
es un coeficiente adimensional que proporciona
una medida de separación entre los controles
positivos (máxima señal) y negativos (señal
mínima) en un ensayo, es decir, representa la
variabilidad y el rango dinámico entre este
conjunto de controles.
La Tabla 2 presenta el significado de los valores
para este factor. El factor Z es por tanto, un dato
que califica la calidad del ensayo y que toma en
cuenta, además, la variación asociada con la
medida de controles de referencia. Se calcula
utilizando la fórmula siguiente:
*
*33
1
controldelmediamuestralademedia
controldelDEmuestradeDE
Z
Donde:
DE: Desviación estándar
*Nota: si se trata de un ensayo de activación/agonista, se
tomarán los datos del control positivo (que proporciona la
señal máxima); si se trata de un ensayo de
inhibición/antagonista, se tomarán los datos del control
negativo (que proporciona la señal mínima).
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Tabla 2. Valores y significado del factor Z (Zhang et al., 1999).
Valor del Factor Z Estructura del ensayo Ensayo
1 DE=0 no hay variación o el rango dinámico tiende al infinito. Ideal
1>Z> 0,5 Ventana de detección grande. Excelente
0.5>Z>0 Ventana de detección pequeña. Pobre
0 No hay ventana de detección, la variación de la señal de la muestra y la
variación de la señal del control son muy cercanas.
Poco confiable
<0 No hay ventana de detección, la variación de las señales de muestra y control se
superponen.
Imposible
Linealidad
Ya que en los artículos de revisión para validar
métodos bioanalíticos se hace referencia a la guía
de la ICH (2005), se toma en cuenta la siguiente
definición: la linealidad de un proceso analítico se
define como la capacidad (en un rango dado) de
obtener un resultado que sea directamente
proporcional a la concentración del analito en la
muestra. Si existe una relación lineal, la prueba
puede evaluarse utilizando un método estadístico
apropiado, como el cálculo de una regresión
lineal por el método de mínimos cuadrados. Para
establecer la linealidad se necesita un mínimo de
cinco concentraciones y se recomienda llevar a
cabo triplicados. Además, como se menciona en
la Guía para la Validación de Métodos Bio-
analíticos (US DHHS & FDA, 2001), para este tipo de
ensayos se debe generar una curva para cada
analito que se desee estudiar y ésta deberá ser
preparada en la misma matriz en la que se
supone estará el analito.
Para el caso de los ensayos de alto rendimiento
es sumamente importante establecer la lineali-
dad, ya que permite calcular de manera confiable
la concentración efectiva media (inhibitoria, letal,
tóxica, etc.) para las diferentes pruebas. Dicha
concentración media se utiliza para comparar la
efectividad de los compuestos evaluados, ya sean
nuevos o controles positivos.
Rango lineal
El rango de un procedimiento analítico se
define, según la ICH (2005) como el intervalo entre
la mayor y menor concentración del analito en la
muestra para la cual el procedimiento ha demos-
trado ser preciso, exacto y lineal. Normalmente,
el rango lineal deriva de estudios de linealidad y
depende de la aplicación que tendrá el proce-
dimiento.
En los ensayos de alto rendimiento es
importante que las concentraciones efectivas del
80, 50 y 20% se encuentren dentro del rango
lineal. Cuando se utiliza la técnica de espectrofo-
tometría UV es necesario que el rango lineal se
encuentre en el rango de mayor exactitud
espectrofotométrica. El rango de exactitud foto-
métrica ha sido calculado por diversos autores:
Ayres estableció que cuando se trabajaba con
valores de absorbancia entre 0,22 y 0,7 se logra la
mayor exactitud (Ayres, 1949); Rothman et al. (1975)
indicaron que el rango con mayor precisión
relativa es entre 0,2 y 0,8 (Skoog et al., 2008). Estos
valores dependen del error espectofotométrico
del instrumento.
