The document discusses the limitations of achievement tests in measuring essential noncognitive skills, or 'soft skills,' which are crucial for success in life. It highlights that personality traits can be quantified and are as important as cognitive abilities in predicting life outcomes. The research emphasizes the need to enhance these traits through education and policy to foster better individual and societal outcomes.

1. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Hard Evidence on Soft Skills
James J. Heckman
University of Chicago;
University College Dublin;
Director, Human Capital and Economic Opportunity Working
Group, Institute for New Economic Thinking
Noncognitive Skills: Importance and
the Relation with Cognitive Abilities
Ayrton Senna Institute
Sao Paulo, Brazil
October 25, 2011
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

2. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
We live in an era of widespread testing.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

3. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
We live in an era of widespread testing.
Achievement tests in particular have assumed a prominent role.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

4. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
We live in an era of widespread testing.
Achievement tests in particular have assumed a prominent role.
They are used to:
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

5. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
We live in an era of widespread testing.
Achievement tests in particular have assumed a prominent role.
They are used to:
i Measure skills of persons (e.g., SAT, ACT, ENEM, GRE,
GED) and certify suitability for admission and qualifications in
a variety of domains of life.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

6. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
We live in an era of widespread testing.
Achievement tests in particular have assumed a prominent role.
They are used to:
i Measure skills of persons (e.g., SAT, ACT, ENEM, GRE,
GED) and certify suitability for admission and qualifications in
a variety of domains of life.
ii To measure the performance of schools and entire national
school systems and nations (e.g. PISA scores, NCLB)
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

7. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
These tests are not well understood.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

8. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
These tests are not well understood.
a What do they measure?
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

9. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
These tests are not well understood.
a What do they measure?
b How are they validated? What do they predict?
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

10. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
These tests are not well understood.
a What do they measure?
b How are they validated? What do they predict?
c What do they miss?
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

11. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Achievement tests miss—or perhaps better—do not accurately
capture—soft skills.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

12. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Achievement tests miss—or perhaps better—do not accurately
capture—soft skills.
Personality traits, goals, motivations, and preferences that are
valuable in the labor market, in school, and in many other
domains.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

13. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
A Multiple skills are useful in predicting and causing economic
and social success but with different weights in different tasks.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

14. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
A Multiple skills are useful in predicting and causing economic
and social success but with different weights in different tasks.
i People differ in their endowments of these skills.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

15. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
A Multiple skills are useful in predicting and causing economic
and social success but with different weights in different tasks.
i People differ in their endowments of these skills.
ii These differences in endowments and values of endowments
across tasks give rise to comparative advantage and sorting in
the labor market.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

16. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
A Multiple skills are useful in predicting and causing economic
and social success but with different weights in different tasks.
i People differ in their endowments of these skills.
ii These differences in endowments and values of endowments
across tasks give rise to comparative advantage and sorting in
the labor market.
B Personality traits—“soft skills”—can be measured.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

17. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
A Multiple skills are useful in predicting and causing economic
and social success but with different weights in different tasks.
i People differ in their endowments of these skills.
ii These differences in endowments and values of endowments
across tasks give rise to comparative advantage and sorting in
the labor market.
B Personality traits—“soft skills”—can be measured.
i They are often as predictive of many life outcomes as are
measures of cognition.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

18. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
A Multiple skills are useful in predicting and causing economic
and social success but with different weights in different tasks.
i People differ in their endowments of these skills.
ii These differences in endowments and values of endowments
across tasks give rise to comparative advantage and sorting in
the labor market.
B Personality traits—“soft skills”—can be measured.
i They are often as predictive of many life outcomes as are
measures of cognition.
ii Personality traits have causal effects on behavioral outcomes:
changing traits through interventions changes life outcomes.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

19. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
C Ignoring personality traits can deceive: conceals major social
problems by using achievement test scores as the measure of
success.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

20. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
C Ignoring personality traits can deceive: conceals major social
problems by using achievement test scores as the measure of
success.
D Traits are stable across situations.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

21. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
C Ignoring personality traits can deceive: conceals major social
problems by using achievement test scores as the measure of
success.
D Traits are stable across situations.
i Yet they can also be changed in a gradual way through
investment and experience.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

22. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
C Ignoring personality traits can deceive: conceals major social
problems by using achievement test scores as the measure of
success.
D Traits are stable across situations.
i Yet they can also be changed in a gradual way through
investment and experience.
ii Enhancing these traits is an important avenue for policy.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

23. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
C Ignoring personality traits can deceive: conceals major social
problems by using achievement test scores as the measure of
success.
D Traits are stable across situations.
i Yet they can also be changed in a gradual way through
investment and experience.
ii Enhancing these traits is an important avenue for policy.
E No evidence for extreme situational specificity of the sort once
advocated by Walter Mischel (1968).
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

24. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
C Ignoring personality traits can deceive: conceals major social
problems by using achievement test scores as the measure of
success.
D Traits are stable across situations.
i Yet they can also be changed in a gradual way through
investment and experience.
ii Enhancing these traits is an important avenue for policy.
E No evidence for extreme situational specificity of the sort once
advocated by Walter Mischel (1968).
F Situational specificity — that we are what we need to be in any
specific situation — plays a prominent role in modern
behavioral economics.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

25. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
C Ignoring personality traits can deceive: conceals major social
problems by using achievement test scores as the measure of
success.
D Traits are stable across situations.
i Yet they can also be changed in a gradual way through
investment and experience.
ii Enhancing these traits is an important avenue for policy.
E No evidence for extreme situational specificity of the sort once
advocated by Walter Mischel (1968).
F Situational specificity — that we are what we need to be in any
specific situation — plays a prominent role in modern
behavioral economics.
G There are “enduring traits” that persist and govern behavior
across multiple domains of economic and social life.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

26. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
I draw on recent research on the GED, an achievement test that
secondary school dropouts in the U.S. can take to certify that
they are the equivalents (in cognition) of high school graduates.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

27. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
I draw on recent research on the GED, an achievement test that
secondary school dropouts in the U.S. can take to certify that
they are the equivalents (in cognition) of high school graduates.
Brazil has a version of this test applied on a wide scale
(ENEM).
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

28. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
What Are the Lessons from This Research?
Success in life requires a lot more than what is measured by
academic achievement tests.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

29. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
What Are the Lessons from This Research?
Success in life requires a lot more than what is measured by
academic achievement tests.
Soft skills matter.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

30. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
What Are the Lessons from This Research?
Success in life requires a lot more than what is measured by
academic achievement tests.
Soft skills matter.
Personality—“character” broadly defined—can be measured.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

31. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
What Are the Lessons from This Research?
Success in life requires a lot more than what is measured by
academic achievement tests.
Soft skills matter.
Personality—“character” broadly defined—can be measured.
Personality can be fostered. It is an important, but neglected,
component of what schools and families produce.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

32. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
What Are the Lessons from This Research?
Success in life requires a lot more than what is measured by
academic achievement tests.
Soft skills matter.
Personality—“character” broadly defined—can be measured.
Personality can be fostered. It is an important, but neglected,
component of what schools and families produce.
A focus on achievement tests fostered by movements for
“accountability” distorts the incentives of students and
teachers.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

33. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
A Brief History of Testing
Goal of developers of IQ and achievement tests: to produce
“objective” and “comparable” measures of children and schools.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

34. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
A Brief History of Testing
Goal of developers of IQ and achievement tests: to produce
“objective” and “comparable” measures of children and schools.
Pioneers recognize their limits.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

35. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
A Brief History of Testing
Goal of developers of IQ and achievement tests: to produce
“objective” and “comparable” measures of children and schools.
Pioneers recognize their limits.
They understood that schools produced more than simple
“book learning” — academic knowledge — expressed
frustration about how to measure it.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

36. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Early educators lacked a conceptual framework for thinking
about what exactly should be measured.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

37. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Early educators lacked a conceptual framework for thinking
about what exactly should be measured.
They lacked the technology for implementing such tests on a
wide spread scale.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

38. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
IQ
IQ in its modern form is an early Twentieth Century invention.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

39. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
IQ
IQ in its modern form is an early Twentieth Century invention.
It was conceived as a measure of the capacity to learn.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

40. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
IQ
IQ in its modern form is an early Twentieth Century invention.
It was conceived as a measure of the capacity to learn.
Was later broadened to a concept of ability to solve abstract
problems.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

41. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
IQ
IQ in its modern form is an early Twentieth Century invention.
It was conceived as a measure of the capacity to learn.
Was later broadened to a concept of ability to solve abstract
problems.
IQ was tested on a wide scale.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

42. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
IQ
IQ in its modern form is an early Twentieth Century invention.
It was conceived as a measure of the capacity to learn.
Was later broadened to a concept of ability to solve abstract
problems.
IQ was tested on a wide scale.
The successful application of the IQ test suggested the
possibility of testing achievement — what was learned — not
just the ability to learn — on a wide scale.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

43. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
IQ
IQ in its modern form is an early Twentieth Century invention.
It was conceived as a measure of the capacity to learn.
Was later broadened to a concept of ability to solve abstract
problems.
IQ was tested on a wide scale.
The successful application of the IQ test suggested the
possibility of testing achievement — what was learned — not
just the ability to learn — on a wide scale.
First IQ test was designed to screen out misfits in school.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

44. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
IQ
IQ in its modern form is an early Twentieth Century invention.
It was conceived as a measure of the capacity to learn.
Was later broadened to a concept of ability to solve abstract
problems.
IQ was tested on a wide scale.
The successful application of the IQ test suggested the
possibility of testing achievement — what was learned — not
just the ability to learn — on a wide scale.
First IQ test was designed to screen out misfits in school.
Role of the test was broadened to capture “intelligence” and
quickly became associated with “g”. (Terman and Thorndike)
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

45. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
IQ
IQ in its modern form is an early Twentieth Century invention.
It was conceived as a measure of the capacity to learn.
Was later broadened to a concept of ability to solve abstract
problems.
IQ was tested on a wide scale.
The successful application of the IQ test suggested the
possibility of testing achievement — what was learned — not
just the ability to learn — on a wide scale.
First IQ test was designed to screen out misfits in school.
Role of the test was broadened to capture “intelligence” and
quickly became associated with “g”. (Terman and Thorndike)
But the creators of IQ tests realized their limitations.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

46. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Binet:
“[Success in school] . . .admits of other things than
intelligence; to succeed in his studies, one must have
qualities which depend on attention, will, and character;
for example a certain docility, a regularity of habits, and
especially continuity of effort. A child, even if intelligent,
will learn little in class if he never listens, if he spends his
time in playing tricks, in giggling, in playing truant.”
-Binet (1916, p. 254)
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47. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
“What are the chief personality traits which, interacting
with g, relate to individual differences in achievement and
vocational success? The most universal personality trait is
conscientiousness, that is, being responsible, dependable,
caring, organized and persistent.”
-Jensen (1998, p. 575)
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48. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
The modern conception of intelligence has moved well beyond
“g ” to a hierarchy of traits.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

49. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
The modern conception of intelligence has moved well beyond
“g ” to a hierarchy of traits.
But “g ” is still at the top of the hierarchy.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

50. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 1: Modern View of “g ”: An Hierarchical Scheme of General
Intelligence and Its Components
Math Reasoning Visual Perception
Closure
Quantitative Reasoning Visualization
Closure Speed
Math Problems Spatial Relations
Closure Flexibility
Closure Speed
Closure Flexibility
gf Serial Perceptual Integration
(Fluid Intelligence) Spatial Scanning
Sequential Reasoning Imagery
Perceptual Speed
Inductive Reasoning Number Computation
Quantitative Reasoning RT and other Elementary Cognitive Tasks
Piagetian Reasoning Stroop
Clerical Speed
gc
Gc Digit/Symbol
(Crystallized Intelligence)
Verbal Comprehension General
Lexical Knowledge
g= Learning and Memory
Intelligence
Memory Span
Reading Comprehension
Associative Memory
Reading Speed
Free Recall Memory
“Cloze”
Meaningful Memory
Spelling
Visual Memory
Phonetic Coding Ideational Fluency
Grammatical Sensitivity
Ideational Fluency Knowledge and Achievement
Foreign Language
Naming Facility General School Achievement
Communication
Expressional Fluency Verbal Information and Knowledge
Listening
Word Fluency Information and Knowledge, Math and Science
Oral Production
Creativity Technical and Mechanical Knowledge
Oral Style
Figural Fluency Knowledge of Behavioral Content
Writing
Figural Flexibility
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51. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Operationalizing IQ
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

52. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Problem similar to the Raven’s Progressive Matrices test items
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

53. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Problem similar to the Raven’s Progressive Matrices test items
Correct answer: 5
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

54. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Origins of the Modern Achievement Test
Achievement tests were created in the wake of the IQ test as a
way to capture the knowledge acquired in schools, not just the
capacity to learn.
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55. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Origins of the Modern Achievement Test
Achievement tests were created in the wake of the IQ test as a
way to capture the knowledge acquired in schools, not just the
capacity to learn.
The distinction between knowledge and the ability to acquire it
is clear.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

56. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Origins of the Modern Achievement Test
Achievement tests were created in the wake of the IQ test as a
way to capture the knowledge acquired in schools, not just the
capacity to learn.
The distinction between knowledge and the ability to acquire it
is clear.
How one separates these concepts empirically is not so clear,
especially since the ability to acquire knowledge is not a fixed
trait but can be changed.
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57. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
General Knowledge
The inventors of the achievement test sought to measure
“useful knowledge” or “general knowledge” valuable in
functioning at work and in society, not specific knowledge of a
course.
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58. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
General Knowledge
The inventors of the achievement test sought to measure
“useful knowledge” or “general knowledge” valuable in
functioning at work and in society, not specific knowledge of a
course.
Designed to be “objective”—not depend on teacher
assessments as captured by grades. This was perceived to be a
way to implement meritocratic notions of education.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

59. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
General Knowledge
The inventors of the achievement test sought to measure
“useful knowledge” or “general knowledge” valuable in
functioning at work and in society, not specific knowledge of a
course.
Designed to be “objective”—not depend on teacher
assessments as captured by grades. This was perceived to be a
way to implement meritocratic notions of education.
Iowa tests; ACT; GED; ENEM; No Child Left Behind; NAEP;
PISA tests are modern versions.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

60. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Iowa Test of Educational Development (ITED)
Developed in 1930s and 1940s.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

61. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Iowa Test of Educational Development (ITED)
Developed in 1930s and 1940s.
The prototype for all achievement tests.
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62. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
What matters most is not how many detailed facts a
person can quote, but how well he can make use of what
he knows, and how straight he can think about personal
and group problems.
The Iowa Tests, therefore, were planned to measure the
fundamental ideas the student has acquired permanently,
and what he is able to do with them.
This seemed much more important than just measuring
the specific information he had memorized in a course,
which he would forget after the final exam.
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63. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
They were planned to measure the real knowledge and
reasoning ability a student had, no matter how he had
acquired them . . .
-Lindquist (1948)
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64. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Achievement tests are designed to measure acquired knowledge.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

65. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Achievement tests are designed to measure acquired knowledge.
But what motivates students to acquire knowledge?
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66. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Achievement tests are designed to measure acquired knowledge.
But what motivates students to acquire knowledge?
Cognition, personality, as well as environmental determinants,
such as parents, teachers, and peers.
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67. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
What Do Schools Produce?
Is it just the knowledge captured by standard achievement
tests?
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

68. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
What Do Schools Produce?
Is it just the knowledge captured by standard achievement
tests?
Every creator of an achievement test thought otherwise.
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69. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Mann:
“Hence to value schools, by length instead of quality, is a
matchless absurdity. Arithmetic, grammar, and the other
rudiments, as they are called, comprise but a small part of
the teachings in a school. The rudiments of feeling are
taught not less than the rudiments of thinking. The
sentiments and passions get more lessons than the
intellect. Though their open recitations may be less, their
secret rehearsals are more.”
-Horace Mann (1867, p. 420)
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70. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Other mechanisms of assessment besides the objective exam
were often suggested.
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71. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
“We lean heavily on written examinations, on a few types
of objective tests, and on the subjective impressions of
teachers. Many other appraisal devices could be used, such
as records of activities in which pupils participate,
questionnaires, check lists, anecdotal records and
observational records, interviews, reports made by parents,
products made by the pupils, and records made by
instruments (motion pictures, eye-movement records,
sound recordings, and the like).”
-Tyler (1940)
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72. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
But time and again, the achievement test won out as a cheap
tool of assessment.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

73. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
But time and again, the achievement test won out as a cheap
tool of assessment.
Other methods were more costly, even if they missed a lot.
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74. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
How are IQ and achievement tests validated?
Usually on grades and other tests.
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75. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
How are IQ and achievement tests validated?
Usually on grades and other tests.
This is ironic in light of the fact that the achievement test was
invented in order to avoid the “subjectivity” of grades.
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76. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Table 1: Predictive Validities of Standard IQ and Achievement Tests
Cognitive Achievement and IQ Tests
Test Domain over Estimated Validities Source Notes
which it is
validated
SAT First year col- 0.35 to 0.53 Kobrin et al. (2008)
lege GPA
ACT Grades in 0.42 ACT Incorporated
early years of (2007)
college
Stanford- Correlations 0.77 to 0.87 with WISC-R Rothlisberg (1987);
Binet with other Greene et al. (1990)
intelligence
tests
WISC Correlations WISC: 0.443 to 0.751 Hartlage and Steele WRAT =
(Wechsler with aca- with WRAT tests, 0.482 (1977) Wide Range
Intelligence demic to 0.788 with 1st grade Achievement
Scale for achievement grades, 0.462 to 0.794 with Test; ranges
Children) 2nd grade grades; WISC-R: are given
0.346 to 0.760 with WRAT because cor-
tests, 0.358 to 0.537 with relations vary
1st grade grades, 0.420 by academic
to 0.721 with 2nd grade subject
grades
Source: Almund et al. (2011).
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77. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Table 1: Predictive Validities of Standard IQ and Achievement Tests
Cognitive Achievement and IQ Tests
Test Domain over Estimated Validities Source Notes
which it is
validated
WAIS (Wech- Correlations 0.67 (median) with ver- Feingold (1982)
sler Adult with other bal tests, 0.61 (median)
Intelligence intelli- with nonverbal tests, 0.69
Scale) gence tests, with education attained,
achievement 0.38 to 0.43 with col-
tests, and lege grades, 0.62 with high
outcomes school grades
Raven’s Correlations 0.74 to 0.84 with WAIS-R O’Leary et al.
Standard with other (1991)
Progressive intelligence
Matrices tests
GATB (Gen- Supervisor 0.23 to 0.65 Hunter (1986) Large range
eral Aptitude rating per- due to variety
Test Battery) formance of jobs
in training
programs
and in job
performance
Source: Almund et al. (2011).
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78. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Table 1: Predictive Validities of Standard IQ and Achievement Tests
Cognitive Achievement and IQ Tests
Test Domain over Estimated Validities Source Notes
which it is
validated
ASVAB Performance 0.37 to 0.78 for training Schmidt et al. Large range
(Armed in military (mean=0.56); -0.15 for at- (1988) for perfor- in training
Services training trition mance in training correlations
Vocational programs programs; Sticht due to a
Aptitude and military et al. (1982) for variety of
Battery) attrition rates attrition rates jobs
GED (Gen- Test difficulty 0.33 to 0.49 for HS Senior Technical Manual:
eral Ed- is normed GPA 2002 Series GED
ucational against grad- Tests
Develop- uating HS
ment) seniors. Test
scores of high
school seniors
and grades of
high school
seniors
Other Valid- Correlation .75–.79 AFQT, .78 NALS, Boesel et al. (1998)
ity Studies of with other .81 Iowa Tests
the GED achievement
tests
Source: Almund et al. (2011).
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79. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Table 1: Predictive Validities of Standard IQ and Achievement Tests
Cognitive Achievement and IQ Tests
Test Domain over Estimated Validities Source Notes
which it is
validated
DAT (Dif- Correlations 0.13 to 0.62 for college Omizo (1980) Large range is
ferential with aca- GPA due to vary-
Aptitude demic ing validity of
Tests) achievement eight subtests
of DAT
WIAT Correlation 0.80 with grade 4 CAT/2, Michalko and CAT=California
(Wechsler with other 0.69 with grade 5 CAT/2, Saklofske (1996) Achievement
Individual achievement 0.83 with grade 6 CAT/2; Test
Achievement tests; teacher 0.67 with teacher ratings
Test) ratings of
student
achievement
Source: Almund et al. (2011).
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80. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Only recently has the validity of the tests on real world
outcomes been established.
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81. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Only recently has the validity of the tests on real world
outcomes been established.
They predict a bit, but they leave a lot unexplained.
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82. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Only recently has the validity of the tests on real world
outcomes been established.
They predict a bit, but they leave a lot unexplained.
Achievement tests and grades are usually more predictive than
IQ.
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83. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Table 2: Validities in Labor Market Outcomes from the National
Longitudinal Survey of Youth, 1979
NLSY79 Table of Proportion of Explained Variance (tests and school performance)
Source: Borghans et al. (2011)
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

84. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Personality
Personality and Motivation: missing dimensions that predict
adult performance.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

85. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Personality
Personality and Motivation: missing dimensions that predict
adult performance.
Some of the missing dimensions manifest in these tables that
explain a variety of educational and labor market outcomes.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

86. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Personality
Personality and Motivation: missing dimensions that predict
adult performance.
Some of the missing dimensions manifest in these tables that
explain a variety of educational and labor market outcomes.
Economist’s “Dark Matter” or “Dark Energy.”
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

87. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Personality
Personality and Motivation: missing dimensions that predict
adult performance.
Some of the missing dimensions manifest in these tables that
explain a variety of educational and labor market outcomes.
Economist’s “Dark Matter” or “Dark Energy.”
One popular measurement system: Big Five — OCEAN
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

88. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Personality
Personality and Motivation: missing dimensions that predict
adult performance.
Some of the missing dimensions manifest in these tables that
explain a variety of educational and labor market outcomes.
Economist’s “Dark Matter” or “Dark Energy.”
One popular measurement system: Big Five — OCEAN
Openness
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

89. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Personality
Personality and Motivation: missing dimensions that predict
adult performance.
Some of the missing dimensions manifest in these tables that
explain a variety of educational and labor market outcomes.
Economist’s “Dark Matter” or “Dark Energy.”
One popular measurement system: Big Five — OCEAN
Openness
Conscientiousness
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

90. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Personality
Personality and Motivation: missing dimensions that predict
adult performance.
Some of the missing dimensions manifest in these tables that
explain a variety of educational and labor market outcomes.
Economist’s “Dark Matter” or “Dark Energy.”
One popular measurement system: Big Five — OCEAN
Openness
Conscientiousness
Extraversion
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

91. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Personality
Personality and Motivation: missing dimensions that predict
adult performance.
Some of the missing dimensions manifest in these tables that
explain a variety of educational and labor market outcomes.
Economist’s “Dark Matter” or “Dark Energy.”
One popular measurement system: Big Five — OCEAN
Openness
Conscientiousness
Extraversion
Agreeableness
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

92. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Personality
Personality and Motivation: missing dimensions that predict
adult performance.
Some of the missing dimensions manifest in these tables that
explain a variety of educational and labor market outcomes.
Economist’s “Dark Matter” or “Dark Energy.”
One popular measurement system: Big Five — OCEAN
Openness
Conscientiousness
Extraversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

93. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Table 3: The Big Five Domains and Their Facets
Big Five Personality American Psychology Facets (and correlated Related Traits Childhood
Factor Association Dictionary trait adjective) Temperament Traits
description
Openness to “the tendency to be open Fantasy (imaginative) Sensory sensitivity
Experience to new aesthetic, Aesthetic (artistic) Pleasure in low-
cultural, or intellectual Feelings (excitable) intensity activities
experiences” Actions (wide interests) Curiosity
Ideas (curious) —
Values (unconventional)
Conscientiousness “the tendency to be Competence (efficient) Grit Attention/(lack of)
organized, responsible, Order (organized) Perseverance distractibility
and hardworking” Dutifulness (not careless) Delay of gratification Effortful control
Achievement striving Impulse control Impulse control/delay
(ambitious) Achievement striving of gratification
Self-discipline (not lazy) Ambition Persistence
Deliberation (not Work ethic Activity*
impulsive)
OCEAN
Source: Table adapted from John and Srivastava (1999).
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

94. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Table 3: The Big Five Domains and Their Facets
Extraversion “an orientation of one’s Warmth (friendly) Surgency
interests and energies Gregariousness Social dominance
toward the outer world (sociable) Social vitality
of people and things Assertiveness (self- Sensation seeking
rather than the inner confident) Shyness*
—
world of subjective Activity (energetic) Activity*
experience; Excitement seeking Positive emotionality
characterized by (adventurous) Sociability/affiliation
positive affect and Positive emotions
sociability” (enthusiastic)
Agreeableness “the tendency to act in a Trust (forgiving) Empathy Irritability*
cooperative, unselfish Straight-forwardness (not Perspective taking Aggressiveness
manner” demanding) Cooperation Willfulness
Altruism (warm) Competitiveness
Compliance (not
stubborn)
Modesty (not show-off)
Tender-mindedness
(sympathetic)
Neuroticism/ Emotional stability is Anxiety (worrying) Internal vs. External Fearfulness/behavioral
Emotional Stability “predictability and Hostility (irritable) Locus of control inhibition
consistency in emotional Depression (not Core self-evaluation Shyness*
reactions, with absence contented) Self-esteem Irritability*
of rapid mood changes.” Self-consciousness (shy) Self-efficacy Frustration
Neuroticism is “a Impulsiveness (moody) Optimism (Lack of) soothability
chronic level of Vulnerability to stress Axis I Sadness
emotional instability and (not self-confident) psychopathologies
proneness to (mental disorders)
psychological distress.” including depression
and anxiety disorders
OCEAN
Source: Table adapted from John and Srivastava (1999).
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

95. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Alternative measurement systems and their communalities
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

96. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Competing taxonomies of personality
Evsenck Costa & McCrae Tellegen Zuckerman Cloninger Big Nine
Big Three NEO-PRF Big Five MPQ
Neuroticism Neuroticism Negative Emotionality Neuroticism-Anxiety Harm Avoidance Adjustment
Anxious Anxiety Stress reaction
Vulnerability
Depressed Depression
Guilt-feeling
Low self-esteem
Tense
Irrational
Shy Self-consciousness Alienation
Moody
Emotional Impulsiveness
Psychotism
Aggressive Hostility Aggression Aggression-Hostility Cooperativeness Agreeableness
Cold
Egocentric Rugged Individualism
Impersonal Agreeableness
Anti-social Altruism
Unempathic Compliance
Tough-minded Tendermindedness
Straightforwardness
Trust
(cont.) Modesty
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

97. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Competing taxonomies of personality (cont.)
Evsenck Costa & McCrae Tellegen Zuckerman Cloninger Big Nine
Big Three NEO-PRF Big Five MPQ
Psychotism (cont.) Conscientiousness Constraint Self-Directedness Dependability
Deliberation
Dutifulness
Impulsive Self-discipline Control Locus of Control
Order
Competence Persistence Achievement
Achievement striving
Traditionalism
Extraversion Extraversion
Sensation-seeking Excitement seeking Harm avoidance Impulsive Sensation Novelty Seeking
Seeking
Venturesome
Active Activity Activity
Surgent
Carefree
Positive emotionality
Achievement Reward Dependence
Social Closeness
Sociable Gregariousness Sociability Affiliation
Lively
Assertive Assertiveness
Dominant Social Potency Potency
Positive emotions Well-being
Warmth
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

98. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Competing taxonomies of personality (cont.)
Evsenck Costa & McCrae Tellegen Zuckerman Cloninger Big Nine
Big Three NEO-PRF Big Five MPQ
Openness Self-Transcendence
Fantasy
Aesthetics Absorption
Feelings
Actions
Ideas
Values
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

99. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Big Five is widely used.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

100. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Big Five is widely used.
Criticisms of Big Five
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

101. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Big Five is widely used.
Criticisms of Big Five
The five-factor model is atheoretical.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

102. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Big Five is widely used.
Criticisms of Big Five
The five-factor model is atheoretical.
The five-factor model is relatively silent on an important class
of individual differences: motivation and goals.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

103. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Defining non-cognitive traits for children
Childhood temperament is the term used by developmental
psychologists to describe the personalities of infants and
children.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

104. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Defining non-cognitive traits for children
Childhood temperament is the term used by developmental
psychologists to describe the personalities of infants and
children.
Most of the research on temperament has examined specific
lower-order traits rather than broader, higher-level factors that
characterize studies of adult intelligence and personality.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

105. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Validities for Personality Tests
What are the validities for personality tests?
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

106. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Validities for Personality Tests
What are the validities for personality tests?
How correlated are scores on these tests with behaviors?
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

107. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Table 4: Validities for Personality Tests
Source: Almlund et al. 2011
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

108. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Table 4: Validities for Personality Tests
Source: Almlund et al. 2011
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

109. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
How Predictive Are These Personality Traits?
What do they predict?
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

110. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
How Predictive Are These Personality Traits?
What do they predict?
With what strength?
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

111. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 2: Association of the Big Five and intelligence with Years of
Schooling
Males
Emotional Stability
Agreeableness
Extraversion
Conscientiousness
Openness
Fluid Intelligence
Crystalized Intelligence
-0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
Standardized Regression Coefficient
Unadjusted for Intelligence Adjusted for Intelligence
Source: Almlund et al. 2011
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

112. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 3: Correlations of The Big Five and Intelligence with High School
Course Grades
Source: Almlund et al. 2011
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

113. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Duckworth, Heckman, Almlund, and Kautz 10/22/2010
126
Figure 13. Associations with Standardized Achievement Test Scores
Figure 4: Associations with Standardized Achievement Test Scores
Emotional Stability
Agreeableness
Extraversion
Conscientiousness Private School
Public School
Openness
Intelligence
-0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Standardized Regression Coefficient
Note: The values represent standardized regression coefficients when controlling for age at IQ
test, gender, and ethnicity. IQ is measured using Raven’s Progressive Matrices.
Source: Duckworth (2009)
Martin and colleagues were among the first to demonstrate that teacheron Soft Skillsratings
Heckman Hard Evidence and parent

114. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
and the authors do not clearly delineate when the measures of personality were taken.
Figure 5: Associations with Job Performance
Figure 14. Associations with Job Performance
Emotional Stability
Agreeableness
Extraversion
Conscientiousness
Openness
Intelligence
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Correlation
Note. The values for personality are correlations that were corrected for sampling error, range
restriction, and measurement error. Job performance was based on performance ratings,
productivity data and training proficiency. The authors do report the timing of the measurements
of personality relative to job performance. The value for IQ is a raw correlation.
Source(s): The values reported for personality traits come from a meta-analysis conducted by
Barrick and Mount [1991]. The value for IQ and job performance was reported in Schmidt and
Hunter [2004].
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

115. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 6: Correlations of Mortality with Personality, IQ, and
Socioeconomic Status (SES)
Source: Almlund et al. 2011
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

116. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Ever Been in Jail by Age 30, by Ability (Males)
Figure 7: Ever been in jail by age 30, by ability (males)
zation .15
ment
nce .10
Probability
al and
tive
ds
.05
onment
ve
ates .00
ation 0 – 20 21 – 40 41 – 60 61 – 80 81 – 100
Percentile
mary
Cognitive
Noncognitive
Note: This figure plots the probability of a given behavior associated with moving up in one ability distribution for someone after
integrating out the other distribution. For example, the lines with markers show the effect of increasing noncognitive ability after
Source: Heckman, Stixrud, and Urzua (2006)
integrating the cognitive ability.
Source: Heckman, Stixrud, and Urzua (2006).
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

117. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Probability of Being Single With Children
(Females)
Figure 8: Probability of being teenage and single with children (females)
zation .10
ment
.08
nce
Probability
l and
.06
ive
s
nment .04
ve
ates .02
ation 0 – 20 21 – 40 41 – 60 61 – 80 81 – 100
Percentile
mary
Cognitive
Noncognitive
Note: This figure plots the probability of a given behavior associated with moving up in one ability distribution for someone after
integrating out the other distribution. For example, the lines with markers show the effect of increasing noncognitive ability after
Source: Heckman, Stixrud, and Urzua (2006)
integrating the cognitive ability.
Source: Heckman, Stixrud, and Urzua (2006).
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

118. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
How Predictive Are Achievement Tests Compared to
Conscientiousness for Success in Post-Secondary Education?
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

119. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Table 5: The Relative Predictive Power of Conscientiousness and SAT
Scores for College GPA
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

120. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
What Do Grades and Scores on Achievement Tests
Measure?
How are the scores on test and grades determined?
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

121. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
f
c
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

122. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 9: Decomposing Achievement Tests and Grades into IQ and
Personality [NLSY79]
0.60
Achievement Grades
0.50 0.48
0.43
0.40
R-Squared
0.30
0.23
0.20
0.19
0.16
0.10
0.10
0.00
AFQT Grades
IQ, Rosenberg, and Rotter IQ Rosenberg and Rotter
Source: Borghans, Golsteyn, Heckman et al. [2011].
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

123. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 10: Decomposing Achievement Tests and Grades into IQ and
Personality [Stella Maris]
Source: Borghans, Golsteyn, Heckman et al. [2011].
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

124. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
This explains in part the greater predictive power of
achievement tests and grades compared to IQ in explaining real
world outcomes.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

125. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Table 2: Validities in Labor Market Outcomes from the National
Longitudinal Survey of Youth, 1979
NLSY79 Table of Proportion of Explained Variance (tests and school performance)
Source: Borghans et al. (2011)
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

126. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Causal Inference
Causality is essential in designing policy and interpreting
evidence.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

127. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Causal Inference
Causality is essential in designing policy and interpreting
evidence.
Correlation is not the same as causation, although a lot of
public policy is based only on correlations.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

128. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Causal Inference
Causality is essential in designing policy and interpreting
evidence.
Correlation is not the same as causation, although a lot of
public policy is based only on correlations.
The doctors in Russia.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

129. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Correlation vs. Causality
A is correlated with B
What is causal?
?
A B
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

130. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Correlation vs. Causality
A is correlated with B
What is causal?
?
A B
?
B A
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

131. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Correlation vs. Causality
A is correlated with B
What is causal?
?
A B
?
B A
?
A B
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

132. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Correlation vs. Causality
A is correlated with B
What is causal?
?
A B
?
B A
?
A B
? A
C
B
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

133. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Correlation vs. Causality
A is correlated with B
What is causal?
? ? B
A B
C
? A
B A
?
A B
? A
C
B
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

134. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Correlation vs. Causality
A is correlated with B
What is causal?
? ? B
A B
C
? A
B A
? B
? C
A B
A
? A
C
B
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

135. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Correlation vs. Causality
A is correlated with B
What is causal?
? ? B
A B
C
? A
B A
? B
? C
A B
A
? A ? B
C C
B A
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

136. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Questions
Are any of the predictive relationships between personality and
cognition and outcomes causal?
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

137. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Questions
Are any of the predictive relationships between personality and
cognition and outcomes causal?
Can we change cognition and personality and affect outcomes
or are they fixed traits?
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

138. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Questions
Are any of the predictive relationships between personality and
cognition and outcomes causal?
Can we change cognition and personality and affect outcomes
or are they fixed traits?
Is promoting cognition and personality a useful policy option?
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

139. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Questions
Are any of the predictive relationships between personality and
cognition and outcomes causal?
Can we change cognition and personality and affect outcomes
or are they fixed traits?
Is promoting cognition and personality a useful policy option?
What do we miss by ignoring soft skills?
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

140. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Difficulties in Establishing Causality
Reverse causality
(A ⇐⇒ B)
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

141. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Difficulties in Establishing Causality
Reverse causality
(A ⇐⇒ B)
Measured traits can be caused in part by the outcomes being
studied.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

142. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
All psychological measurements are calibrated on task
performances.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

143. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
All psychological measurements are calibrated on task
performances.
A fundamental interpretive problem lies at the heart of any
psychological measurement system for any particular trait.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

144. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
All psychological measurements are calibrated on task
performances.
A fundamental interpretive problem lies at the heart of any
psychological measurement system for any particular trait.
For these traits to be accurate measures of any particular trait
or set of traits, it is necessary to standardize for incentives and
the effects of other traits in performing a task.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

145. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
All psychological measurements are calibrated on task
performances.
A fundamental interpretive problem lies at the heart of any
psychological measurement system for any particular trait.
For these traits to be accurate measures of any particular trait
or set of traits, it is necessary to standardize for incentives and
the effects of other traits in performing a task.
Examples: Incentivizing IQ tests.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

146. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
All psychological measurements are calibrated on task
performances.
A fundamental interpretive problem lies at the heart of any
psychological measurement system for any particular trait.
For these traits to be accurate measures of any particular trait
or set of traits, it is necessary to standardize for incentives and
the effects of other traits in performing a task.
Examples: Incentivizing IQ tests.
Can boost IQ by 15 points by giving candies for correct answers
— the Black/White gap in IQ in U.S.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

147. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Examples
IQ and Achievement Test Scores Reflect Incentives and Efforts, and
Capture Both Cognitive and Personality Traits
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

148. Introduction Lessons children who
SES History information. Gentle (10.6 points and SD was three distinct Appendix
IQ Origins Modern Stability factors: (a) References
did or did not encouragement, about 9.5 in this sample) formal cognitive processes;
attend nursery easier items after between scores of (b) informational
school were tested
Almlund, Duckworth, Heckman, and Kautz 12/31/2010
items were missed, children in the achievements which reflect
Table 6: Incentives and Performance on Intelligence Tests
at the beginning and so on. optimized vs the content rather than the 83
and end of the year standardconditions The formal properties of
Table 5. Incentives and Performance on Intelligence Tests improved cognition, and (c)
on Stanford-Binet nursery group
Study Sample and Study
Intelligence Test Experimental Effectscores, but only in
their size of incentive Summary
motivational factors which
Design
under either Group (in standard
the standard condition. involve a wide range of
optimized or deviations) personality variables. (p. 2)
Edlund Between subjects
standard M&M candies Experimental group “…a carefully chosen
“…the significant difference
[1972] study. 11 matched
conditions. given for each scored 12 points higher consequence, candy,standard
in improvement in given
pairs of low SES right answer than control group contingent on each occurrence
IQ performance found
children; children during a second testing of correct the nursery and non-
between responses to an IQ
were about one on an alternative form of test, can result inwas
nursery groups a
standard deviation the Stanford Binet significantly solely to
attributable higher IQ
below average in (about 0.8 standard score.”(p. 319)
motivational factors…” (p.
IQ at baseline deviations) 10)
Ayllon &
Breuning Within subjects
Within and Tokens given in as 6.25 points out of aby
Incentives such Scores increased “…test scores often reflect of
“In summary, the promise
KellyZella study. 12 mentally
and between subjects experimental
record albums, possible17 points. Results poor academic skills, but they
about 51 points on individualized incentives
[1972]
[1978] retarded children
study of 485 condition for right Metropolitan Readiness
radios (<$25) given were consistent across may also reflect lack of in
contingent on an increase
Sample 1 (avg IQ 46.8)
special education answers the t = 4.03
for improvement in Test. Otis-Lennon, WISC- motivation to do well (asthe
IQ test performance in
high school exchangeable for
test performance R, and Lorge-Thorndike criterion test…These results,
compared with pretest
students all took IQ prizes tests. obtained from both a in an
performance) resulted
Ayllon & Within then were
tests, subjects Tokens given in t = 5.9 population typically limited in
approximate 17-point
Kelly study 34 urban
randomly assigned experimental skills and in IQ test scores.
increase ability as well as
[1972] fourth graders (avg condition for right
to control or from a group of normal
These increases were equally
Sample 2 IQ = 92.8) groups to answers
incentive childrenacross subtests… The
spread (Experiment II),
retake tests. exchangeable for demonstrate that the use of
incentive condition effects
Subjects were prizes reinforcement procedures
were much less pronounced
Ayllon & below-average in
Within subjects Six weeks of token Experimental group applied to a behaviorpretest
for students having that is
Kelly IQ.
study of 12 reinforcement for scored 3.67 points out of tacitly regarded as “at120 and
IQs between 98 and its
[1972] matched pairs of good academic possible 51 points on a peak” can significantly alter
did not occur for students
Sample 3 mentally retarded performance post-test given under the levelpretest IQs between
having of performance of
children standard conditions that behavior.” (p. 483)
121 and 140.” (p. 225)
Holt and Between and Exp 1-Token higher standard deviation
1.06 than at baseline; “Knowledge of results does
Hobbs within subjects reinforcement for control group dropped
difference between the not appear to be a sufficient
Many other studies (see ADHK).
[1979] study of 80
delinquent boys
correct responses; 2.75 points. On a second
Exp 2 – Tokens
token reinforcement and incentive to significantly
control groups (inferred improve test performance
post-test with incentives,
randomly assigned forfeited for
Heckman from t control groups
exp and= 3.31 for 39 Hard among below-average I.Q.
Evidence on Soft Skills

149. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Responsiveness to Incentives on IQ and Achievement Tests
Depends on Personality
Segal (2006) shows that introducing performance-based cash
incentives in a low-stakes administration of a measure of IQ
increases performance substantially among roughly one-third of
participants.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

150. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Responsiveness to Incentives on IQ and Achievement Tests
Depends on Personality
Segal (2006) shows that introducing performance-based cash
incentives in a low-stakes administration of a measure of IQ
increases performance substantially among roughly one-third of
participants.
Less conscientious men are particularly affected by incentives.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

151. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Responsiveness to Incentives on IQ and Achievement Tests
Depends on Personality
Segal (2006) shows that introducing performance-based cash
incentives in a low-stakes administration of a measure of IQ
increases performance substantially among roughly one-third of
participants.
Less conscientious men are particularly affected by incentives.
Borghans, Meijers and ter Weel (2006) show that adults spend
substantially more time answering IQ questions when rewards
are higher, but subjects high in emotional stability and
conscientiousness are much less affected by these incentives.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

152. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Personality traits affect IQ scores indirectly through the
knowledge acquired by individuals who are more open to
experience, more curious and more perseverant.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

153. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Personality traits affect IQ scores indirectly through the
knowledge acquired by individuals who are more open to
experience, more curious and more perseverant.
There is a correlation between cognitive and non-cognitive
factors.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

154. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Personality traits affect IQ scores indirectly through the
knowledge acquired by individuals who are more open to
experience, more curious and more perseverant.
There is a correlation between cognitive and non-cognitive
factors.
Hansen, Heckman and Mullen (2004), Heckman, Stixrud and
Urzua (2006), and Urzua (2007) show how schooling and other
acquired traits substantially causally affect measured cognitive
and non-cognitive test scores.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

155. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Personality traits affect IQ scores indirectly through the
knowledge acquired by individuals who are more open to
experience, more curious and more perseverant.
There is a correlation between cognitive and non-cognitive
factors.
Hansen, Heckman and Mullen (2004), Heckman, Stixrud and
Urzua (2006), and Urzua (2007) show how schooling and other
acquired traits substantially causally affect measured cognitive
and non-cognitive test scores.
IQ test performance reflects not only pure intelligence, but also
intrinsic motivation, anxiety, knowledge, and reactions to
extrinsic incentives to perform well.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

156. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
IQ (“gf”)
Knowledge
(“gc”)
Task
Performance
Personality
Effort
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

157. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
IQ (“gf”)
Knowledge
(“gc”)
Task
Performance
Personality
?
Effort
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

158. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
IQ (“gf”)
Knowledge
(“gc”)
Task
Performance
Personality
?
Effort
?
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

159. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Causal Evidence on the Power of Personality
Present causal evidence on the power of soft skills in producing
life outcomes.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

160. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Causal Evidence on the Power of Personality
Present causal evidence on the power of soft skills in producing
life outcomes.
Evidence that soft skills can be fostered.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

161. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Causal Evidence on the Power of Personality
Present causal evidence on the power of soft skills in producing
life outcomes.
Evidence that soft skills can be fostered.
Evidence that soft skills are a mechanism of policy for reducing
poverty, promoting productivity and enhancing social justice.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

162. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Causal Evidence on the Power of Personality
Present causal evidence on the power of soft skills in producing
life outcomes.
Evidence that soft skills can be fostered.
Evidence that soft skills are a mechanism of policy for reducing
poverty, promoting productivity and enhancing social justice.
Sources of Evidence
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

163. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Causal Evidence on the Power of Personality
Present causal evidence on the power of soft skills in producing
life outcomes.
Evidence that soft skills can be fostered.
Evidence that soft skills are a mechanism of policy for reducing
poverty, promoting productivity and enhancing social justice.
Sources of Evidence
i The GED
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

164. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Causal Evidence on the Power of Personality
Present causal evidence on the power of soft skills in producing
life outcomes.
Evidence that soft skills can be fostered.
Evidence that soft skills are a mechanism of policy for reducing
poverty, promoting productivity and enhancing social justice.
Sources of Evidence
i The GED
ii Perry Intervention
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

165. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Causal Evidence on the Power of Personality
Present causal evidence on the power of soft skills in producing
life outcomes.
Evidence that soft skills can be fostered.
Evidence that soft skills are a mechanism of policy for reducing
poverty, promoting productivity and enhancing social justice.
Sources of Evidence
i The GED
ii Perry Intervention
iii Causal Effect of Schooling on Test Scores
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

166. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
The GED as a case study of the power of soft skills and
costs of neglecting them
Draw in part on a forthcoming book.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

167. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
The GED as a case study of the power of soft skills and
costs of neglecting them
Draw in part on a forthcoming book.
Studies Of T he GED T esting P rogram,
University of Chicago Press, 2012.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

168. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
The GED as a case study of the power of soft skills and
costs of neglecting them
Draw in part on a forthcoming book.
Studies Of T he GED T esting P rogram,
University of Chicago Press, 2012.
GED is an achievement test that secondary dropouts can take
to certify that they are the equivalents of ordinary secondary
school graduates.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

169. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
The GED as a case study of the power of soft skills and
costs of neglecting them
Draw in part on a forthcoming book.
Studies Of T he GED T esting P rogram,
University of Chicago Press, 2012.
GED is an achievement test that secondary dropouts can take
to certify that they are the equivalents of ordinary secondary
school graduates.
GED is a group of 5 achievement tests normed against national
samples of high school graduates (70% can pass).
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

170. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
The GED as a case study of the power of soft skills and
costs of neglecting them
Draw in part on a forthcoming book.
Studies Of T he GED T esting P rogram,
University of Chicago Press, 2012.
GED is an achievement test that secondary dropouts can take
to certify that they are the equivalents of ordinary secondary
school graduates.
GED is a group of 5 achievement tests normed against national
samples of high school graduates (70% can pass).
14% of all secondary school certificates issued in the U.S. are
given to GEDs.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

171. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Use multiple data sets on outcomes, backgrounds, and abilities
for all major economic and social groups in the U.S over
multiple periods.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

172. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Use multiple data sets on outcomes, backgrounds, and abilities
for all major economic and social groups in the U.S over
multiple periods.
GEDs are as smart as secondary school graduates who do not
go on to college.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

173. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Use multiple data sets on outcomes, backgrounds, and abilities
for all major economic and social groups in the U.S over
multiple periods.
GEDs are as smart as secondary school graduates who do not
go on to college.
GEDs who go on to college and succeed are indistinguishable
from other college graduates in terms of annual wage income
(True for AA and BA students).
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

174. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
However, terminal GEDs perform at a level closer to that of
dropouts.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

175. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
However, terminal GEDs perform at a level closer to that of
dropouts.
Identical to dropouts if we control for their greater cognitive
ability.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

176. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
However, terminal GEDs perform at a level closer to that of
dropouts.
Identical to dropouts if we control for their greater cognitive
ability.
We examine what essential life skills GEDs lack.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

177. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
However, terminal GEDs perform at a level closer to that of
dropouts.
Identical to dropouts if we control for their greater cognitive
ability.
We examine what essential life skills GEDs lack.
Comparing GEDs to Dropouts standardizes ability (as measured
by achievement tests) and demonstrates the importance of
personality traits in predicting life outcomes.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

178. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 11: Cognitive ability by educational status (no college sample, all
ethnic groups)
Source: Heckman, Humphries, Urzua, and Veramendi (2010)
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

179. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 12: Cognitive ability by educational status (no college sample, all
ethnic groups)
Source: Heckman, Humphries, Urzua, and Veramendi (2010)
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

180. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
GEDs lack noncognitive — personality — traits measured in
many ways: behaviors and personality test scores.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

181. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 13: Mean Personality Measures across Education Groups -
(All Races, All Post-Secondary Education)
(a) Males (b) Females
.2
.2
0
0
−.8 −.6 −.4 −.2
−.8 −.6 −.4 −.2
Se
Lo
Lo
Se
Se
Lo
Lo
Se
cu
cu
cu
cu
lf−
lf C
lf−
lf C
so
s
so
s
E
E
on
on
of
of
ste
ste
fC
fC
c
c
Co
Co
em
em
ep
ep
on
on
n
n
t
t
tr
tro
tr
tro
(N
(N
(N
(N
ol
ol
LS
LS
l (N
EL
l (N
EL
(N
(N
Y7
Y7
S)
S)
LS
EL
LS
EL
9)
9)
Y
S
Y
S
79
)
79
)
)
)
Dropout GED 5% Sig (GED vs.HSG) Dropout GED 5% Sig (GED vs.HSG)
High School S.E. 5% Sig (GED/HSG vs.Drop) High School S.E. 5% Sig (GED/HSG vs.Drop)
Sources: National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979, National Educational Longitudinal
Survey. Notes Rosenberg is a ten measure self-confidence scale administered in 1980. Rotter
is a 4 (two part) measure of locus of control. Locus of control is a measure of how much
control an individual believes they have over their life. The Self Concept measure included in
NELS measures evaluates the respondents sense of self-worth or self-confidence.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

182. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 14: Adolescent Smoking and Drinking across Education Groups -
(All Races, All Post-Secondary Education)
(a) Males (b) Females
.6
.6
.4
.4
.2
.2
0
0
Sm
Dr
Sm
Dr
Sm
Bin
Sm
Dr
Sm
Dr
Sm
Bin
ink
in
ink
in
ge
ge
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
kb
kb
sb
sb
es
e
es
es
e
es
Dr
Dr
y1
y1
by
by
y1
y1
by
8
ink
by
8
ink
th
th
4(
4(
14
14
5(
5(
15
15
10
10
Gr
Gr
NL
NL
(
(
NL
NL
NL
NL
th
th
(N
(N
.(
.(
SY
SY
SY
SY
NE
NE
LS
Gr
LS
Gr
SY
SY
97
97
79
.(
79
.(
Y
Y
LS
LS
97
97
)
)
79
79
NE
NE
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
LS
LS
)
)
Dropout GED 5% Sig (GED vs.HSG) Dropout GED 5% Sig (GED vs.HSG)
High School S.E. 5% Sig (GED/HSG vs.Drop) High School S.E. 5% Sig (GED/HSG vs.Drop)
Sources: National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979, National Longitudinal Survey of Youth
1997, National Educational Longitudinal Survey.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

183. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 15: Sex and Violent Behavior across Education Groups -
(All Races, All Post-Secondary Education)
(a) Males (b) Females
.5
.5
.4
.4
.3
.3
.2
.2
.1
.1
0
0
Se
Fig
Ga
Sc
Se
Fig
Ga
Sc
ho
ho
xa
xa
ng
ng
ht
ht
o
o
by
by
t1
t1
by
by
lF
lF
5(
5(
14
14
igh
igh
14
14
NL
NL
(N
(N
t8
t8
(
(
NL
NL
SY
SY
LS
LS
th
th
SY
SY
79
79
Y
Gr
Y
Gr
97
97
97
97
)
)
.(
.(
)
)
)
NE
)
NE
LS
LS
)
)
Dropout GED 5% Sig (GED vs.HSG) Dropout GED 5% Sig (GED vs.HSG)
High School S.E. 5% Sig (GED/HSG vs.Drop) High School S.E. 5% Sig (GED/HSG vs.Drop)
Sources: National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979, National Longitudinal Survey of Youth
1997, National Educational Longitudinal Survey.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

184. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 16: Adolescent Criminal Behavior across Education Groups -
(All Races, All Post-Secondary Education)
(a) Males (b) Females
.8
.8
.6
.6
.4
.4
.2
.2
0
0
Min
Ma
Vio
Ar
Pr
Th
Min
Ma
Vio
Ar
Pr
Th
res
op
res
op
eft
eft
jor
jor
len
len
or
or
ted
Cr
ted
Cr
b
b
Cr
Cr
tC
Cr
Cr
tC
y1
y1
im
im
im
im
im
im
rim
by
rim
by
4(
4(
eb
eb
e(
e(
e(
e(
14
14
e(
e(
NL
NL
y1
y1
NL
NL
NL
NL
NL
NL
(
(
SY
SY
NL
NL
4(
4(
SY
SY
SY
SY
SY
SY
97
97
SY
NL
SY
NL
79
79
79
79
79
79
)
)
SY
SY
97
97
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
97
97
)
)
Dropout GED 5% Sig (GED vs.HSG) Dropout GED 5% Sig (GED vs.HSG)
High School S.E. 5% Sig (GED/HSG vs.Drop) High School S.E. 5% Sig (GED/HSG vs.Drop)
Sources: National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 and the National Longitudinal Survey of
Youth 1997. Notes: Minor crime includes vandalism, shoplifting, petty theft, fraud, holding or
selling stolen goods. Major crime includes auto theft, breaking/entering private property,
grand theft. Violent crime includes fighting, assault, aggravated assault.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

185. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 17: Adolescent GPA across Education Groups -
(All Races, All Post-Secondary Education )
(a) Males (b) Females
6
6
4
4
2
2
0
0
9th
9th
9th
9th
Gr
Gr
Gr
Gr
.G
.C
.G
.C
red
red
PA
PA
its
its
Dropout GED 5% Sig (GED vs.HSG) Dropout GED 5% Sig (GED vs.HSG)
High School S.E. 5% Sig (GED/HSG vs.Drop) High School S.E. 5% Sig (GED/HSG vs.Drop)
Sources: National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

186. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 18: Highest Grade Completed in High School across Education
Groups - (All Races, All Post-Secondary Education)
(a) Males (b) Females
15
15
10
10
5
5
0
0
HG
HG
LG
HG
HG
LG
Eh
Eh
C
C
C
C
hig
hig
hig
hig
igh
igh
h
hs
h
hs
s
s
sc
sc
ch
ch
ch
ch
ho
ho
o
o
oo
oo
ol
ol
ol
ol
l (N
l (N
(N
(N
(N
(N
EL
EL
LS
LS
LS
LS
S)
S)
Y
Y
Y
Y
79
97
79
97
)
)
)
)
Dropout GED 5% Sig (GED vs.HSG) Dropout GED 5% Sig (GED vs.HSG)
High School S.E. 5% Sig (GED/HSG vs.Drop) High School S.E. 5% Sig (GED/HSG vs.Drop)
Sources: National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979, National Longitudinal Survey of Youth
1997, National Educational Longitudinal Survey. Notes: HGC high school is the total number
of years of school attended through high school. It does not include any post-secondary
education.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

187. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 19: Distribution of Non-Cognitive Skills by Education Group
Source: Reproduced from Heckman et al. (2011). National Longitudinal Study of Youth 1979.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

188. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Gaps in achievement and personality deficits emerge early.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

189. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 20: PIAT Scores across Ages and Education Groups across
Education Groups - (All Races, All Post-Secondary Education)
(a) Males (b) Females
.2
.2
0
0
−.2
−.2
−.4
−.4
−.6
−.6
−.8
−.8
Ag
Ag
Ag
Ag
Ag
Ag
Ag
Ag
Ag
Ag
e6
e8
e1
e1
e1
e6
e8
e1
e1
e1
0P
2P
4P
0P
2P
4P
PIA
PIA
PIA
PIA
IAT
IAT
IAT
IAT
IAT
IAT
T
T
T
T
Dropout GED 5% Sig (GED vs.HSG) Dropout GED 5% Sig (GED vs.HSG)
High School S.E. 5% Sig (GED/HSG vs.Drop) High School S.E. 5% Sig (GED/HSG vs.Drop)
Source: Children of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979. Notes: The Peabody
Individual Achievement Test (PIAT) is a widely childhood achievement test.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

190. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 21: Behavioral Problems Index (BPI) across Education Groups -
(All Races , All Post-Secondary Education )
(a) Males (b) Females
1
1
.5
.5
0
0
−.5
−.5
Ag
Ag
Ag
Ag
Ag
Ag
Ag
Ag
Ag
Ag
e6
e8
e1
e1
e1
e6
e8
e1
e1
e1
0
2
4
0
2
4
Dropout GED 5% Sig (GED vs.HSG) Dropout GED 5% Sig (GED vs.HSG)
High School S.E. 5% Sig (GED/HSG vs.Drop) High School S.E. 5% Sig (GED/HSG vs.Drop)
Sources: Children of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979. Notes: The Behavioral
Problems Index (BPI) is based on a 28 question survey given to parents about their child. The
BPI is normalized to have mean 0 and variance 1.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

191. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
The early childhood environments of both dropouts and GEDs
are worse than those of H.S. Grads.
(Moon, 2011; Cunha et al., 2010)
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

192. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 22: Broken Home Rates across Education Groups -
(All Races, All Post-Secondary Education)
(a) Males (b) Females
.6
.6
.4
.4
.2
.2
0
0
Br
Br
Br
Br
Br
Br
Br
Br
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
ok
en
en
e
en
en
en
e
en
na
na
at
at
8th
at
at
8th
t1
t1
14
2(
14
2(
2(
Gr
2(
Gr
NL
NL
(
(
. (N
. (N
NL
NL
NL
NL
SY
SY
SY
S
SY
S
EL
EL
Y9
Y9
97
97
79
79
S)
S)
)
7)
)
7)
)
)
Dropout GED 5% Sig (GED vs.HSG) Dropout GED 5% Sig (GED vs.HSG)
High School S.E. 5% Sig (GED/HSG vs.Drop) High School S.E. 5% Sig (GED/HSG vs.Drop)
Sources: National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979, National Longitudinal Survey of Youth
1997, National Educational Longitudinal Survey.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

193. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 23: Childhood Investment across Education Groups -
(All Races, All Post-Secondary Education)
(a) Males (b) Females
.2
.2
0
0
−.2
−.2
−.4
−.4
−.6
−.6
−.8
−.8
Ag
Ag
Ag
Ag
Ag
Ag
Ag
Ag
Ag
Ag
Ag
Ag
e1
e4
e1
e4
e1
e4
e1
e4
e1
e4
e1
e4
−3
−7
−3
−7
−3
−7
−3
−7
−3
−7
−3
−7
Ma
Ma
Co
Co
E
Em
Ma
Ma
Co
Co
E
Em
mo
mo
gn
gn
gn
gn
ter
ter
ter
ter
oti
oti
tio
tio
itiv
it
itiv
it
ial
ial
on
ial
ial
on
ive
ive
na
na
e
e
al
al
l
l
Dropout GED 5% Sig (GED vs.HSG) Dropout GED 5% Sig (GED vs.HSG)
High School S.E. 5% Sig (GED/HSG vs.Drop) High School S.E. 5% Sig (GED/HSG vs.Drop)
Sources: Children of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979. Variable Definitions:
Material resources includes the child’s access to books, toys, CD or tape player, musical
instruments, and whether the home contains books or magazines. Cognitive stimulation
investments include how often the children are read to, taught lessons, brought to cultural
events, and characteristics of the home environment. Emotional support investments include
parents verbal and physical interactions with child, disciplinary behavior, and responsibility of
child for household chores. Moon (2010) provides a detailed description of these measures.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

194. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Traits Predict Many Outcomes
These traits are highly predictive of who graduates from
secondary school and who does not.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

195. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Traits Predict Many Outcomes
These traits are highly predictive of who graduates from
secondary school and who does not.
Noncognitive traits do not predict GED certification.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

196. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 24: Probability of Graduating from Secondary School (by
cognitive and non-cognitive skill decile)
Source: Reproduced from Heckman et al. (2011).
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

197. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 25: Probability of GED Certification (conditional on dropping out,
by cognitive and non-cognitive decile)
Source: Reproduced from Heckman et al. (2011).
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

198. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
GED certificate holders attempt postsecondary education.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

199. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
GED certificate holders attempt postsecondary education.
Few succeed.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

200. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
GED certificate holders attempt postsecondary education.
Few succeed.
This is a recurrent pattern.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

201. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
GED certificate holders attempt postsecondary education.
Few succeed.
This is a recurrent pattern.
GEDs tend to drop out of everything they start (school,
marriage, jobs, military).
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

202. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 26: Final Educational Attainment by High School Exit Status
Males
50%
45%
40%
35% 33.3% 32.9% 32.3%
ent
30%
Perce
25%
20%
13.9%
15%
9.0%
10% 7.7%
6.4%
4.3%
4 3% 4.7%
5% 2.9%
1.7%
0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.2%
0%
Dropout GED High School Graduate
Some Post Secondary Education Certificate AA BA MA
Source: National Educational Longitudinal Survey 1988.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

203. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 27: Final Educational Attainment by High School Exit Status
Females
50%
45%
40%
36.1% 35.6%
35%
29.0%
Percent
30%
25%
20%
14.9%
15%
10.4%
10% 8.8% 8.4%
6.5%
6 5%
4.5%
5% 3.6%
1.7%
0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%
0%
Dropout GED High School Graduate
Some Post Secondary Education Certificate AA BA MA
Source: National Educational Longitudinal Survey 1988.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

204. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
If a GED gets a BA or a MA, he/she earns at that level.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

205. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
If a GED gets a BA or a MA, he/she earns at that level.
However, there is usually delay and this has substantial costs.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

206. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
If a GED gets a BA or a MA, he/she earns at that level.
However, there is usually delay and this has substantial costs.
The present value of earnings for such people is substantially
(20–30%) lower than if they had not dropped out of school.
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207. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
But GEDs who do not complete a further certificate or degree
earn at the rate of dropouts for people with comparable
schooling attained (at the dropout stage) and ability.
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But GEDs who do not complete a further certificate or degree
earn at the rate of dropouts for people with comparable
schooling attained (at the dropout stage) and ability.
No benefit for males.
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209. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
But GEDs who do not complete a further certificate or degree
earn at the rate of dropouts for people with comparable
schooling attained (at the dropout stage) and ability.
No benefit for males.
This is robust across a variety of specifications.
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Figure 28: Annual Income Differences - By Age - NLSY79 -
(Males, All Races)
(a) All Post-Secondary Education (b) No Post-Secondary Education
30000
30000
20000
20000
10000
10000
0
0
Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG
Age 20 to 24 Age 25 to 29 Age 30 to 34 Age 35 to 39 Age 20 to 24 Age 25 to 29 Age 30 to 34 Age 35 to 39
GED p<0.05(GED vs.HSG) S.E. GED p<0.05(GED vs.HSG) S.E.
High School p<0.05(GED/HSG vs.Dropout) High School p<0.05(GED/HSG vs.Dropout)
Source: National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979. Note: Estimates for hours worked and
hourly wages exclude non-workers. Controls: “Raw” – age and region or state of residence;
“Abil” – AFQT adjusted for schooling at time of test; “BG” – mother’s highest grade
completed, urban status at age 14, family income in 1979, broken home status in 1979, south
at age 14 and AFQT. Regressions exclude those reporting earning more than $300,000 or
working more than 4,000 hours.
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Figure 29: Hourly Wage Differences - By Age - NLSY79 -
(Males, All Races)
(a) All Post-Secondary Education (b) No Post-Secondary Education
10
10
5
5
0
0
Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG
Age 20 to 24 Age 25 to 29 Age 30 to 34 Age 35 to 39 Age 20 to 24 Age 25 to 29 Age 30 to 34 Age 35 to 39
GED p<0.05(GED vs.HSG) S.E. GED p<0.05(GED vs.HSG) S.E.
High School p<0.05(GED/HSG vs.Dropout) High School p<0.05(GED/HSG vs.Dropout)
Source: National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979. Note: Estimates for hours worked and
hourly wages exclude non-workers. Controls: “Raw” – age and region or state of residence;
“Abil” – AFQT adjusted for schooling at time of test; “BG” – mother’s highest grade
completed, urban status at age 14, family income in 1979, broken home status in 1979, south
at age 14 and AFQT. Regressions exclude those reporting earning more than $300,000 or
working more than 4,000 hours.
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Figure 30: Employment Differences - By Age - NLSY79 -
(Males, All Races)
(a) All Post-Secondary Education (b) No Post-Secondary Education
.15
.15
.1
.1
.05
.05
0
0
−.05
−.05
Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG
Age 20 to 24 Age 25 to 29 Age 30 to 34 Age 35 to 39 Age 20 to 24 Age 25 to 29 Age 30 to 34 Age 35 to 39
GED p<0.05(GED vs.HSG) S.E. GED p<0.05(GED vs.HSG) S.E.
High School p<0.05(GED/HSG vs.Dropout) High School p<0.05(GED/HSG vs.Dropout)
Source: National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979. Note: Estimates for hours worked and
hourly wages exclude non-workers. Controls: “Raw” – age and region or state of residence;
“Abil” – AFQT adjusted for schooling at time of test; “BG” – mother’s highest grade
completed, urban status at age 14, family income in 1979, broken home status in 1979, south
at age 14 and AFQT. Regressions exclude those reporting earning more than $300,000 or
working more than 4,000 hours.
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Figure 31: Hours Worked Differences - By Age - NLSY79 -
(Males, All Races)
(a) All Post-Secondary Education (b) No Post-Secondary Education
300
300
200
200
100
100
0
0
−100
−100
−200
−200
Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG
Age 20 to 24 Age 25 to 29 Age 30 to 34 Age 35 to 39 Age 20 to 24 Age 25 to 29 Age 30 to 34 Age 35 to 39
GED p<0.05(GED vs.HSG) S.E. GED p<0.05(GED vs.HSG) S.E.
High School p<0.05(GED/HSG vs.Dropout) High School p<0.05(GED/HSG vs.Dropout)
Source: National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979. Note: Estimates for hours worked and
hourly wages exclude non-workers. Controls: “Raw” – age and region or state of residence;
“Abil” – AFQT adjusted for schooling at time of test; “BG” – mother’s highest grade
completed, urban status at age 14, family income in 1979, broken home status in 1979, south
at age 14 and AFQT. Regressions exclude those reporting earning more than $300,000 or
working more than 4,000 hours.
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Figure 32: Distribution of the Effect of the GED Certificate and High
School Graduation on Annual Income Across Models (Males)
(a) GED Recipients vs. High (b) High School Graduates vs.
School Dropouts (Males) High School Dropouts
Sources: National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979. Notes: This graph plots the estimated coefficients from a series of
linear regressions. All models control for region, age, year, and AFQT score. The models differ in other controls and
sub-populations of the data. The set of models includes all combinations of mother’s highest grade completed, urban
residence at age 14, family income, lives in the south at age 14, smoked at 15, has had sex by 15, has committed a major
crime, and 9th grade GPA. The sub-populations are all combinations of race, post-secondary education (everyone, has some
post-secondary education, no post-secondary education), and age (measured in 5-year categories from 20 to 39) for males and
females.
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Figure 33: Distribution of p-values from Tests Comparing Annual Income
of GED Recipients and High School Graduates to High School Dropouts
(Males)
(a) GED Recipients vs. High (b) High School Graduates
School Dropouts (Males) vs. High School Dropouts
(Males)
Sources: National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979. Notes: This graph plots the estimated coefficients from a series of
linear regressions. All models control for region, age, year, and AFQT score. The models differ in other controls and
sub-populations of the data. The set of models includes all combinations of mother’s highest grade completed, urban
residence at age 14, family income, lives in the south at age 14, smoked at 15, has had sex by 15, has committed a major
crime, and 9th grade GPA. The sub-populations are all combinations of race, post-secondary education (everyone, has some
post-secondary education, no post-secondary education), and age (measured in 5-year categories from 20 to 39) for males and
females.
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Figure 33: Distribution of p-values from Tests Comparing Annual Income
of GED Recipients and High School Graduates to High School Dropouts
(Males)
(c) GED Recipients vs. High School Graduates (Males)
Sources: National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979. Notes: This graph plots the estimated coefficients from a series of
linear regressions. All models control for region, age, year, and AFQT score. The models differ in other controls and
sub-populations of the data. The set of models includes all combinations of mother’s highest grade completed, urban
residence at age 14, family income, lives in the south at age 14, smoked at 15, has had sex by 15, has committed a major
crime, and 9th grade GPA. The sub-populations are all combinations of race, post-secondary education (everyone, has some
post-secondary education, no post-secondary education), and age (measured in 5-year categories from 20 to 39) for males and
females.
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Women
The early literature focused on results for males.
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218. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Women
The early literature focused on results for males.
Simplifies the analysis: avoids statistical problems associated
with selection into the labor force as an empirical issue. (Many
women not working, and wages are missing for them.)
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219. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Women
The early literature focused on results for males.
Simplifies the analysis: avoids statistical problems associated
with selection into the labor force as an empirical issue. (Many
women not working, and wages are missing for them.)
But misses an important empirical phenomenon.
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220. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Women
The early literature focused on results for males.
Simplifies the analysis: avoids statistical problems associated
with selection into the labor force as an empirical issue. (Many
women not working, and wages are missing for them.)
But misses an important empirical phenomenon.
There are GED effects for certain groups of females.
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221. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Women
The early literature focused on results for males.
Simplifies the analysis: avoids statistical problems associated
with selection into the labor force as an empirical issue. (Many
women not working, and wages are missing for them.)
But misses an important empirical phenomenon.
There are GED effects for certain groups of females.
But only for employment and earnings, not hourly wage rates,
or for hours of work of the employed.
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Figure 34: Distribution of the Effect of the GED Certificate and High
School Graduation on Annual Income Across Models (Females)
(a) GED Recipients vs. High (b) High School Graduates vs.
School Dropouts (Females) High School Dropouts
Sources: National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979. Notes: This graph plots the estimated coefficients from a series of
linear regressions. All models control for region, age, year, and AFQT score. The models differ in other controls and
sub-populations of the data. The set of models includes all combinations of mother’s highest grade completed, urban
residence at age 14, family income, lives in the south at age 14, smoked at 15, has had sex by 15, has committed a major
crime, and 9th grade GPA. The sub-populations are all combinations of race, post-secondary education (everyone, has some
post-secondary education, no post-secondary education), and age (measured in 5-year categories from 20 to 39) for males and
females.
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Figure 35: Distribution of p-values from Tests Comparing Annual Income
of GED Recipients and High School Graduates to High School Dropouts
(Females)
(a) GED Recipients vs. High (b) High School Graduates vs.
School Dropouts (Females) High School Dropouts (Fe-
males)
Sources: National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979. Notes: This graph plots the estimated coefficients from a series of
linear regressions. All models control for region, age, year, and AFQT score. The models differ in other controls and
sub-populations of the data. The set of models includes all combinations of mother’s highest grade completed, urban
residence at age 14, family income, lives in the south at age 14, smoked at 15, has had sex by 15, has committed a major
crime, and 9th grade GPA. The sub-populations are all combinations of race, post-secondary education (everyone, has some
post-secondary education, no post-secondary education), and age (measured in 5-year categories from 20 to 39) for males and
females.
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Figure 35: Distribution of p-values from Tests Comparing Annual Income
of GED Recipients and High School Graduates to High School Dropouts
(Females)
(c) GED Recipients vs. High School Graduates (Females)
Sources: National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979. Notes: This graph plots the estimated coefficients from a series of
linear regressions. All models control for region, age, year, and AFQT score. The models differ in other controls and
sub-populations of the data. The set of models includes all combinations of mother’s highest grade completed, urban
residence at age 14, family income, lives in the south at age 14, smoked at 15, has had sex by 15, has committed a major
crime, and 9th grade GPA. The sub-populations are all combinations of race, post-secondary education (everyone, has some
post-secondary education, no post-secondary education), and age (measured in 5-year categories from 20 to 39) for males and
females.
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Why Do Some Women Benefit?
Two groups of women benefit.
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226. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Why Do Some Women Benefit?
Two groups of women benefit.
Bright girls who drop out of school early (pregnancy) but were
successful in school compared to other dropouts—they GED
certify late after their children enroll in primary school.
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Why Do Some Women Benefit?
Two groups of women benefit.
Bright girls who drop out of school early (pregnancy) but were
successful in school compared to other dropouts—they GED
certify late after their children enroll in primary school.
They work hard, do not invest much on the job, have little
wage growth.
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Why Do Some Women Benefit?
Two groups of women benefit.
Bright girls who drop out of school early (pregnancy) but were
successful in school compared to other dropouts—they GED
certify late after their children enroll in primary school.
They work hard, do not invest much on the job, have little
wage growth.
A second group is bright girls who were screw-ups in high
school, dropped out and go to and graduate from college.
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This evidence points to change—either in preferences and/or
constraints that cause some to turn around.
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230. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
This evidence points to change—either in preferences and/or
constraints that cause some to turn around.
“Desistance” in the criminology literature. (e.g., Sampson and
Laub)
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231. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
This evidence points to change—either in preferences and/or
constraints that cause some to turn around.
“Desistance” in the criminology literature. (e.g., Sampson and
Laub)
The females have better non-cognitive traits than males and
sort on those traits.
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Figure 36: Average Occupational Factor Scores by Final Education -
Males
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
08
-1
Dropout GED High School Some College AA BA
Graduate
Cognitive Traits Social Traits Physical Traits
Source: The American Community Survey 2009 and O-Net. Notes: All educational categories are final education at time of
interview. Each factor is based on the following O-Net occupational importance scores: Cognitive - active learning, analytical
thinking, complex problem solving, critical thinking, deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning, interpretation of meaning, math
reasoning, mathematics, processing information, reading comprehension, creative thinking, updating knowledge and
visualization. Social - communicate to outside organizations, concern for others, customer or personal service, establish
relationships, leadership, oral expression, persuasion, social perceptiveness, speaking, writing, written expression, active
listening, and cooperation. Physical Traits - arm and hand steadiness, control and precision, coordination, depth perception,
explosive strength, finger dexterity, gross body coordination, gross body equilibrium, manual dexterity, multi-limb coordination,
reaction time, spatial orientation, stamina, static strength, stress tolerance, trunk strength, and wrist and finger speed.
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Figure 37: Average Occupational Factor Scores by Final Education -
Females
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
1
-1
-1.2
Dropout GED High School Some College AA BA
Graduate
Cognitive Traits Social Traits Physical Traits
Source: The American Community Survey 2009 and O-Net. Notes: All educational categories are final education at time of
interview. Each factor is based on the following O-Net occupational importance scores: Cognitive - active learning, analytical
thinking, complex problem solving, critical thinking, deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning, interpretation of meaning, math
reasoning, mathematics, processing information, reading comprehension, creative thinking, updating knowledge and
visualization. Social - communicate to outside organizations, concern for others, customer or personal service, establish
relationships, leadership, oral expression, persuasion, social perceptiveness, speaking, writing, written expression, active
listening, and cooperation. Physical Traits - arm and hand steadiness, control and precision, coordination, depth perception,
explosive strength, finger dexterity, gross body coordination, gross body equilibrium, manual dexterity, multi-limb coordination,
reaction time, spatial orientation, stamina, static strength, stress tolerance, trunk strength, and wrist and finger speed.
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234. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
We have no direct measures of personality post-pregnancy, but
we have evidence on their behaviors.
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235. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
We have no direct measures of personality post-pregnancy, but
we have evidence on their behaviors.
They are persistent in the workplace after they re-enter.
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Longitudinal analysis supports the cross section analysis.
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237. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Longitudinal analysis supports the cross section analysis.
Using a variety of procedures, employment gains for women.
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238. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Longitudinal analysis supports the cross section analysis.
Using a variety of procedures, employment gains for women.
No hourly wage gains — no evidence of investment.
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239. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Can People Change?
Stability of Traits
Are traits stable? Can people change?
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240. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Can People Change?
Stability of Traits
Are traits stable? Can people change?
The evidence for women suggests this might be a possibility.
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241. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Can People Change?
Stability of Traits
Are traits stable? Can people change?
The evidence for women suggests this might be a possibility.
But as a group, post-GED turnover behavior is quite stable.
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242. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Can People Change?
Stability of Traits
Are traits stable? Can people change?
The evidence for women suggests this might be a possibility.
But as a group, post-GED turnover behavior is quite stable.
High quit rates for all who start (school; marriage; job;
military).
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243. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 38: Probability of Leaving a Given State Within Five Years
Source: National Longitudinal Survey of Youth of 1979 (NLSY79) nationally-representative
cross-sectional subsample and minority oversamples. Notes: The ”Loses Employment” and
”Becomes Divorced” are conditional on being in an employed or married state. Individuals
who have ever been jailed are excluded from the calculation.
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Figure 39: Probability of Leaving a Given State Within Five Years
Source: National Longitudinal Survey of Youth of 1979 (NLSY79) nationally-representative
cross-sectional subsample and minority oversamples. Notes: The ”Loses Employment” and
”Becomes Divorced” are conditional on being in an employed or married state. Individuals
who have ever been jailed are excluded from the calculation.
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Are Personality Traits Ephemeral?
Claim: People adapt fully to situations.
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Are Personality Traits Ephemeral?
Claim: People adapt fully to situations.
No such thing as a stable trait.
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247. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Situational Specificity Hypothesis
The modern origins of the situational specificity hypothe-
sis is based on the work of the social psychologist Walter Mischel:
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248. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Situational Specificity Hypothesis
The modern origins of the situational specificity hypothe-
sis is based on the work of the social psychologist Walter Mischel:
“. . . with the possible exception of intelligence, highly
generalized behavioral consistencies have not been
demonstrated, and the concept of personality traits as
broad dispositions is thus untenable”
-Mischel (1968, p. 146)
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249. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Many behavioral economists hold a similar view and appeal to
Mischel as a guiding influence.
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250. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Many behavioral economists hold a similar view and appeal to
Mischel as a guiding influence.
“The great contribution to psychology by Walter
Mischel [. . . ] is to show that there is no such thing as
a stable personality trait.”
-Thaler (2008)
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251. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
The stability of traits found for GEDs challenges the situational
specificity hypothesis current in behavioral economics.
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252. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
The stability of traits found for GEDs challenges the situational
specificity hypothesis current in behavioral economics.
The evidence from the GED and much other evidence speaks
strongly against the claims of Mischel and the behavioral
economists. (See Almlund et al., 2011.)
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253. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
The stability of traits found for GEDs challenges the situational
specificity hypothesis current in behavioral economics.
The evidence from the GED and much other evidence speaks
strongly against the claims of Mischel and the behavioral
economists. (See Almlund et al., 2011.)
There is irony in Mischel’s claim for he is most famous for his
research on the marshmallow test.
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254. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
The stability of traits found for GEDs challenges the situational
specificity hypothesis current in behavioral economics.
The evidence from the GED and much other evidence speaks
strongly against the claims of Mischel and the behavioral
economists. (See Almlund et al., 2011.)
There is irony in Mischel’s claim for he is most famous for his
research on the marshmallow test.
His work shows stability of traits over 20 years.
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255. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Stability and Change in Personality Traits and Preferences
Traits change over the life cycle.
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256. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 40: Cumulative Mean-Level Changes in Personality Across the
Life Cycle
Note: Social vitality and social dominance are aspects of Big Five Extraversion. Cumulative d values represent total lifetime
change in units of standard deviations (“effect sizes”).
Source: Figure taken from Roberts, Walton and Viechtbauer [2006] and Roberts and Mroczek [2008]. Reprinted with
permission of the authors.
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257. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 41: Cumulative Mean-Level Changes in Personality Across the
Life Cycle
Note: Social vitality and social dominance are aspects of Big Five Extraversion. Cumulative d values represent total lifetime
change in units of standard deviations (“effect sizes”).
Source: Figure taken from Roberts, Walton and Viechtbauer [2006] and Roberts and Mroczek [2008]. Reprinted with
permission of the authors.
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258. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 41: Cumulative Mean-Level Changes in Personality Across the
Life Cycle
Note: Social vitality and social dominance are aspects of Big Five Extraversion. Cumulative d values represent total lifetime
change in units of standard deviations (“effect sizes”).
Source: Figure taken from Roberts, Walton and Viechtbauer [2006] and Roberts and Mroczek [2008]. Reprinted with
permission of the authors.
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259. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 41: Cumulative Mean-Level Changes in Personality Across the
Life Cycle
Note: Social vitality and social dominance are aspects of Big Five Extraversion. Cumulative d values represent total lifetime
change in units of standard deviations (“effect sizes”).
Source: Figure taken from Roberts, Walton and Viechtbauer [2006] and Roberts and Mroczek [2008]. Reprinted with
permission of the authors.
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260. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 41: Cumulative Mean-Level Changes in Personality Across the
Life Cycle
Note: Social vitality and social dominance are aspects of Big Five Extraversion. Cumulative d values represent total lifetime
change in units of standard deviations (“effect sizes”).
Source: Figure taken from Roberts, Walton and Viechtbauer [2006] and Roberts and Mroczek [2008]. Reprinted with
permission of the authors.
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261. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 42: Longitudinal Analysis of Cognitive Skills
Notes: T-scores on the y-axis are standardized scores with a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of ten.
Source: Figures taken from Schaie [1994]. Used with permission of the publisher.
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Three Processes of Development Discussed in the Literature on
Personality and Cognition
Ontogeny (programmed developmental processes common to
all persons) and sociogeny (shared socialization processes).
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Three Processes of Development Discussed in the Literature on
Personality and Cognition
Ontogeny (programmed developmental processes common to
all persons) and sociogeny (shared socialization processes).
Personality changes through external forces above and beyond
common ontogenic and sociogenic processes that operate
through alterations in normal biology, such as brain lesions and
chemical interventions. (Phineas Gage is the most celebrated
example.)
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264. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Three Processes of Development Discussed in the Literature on
Personality and Cognition
Ontogeny (programmed developmental processes common to
all persons) and sociogeny (shared socialization processes).
Personality changes through external forces above and beyond
common ontogenic and sociogenic processes that operate
through alterations in normal biology, such as brain lesions and
chemical interventions. (Phineas Gage is the most celebrated
example.)
Investment: educational interventions and parental investment
can affect personality throughout the lifecycle.
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265. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Ontogenic Processes
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266. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 43: Proportion of Individuals in Each Age Group Scoring at or
Above the Mean for 26- to 30-Year-Olds on Indices ofPersonality Psychology and
Intellectual and
Psychosocial Maturity.
% scoring at mean adult level
55 Intellectual ability
Psychosocial maturity
45
35
25
15
5
10 − 11 12 − 13 14 − 15 16 − 17 18 − 21 22 − 25 26 − 30
Age
Source: From Steinberg, Cauffman, Woolard et al. (2009), submitted for publication.
27 Proportion of Individuals in Each Age Group Scoring at or Above the Mean for
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267. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
These developmental processes suggest that giving secondary
school students the option to drop out and take a GED will
lead to decisions they may later regret.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

268. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Investment
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

269. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Schooling boosts cognitive and noncognitive traits.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

270. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Schooling boosts cognitive and noncognitive traits.
The effect is causal.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

271. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Schooling boosts cognitive and noncognitive traits.
The effect is causal.
This is in agreement with common sense and all of the claims
by leading educators over the years.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

272. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 44: Causal Effect of Schooling on Measures on Cognition (from
ASVAB)
Source: Heckman et al. (2006).
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

273. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 45: Causal Effect of Schooling on Measures on Cognition (from
ASVAB)
Source: Heckman et al. (2006).
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

274. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 46: Causal Effect of Schooling on Two Measures of
Socioemotional Skills
Source: Heckman et al. (2006).
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

275. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 47: Causal Effect of Schooling on Two Measures of
Socioemotional Skills
Source: Heckman et al. (2006).
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

276. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Additional Causal Evidence on the Power of Noncognitive
Traits and Evidence that They Can Be Boosted by
Investment
Perry Preschool Study
Early childhood intervention
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277. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Additional Causal Evidence on the Power of Noncognitive
Traits and Evidence that They Can Be Boosted by
Investment
Perry Preschool Study
Early childhood intervention
Perry had lasting effects on life outcomes for both boys and
girls.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

278. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Additional Causal Evidence on the Power of Noncognitive
Traits and Evidence that They Can Be Boosted by
Investment
Perry Preschool Study
Early childhood intervention
Perry had lasting effects on life outcomes for both boys and
girls.
With a 7–10% annual rate of return for both
(Heckman et al., 2010)
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

279. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Additional Causal Evidence on the Power of Noncognitive
Traits and Evidence that They Can Be Boosted by
Investment
Perry Preschool Study
Early childhood intervention
Perry had lasting effects on life outcomes for both boys and
girls.
With a 7–10% annual rate of return for both
(Heckman et al., 2010)
Did not boost IQ
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

280. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 48: Cognitive Evolution Through Time, Perry Males: Male
Cognitive Dynamics
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

281. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Boosted Achievement Test Scores
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

282. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 49: Perry Age 14 Total CAT Scores, by Treatment Group
CAT = California Achievement Test
Treatment: N = 49; Control: N = 46
Statistically Significant Effect for Males and Females (p-values 0.009, 0.021 respectively)
Source: Heckman, Malofeeva, Pinto, and Savelyev (2008).
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

283. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
But we have already seen that a substantial component of the
variability in achievement test scores is due to variability in
personality traits.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

284. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
But we have already seen that a substantial component of the
variability in achievement test scores is due to variability in
personality traits.
Perry Boosted Measured Noncognitive Traits
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

285. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 50: Personal Behavior Index, by Treatment Group
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

286. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 51: Socio-Emotional Index by Treatment Group
Control Treatment
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

287. Introduction
Figure 1: Decompositions of Treatment Effects,
Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Males
Figure 52: Decomposition of Treatment Effects
n
CAT total*, age 14(+)
Employed, age 19 (+)