Precisión
Las guías de la ICH (2005) y la OMS (1997), defi-
nen que la precisión de un procedimiento ana-
lítico expresa la concordancia (grado de disper-
sión) entre una serie de mediciones obtenidas de
un muestreo múltiple de la misma muestra
homogénea, bajo condiciones prescritas.
La precisión, por lo general, se expresa como
la varianza, desviación estándar o coeficiente de
variación (CV) de, al menos, nueve determina-
ciones que cubran un rango específico para el
procedimiento; por ejemplo, tres niveles de
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Tabla 3. Formas de evaluar la precisión en ensayos bioanalíticos.
Precisión Fuente Referencia
Realizar un ANOVA para cada nivel de
concentración
Advances in validation, risk and uncertainty
assessment of bioanalytical methods
Rozet et al., 2011
El valor promedio no debe variar más de
15%, excepto cuando este cerca del LC
puede ser de 20%
Guidance for industry, bioanalytical method validation US DHHS & FDA,
2001
%DSR <10 Validation overview of bio-analytical methods Tuomela et al., 2005
El CV no debe variar más de 15%, excepto
cuando este cerca del LC puede ser de
20%
Guideline on bionalytical method validation EMEA/CHMP/EWP,
2011
LC: Límite de cuantificación; %DSR: Desviación estándar relativa; CV: Coeficiente de variación.
concentración (alto, medio y bajo) por triplicado.
En la Tabla 3, se listan los valores con los que se
puede considerar un método preciso. La precisión
se puede considerar a tres niveles: repetibilidad,
precisión intermedia y reproducibilidad:
Repetibilidad: Expresa la precisión bajo
las mismas condiciones de operación en
un intervalo de tiempo corto. También se
conoce con el término de precisión intra-
ensayo.
Precisión intermedia: Expresa la precisión
intra-laboratorios: diferentes días,
diferentes analistas, diferentes equipos,
etcétera.
Reproducibilidad: Expresa la precisión
entre laboratorios (estudios colaborativos,
aplicados por lo general para estandarizar
una metodología).
Exactitud
La exactitud expresa la cercanía entre un valor
encontrado experimentalmente y un valor
convencional, aceptado como verdadero o un
estándar de referencia (US DHHS & FDA, 2001). La
exactitud se determina replicando el análisis de
muestras que contengan cantidades conocidas
del analito y deben realizarse al menos cinco
determinaciones por concentración. Se recomien-
da utilizar al menos tres concentraciones a
niveles alto, medio y bajo. En la Tabla 4, se
refieren los valores para considerar a un método
exacto.
Tabla 4. Evaluación de la exactitud para ensayos bioanalíticos.
Exactitud Fuente Referencia
El valor promedio no debe variar más de
15%, excepto cuando este cerca del LC
puede ser de 20%
Guidance for industry, bioanalytical method
validation
US DHHS & FDA,
2001
Cercana a 100%, además de consistente y
repetible.
Validation overview of bio-analytical methods Tuomela et al., 2005
El CV no debe variar más de 15%, excepto
cuando este cerca del LC puede ser de 20%
Guideline on bioanalytical method validation EMEA/CHMP/EWP,
2011
LC: Límite de cuantificación; CV: Coeficiente de variación.
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En el caso de los ensayos de alto rendimiento,
la exactitud es el parámetro que causa la mayor
problemática. Como mencionan Tuomela et al.
(2005), “la determinación de la exactitud por lo
general requiere de un estándar de oro o bien, de
un método aceptado con el cual pueda ser
comparado el ensayo de interés”. La dificultad
reside en que no siempre se cuenta con un
estándar de referencia o de un método aceptado
para hacer una comparación. Cuando se presenta
este caso, una estrategia a seguir es adicionar
muestras reales con cantidades conocidas de un
analito (Ederveen, 2010; USP, 2010; Cendejas-Bueno et al.,
2012).
Por ejemplo, Cendejas-Bueno et al. (2012) validaron
un método por HPLC y un bioensayo para
cuantificar posaconazol en muestras de suero
humano. El bioensayo fue un método microbio-
lógico descrito anteriormente para monitorear el
posaconazol. La exactitud se determinó experi-
mentalmente utilizando muestras de suero
adicionadas con posaconazol a cinco niveles de
concentración (se estableció previamente una
curva de calibración) y se calculó la exactitud
como porcentaje de error relativo. También se
realizó una comparación entre los métodos
calculando el coeficiente de correlación intra
clase y por una regresión lineal por el método de
cuadrados perfectos y se consideró el método de
HPLC como el de referencia.
Por otro lado, Serra et al. (2005) realizaron la
validación de un ensayo colorimétrico para hacer
un rastreo in vitro de extractos de plantas con
potencial acción de inhibición sobre la enzima
convertidora de angiotensina (ECA). El método
se basó en la escisión del sustrato hipuril-glicil-
glicina por la enzima convertidora de angioten-
sina y su subsecuente reacción (de la glicil-
glicina) con el ácido trinitro-bencen-sulfónico
para formar la 2,4,6-trinitrofenil-glicil-glicina
cuya absorbancia se determina a 415 nm. En este
ensayo, no se utilizó un control positivo, sino que
se adicionó a diferentes muestras glicil-glicina a
tres niveles de concentración; es decir, se
adicionó directamente el compuesto que se
formaría, si la ECA reaccionara con el sustrato y
que forma el compuesto colorido con el ácido
trinitrobencensulfónico. La exactitud se calculó
como porcentaje de recuperación.
Límite de detección y cuantificación
El límite de detección (LD) se define como la
menor cantidad o concentración de un analito en
una muestra que puede distinguirse confiable-
mente de cero (IUPAC, 2002; AOAC, 2002). Existen
diversas formas de determinarlo y se utiliza la
que se ajuste a las necesidades del ensayo. La ICH
en su guía de validación para procedimientos
analíticos, menciona que se hace la evaluación
visual por medio del análisis de muestras con una
concentración conocida del analito (ICH, 2005). La
guía de la AOAC (2002) indica que el límite de
detección puede calcularse en base a la
variabilidad del blanco.
El límite de cuantificación (LC) es la menor
cantidad o concentración de analito en una
muestra que puede ser cuantificado con exactitud
y precisión aceptables (ICH, 2005). Básicamente, se
determina de la misma forma que el LD, de
hecho pueden calcularse de manera simultánea.
Especificidad o Interferencia de matriz
La validación, tal como lo establecen las guías
de Elli Lily (2007), USP (2010) e ICH (2005) se lleva a
cabo con controles positivos en solución; sin
embargo, las muestras reales, como los productos
naturales que son mezclas complejas de un gran
número de componentes, pueden causar inter-
ferencias durante la determinación, ya que
algunos pueden presentar color.
La especificidad de un método es la capacidad
de medir exacta y específicamente un analito en
presencia de componentes esperados en una
mezcla compleja. Puede ser expresada como el
error que se obtiene cuando el procedimiento
experimental se aplica al analito en presencia de
la matriz, comparado con el resultado que se
obtiene del analito sin ninguna sustancia añadida
(en solución); el error no tiene que ser del 0%,
pero deberá ser preciso y reproducible
(EMEA/CHMP/EWP, 2011). Otra forma de investigar
los efectos de matriz, es analizando por lo menos
seis replicados adicionados al máximo y mínimo
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nivel de concentración (de acuerdo al rango
lineal). Se evalúa con el coeficiente de variación
para la concentración y este no debe exceder el
15% (EMEA/CHMP/EWP, 2011).
Robustez
La OMS define la robustez como el grado de
reproducibilidad de un ensayo utilizando las
mismas muestras (o controles), pero con peque-
ñas modificaciones a las condiciones estándares
(o condiciones validadas), como son: diferentes
temperaturas, tiempos de incubación, longitudes
de onda, etc. (Skoog et al., 2008). La robustez evalúa
las variables operacionales y ambientales del
método. Puede evaluarse ya sea mediante un
Análisis de Varianza (ANOVA) o bien, si las
variables que quieren estudiarse son muchas,
puede utilizarse un diseño de experimentos como
el factorial fraccionado.
Mantenimiento y mejora
Es altamente recomendable realizar el monito-
reo periódico del ensayo de alto rendimiento,
utilizando controles tanto positivos como
negativos. Cuando se obtengan resultados erró-
neos es importante comprobarlos y aplicar
acciones correctivas y preventivas, para garanti-
zar el buen desempeño del ensayo (Ederveen, 2010).
Para mantener en buen funcionamiento un
ensayo de alto rendimiento es recomendable:
Utilizar el mismo equipo de la validación,
siempre que se mantenga calibrado y en
buenas condiciones.
Especificar el material que se utiliza, para
mantener las mismas condiciones.
La fuente y/o características de los reactivos
deben mantenerse para utilizar reactivos de la
misma calidad.
Es importante llevar a cabo nuevamente las
pruebas de validación con controles en los casos
siguientes:
Si se utiliza un nuevo estándar de
referencia, se debe probar junto con el
estándar anterior.
Si se utiliza un nuevo equipo o software. Ya
que cada equipo cuenta con diferentes
características de precisión, exactitud y
sensibilidad propias.
Si el ensayo lo llevará a cabo un nuevo
analista, en este caso se llevará a cabo un
panel con muestras problema para evaluar
si el entrenamiento fue exitoso.
Si el ensayo se transferirá a un nuevo
laboratorio, se deben llevar a cabo las
pruebas de validación para asegurar que el
ensayo es reproducible con exactitud y
precisión, utilizando los controles
establecidos.
CONCLUSIONES
Si bien los ensayos de alto rendimiento se han
utilizado ampliamente durante un largo período
de tiempo y han demostrado ser de utilidad en
diferentes campos de la ciencia, sobre todo en el
descubrimiento de nuevos compuestos con acti-
vidad farmacológica, no se encuentran con
frecuencia trabajos donde se realicen la optimiza-
ción y la validación de los métodos biológicos.
Además, a pesar de que existen diversas guías que
hacen referencia a la validación de ensayos bio-
analíticos, parece no haber un consenso respecto
a los parámetros que deben ser validados. Por
este motivo se debieran atender las recomenda-
ciones de las diferentes guías y artículos de
revisión. Con el propósito de garantizar la
confiabilidad y calidad de los resultados obteni-
dos, particularmente la necesidad de utilizar
controles positivos y negativos reproducibles que
permitan comparar, de manera fidedigna, los
resultados inter-laboratorio.
CONFLICTO DE INTERÉS
Los autores declaran no poseer conflicto de interés.
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17. Lima et al. Phenolic compounds of Spermacoce verticillata
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INTRODUCTION
The ethnopharmacological knowledge is useful
to identify potential therapeutic targets from
medicinal plants. Substances from vegetal king-
dom, which have already contributed with several
compounds in prophylaxis and treatment of a
large variety of pathologies, have been investigated
for their potential as anti-inflammatory and
antithrombotic agents (Chaves et al., 2011).
The Rubiaceae family comprises about 650
genera and 13 000 species (Bremer et al., 2009). The
genera Spermacoce (formerly called Borreria) is
composed of 280 species distributed throughout
the world (Dessein et al., 2006), including Brazil,
where several species are native as Spermacoce
verticillata (Chiqueiri et al., 2004).
Spermacoce verticillata (L.) G. Mey. (Rubia-
ceae), known as “vassourinha de botão”, is a
species that occurs over the entire Brazilian
territory and is commonly used in traditional folk
medicine to treat gastrointestinal disorders, ulcers
and as anti-inflammatory agent. The plant con-
tains indole alkaloids, which borrevine and borre-
verine are the major compounds, as well as flavo-
noids, terpenes, anthraquinone, phytosteroids and
iridoids (Conserva et al., 2012; Ferreira Junior et al., 2012).
Recently, a review was published showing the
main chemical components of genera Spermacoce
(Conserva et al., 2012). For Spermacoce verticillata
have been found mainly indole alkaloids
(borrerine, verticillatines A e B), borreverine, iso-
borreverine and spermacoceine, and (-)-emetine
(Moreira et al., 2010) have been found. Iridoids such as
asperuloside, asperulosidic acid, borreriagenin,
daphylloside deacetyl asperuloside, deacetyl-
asperulosidic acid (Moreira et al., 2010) and terpenoids
such as cariophyllene, guiaene, campesterol, β-
sitosterol, and stigmasterol (Moreira et al., 2010;
Ferreira Júnior et al., 2012) are present. Other
compounds as phytol, 1,8-cineol, α- pinene, and p-
cymene were also identified (Ogunwande et al., 2010).
Recently, some new terpenes (ursolic, oleanolic
and morolic acid), flavonoids (quercetin and quer-
cetin-3-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl), anthraquinone
(3,5-dioxo-friedelane), phytosteroids as 2-hydroxy-
3-methylanthraquinone and sitostenone in Sper-
macoce verticillata were isolated and identified
(Ushie et al., 2010; Ferreira-Júnior et al., 2012), pointing to
the wealth of secondary metabolites in this species
and the need for further studies to elucidate these
substances, which was the aim of this work.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Chemical and instruments
Thin layer chromatography (TLC) was perfor-
med on silica gel 60 F254 (SilicCycle) eluted with n-
butanol/acetic acid/water (BAW) 8:1:1, visualized
under UV light (254 and 365 nm) and developed
with ceric sulphate solution and aluminium
chloride 2% ethanol solution. All 1D and 2D
experiments were performed on a Brucker 400
MHz spectrometer. The NMR spectra were
recorded in MeOD.
HPLC separation was performed using a
Shimadzu liquid chromatograph Prominence LC-
20AT coupled to a SPD-20A diode array detector
(DAD) (column oven CTO-20A, communications
bus module CBM-20A). The reversed-phase
column used was Betasil Thermo C18 (250 mm x
4.6 mm, 5 µm) with mobile phase consisted of
water containing acetic acid 1% (A) and methanol
(B) and the injection volume for all samples was 20
μL. The samples were run for 18 minutes at a flow
rate of 1 mL/min, with oven set at 30°C and
absorbance monitored between 200 – 450 nm. The
gradient used was 0 – 15 min (35 - 70% B), 15 – 17
min (70 - 80% B) and 17 – 18 min (80 - 35% B). The
compounds were quantified from a calibration
curve of rutin in triplicates of five concentrations
(0.02 – 0.1 mg/mL). The phenolic compounds were
analysed by matching the retention time and their
spectral characteristics against those of standards.
Standard of quercetin-3-O-rutinoside (rutin) was
purchased from Sigma Chemical. Kaempferol-3-O-
rutinoside isolated was used as standard in
analysis of HPLC after their structural elucidation.
Plant material and extraction
Leaves of Spermacoce verticillata (L.) G. Mey.
were collected at Volta Redonda - Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil, in January 2012. A voucher specimen (RBR
26925) of this plant was identified by Dr. Pedro
Germano Filho of the Institute of Botany, at
Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, where it
was deposited.
18. Lima et al. Phenolic compounds of Spermacoce verticillata
http://jppres.com/jppres J Pharm Pharmacogn Res (2014) 2(1): 16
Isolation and identification of flavonoids
The leaves (100 g) were triturated using a food
processor and extracted with distilled water (10%
w/v) by decoction (15 min). After the filtration, the
extract (SVL) was frozen at -20°C and lyophilized
(12.1 g). SVL was purified by ethanol precipitation
and partitioned successively with ethyl acetate (3 x
400 mL), affording 199.0 mg of acetate fraction,
and n-butanol (3 x 400 mL), affording 1.7 g of
butanolic fraction, which was purified on an RP-2
column (30 x 1.2 cm; H2O/MeOH), allowing for
eight fractions. The sixth fraction showed a
precipitate yellow crystalline (24.0 mg) that was
separated by centrifugation and identified as
quercetin-3-O-rutinoside known as rutin, by spec-
troscopic analysis comparison with data reported
in the literature (Zuhal et al., 2006). The eight fraction
(83.0 mg) was purified on an RP-2 column (15 x 0.7
cm; H2O/EtOH), giving five fractions. The third
fraction showed a yellow compound (16.0 mg)
identified as kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside by spec-
troscopic analysis comparison with data reported
in the literature (Song et al., 2007).
RESULTS
HPLC analysis
This study led to the identification of
chlorogenic acid, and flavonoids quercetin-3-O-
rutinoside (rutin) and kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside
in leaves of Spermacoce verticillata (SVL),
according to reported HPLC-DAD data (Figs. 1-2)
and NMR data (Zuhal et al., 2006; Song et al., 2007).
During the analysis of HPLC another com-
pound (retention time at 7.934 min) was identified
as a flavonoid derived, which has absorption in 254
and 365 nm. However, this compound wasn´t
isolated at this moment.
The HPLC conditions, described in the experi-
mental section, allowed good separation for the
phenolic acid and flavonoids (Fig. 1). The amount
of chlorogenic acid, quercetin-3-O-rutinoside
(rutin) and kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside, in leaves of
Spermacoce verticillata, were 0.022, 0.248 and
0.003%, respectively (Table 1).
Table 1. Data obtained from HPLC analysis of flavonoids
(quercetin-3-O-rutinoside and kaempferol-3-O-rhamnoside)
and phenolic acid standards and of aqueous extracts (SVL).
Compounds Retention
time (min)
UV λmax
(nm)
Total area SVL
(%)
Standard
chlorogenic acid
4.190 263; 353 100
Rutin 9.235 255; 353 100
Kaempferol-3-O-
rutinoside
11.066 265; 353 100
Compound 1 4.190 263; 327 0.022
Compound 2 9.236 255; 353 0.248
Compound 3 11.069 265; 347 0.030
Figure 1. HPLC analysis of major compounds of aqueous
extract of Spermacoce verticillata (SVL). Chlorogenic acid (Rt
= 4.190 min), rutin (Rt = 9.236 min) and kaempferol-3-O-
rutinoside (Rt = 11.069 min) were identified. The monitoring
wavelength was 340 nm.
NMR data of quercetin-3-O-rutinoside (rutin) (2)
Yellow amorphous powder, 1
H NMR (MeOD,
400 MHz): δH 6.20 (1H, d, J = 1.8 Hz, H-6), 6.39
(1H, d, J = 2.2 Hz, H-8), 7.66 (1H, d, J = 1.8 Hz, H-
2’), 6.86 (1H, d, J = 8.0 Hz, H-5’), 7.60 (1H, dd, J=
8.0/1.8 Hz, H-6’), 5.09 (1H, d, J = 7.8 Hz, H-1’’),
3.25-3.47 (4H, m, H-2’’, H-3’’, H-4’’, H-5’’), 3.38 (1H,
m, Ha-6’’), 3.80 (1H, d, J = 10.5 Hz, Hb-6’’), 4.51 (1H,
d, J = 1.8 Hz, H-1’’’), 3.63 (1H, dd, J = 3.5/1.5 Hz, H-
2’’’), 3.53 (1H, dd, J = 9.5/3.5 Hz, H-3’’’), 3.28 (1H, m,
H-4’’’), 3.44 (1H, m, H-5’’’), 1.11 (3H, d, J= 6.0 Hz,
CH3-6’’’); 13
C NMR (MeOD, 100 MHz): δC 158.0 (C-
2), 135.0 (C-3), 178.0 (C-4), 161.6 (C-5), 98.6 (C-6),
19. Lima et al. Phenolic compounds of Spermacoce verticillata
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Figure 2. Structures of compounds 1-3 present in Spermacoce verticillata.
164.6 (C-7), 93.5 (C-8), 158.0 (C-9), 104.3 (C-10),
121.7 (C-1’), 116.3 (C-2’), 144.5 (C-3’), 148.5 (C-4’),
114.7 (C-5’), 122.2 (C-6’), 103.3 (C-1’’), 74.3 (C-2’’),
76.7 (C-3’’), 70.8 (C-4’’), 76.8 (C-5’’), 67.2 (C-6’’),
101.1 (C-1’’’), 70.9 (C-2’’’), 72.6 (C-3’’’), 73.9 (C-4’’’),
68.3 (C-5’’’), 16.5 (C-6’’’).
NMR data of kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside (3)
Yellow amorphous powder, 1
H NMR δ (400
MHz, MeOD) 7.98 (2H, d, J = 8.7 Hz, H-2’, 6’),
6.88 (2H, d, J = 8.7 Hz, H-3’ 5’), 6.40 (1H, br.s, H-
8), 6.20 (1H, br.s, H-6), 5.30 (1H, d, J = 6.9 Hz, H-
‘’), 4.39 (1H, br.s, H-‘’’), 3.0-4.0 (16H, rut), 1.10 (3H,
d, J = 6.4 Hz, -CH3). 13
C NMR δ (100 MHz, MeOD)
157.0 (C-2), 134.1 (C-3), 177.9 (C-4), 161.4 (C-5),
98.6 (C-6), 164.5 (C-7), 93.6 (C-8), 158.1 (C-9),
104.2 (C-10), 121.3 (C-1’), 131.0 (C-2’, C-6’), 114.7 (C-
3’, C-5’), 160.6 (C-4’), 101.1 (C-1’’), 74.3 (C-2’’), 76.7
(C-3’’), 68.3 (C-4’’), 75.7 (C-5’’), 67.1 (C-6’’), 100.9
(C-1’’’), 70.0 (C-2’’’), 70.6 (C-3’’’), 72.5 (C-4’’’), 68.3
(C-5’’’), 16.6 (C-6’’’)
To the best of our knowledge, this is the first
report of the compounds (1-3) in S. verticillata.
Flavonoid quercetin-3-O-rutinoside (2) is the
major compound in SVL followed by kaempferol-
3-O-rutinoside (3) and chlorogenic acid (1),
identified by retention time and UV absorption in
comparison with the respective standards (Table
1). Through study were identified the presence of
one phenolic acid (chlorogenic acid) and flavo-
noids (quercetin-3-O-rutinoside, kaempferol-3-
O-rutinoside). Flavonoids are common in the
family Rubiaceae and the genus Spermacoce.
Currently there are ten molecules of this class
described in four of ten species of Spermacoce (S.
stricta, S. laevis, S. articularis and S. verticillata)
(Noiarsa et al., 2007). This work reports for the first
time the identification of chlorogenic acid, rutin
and kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside for Spermacoce
verticillata. The presence of these three new
compounds indicates chemical markers of the
species for this genus and family. This
information is extremely important because it
increases the resources for chemotaxonomic
classification of these species (Somporn et al., 2012;
Lallemand et al., 2012; Bolzani et al., 2001).
CONCLUSIONS
This is the first report for these compounds (1-
3) in S. verticillata. The presence of these three
new compounds indicates chemical markers of
the species for this genus and family. This infor-
mation is extremely important because increases
the resources for chemotaxonomic classification
of these species.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was financially supported by
PROIC/UFRRJ and FAPERJ.
DISCUSSION
20. Lima et al. Phenolic compounds of Spermacoce verticillata
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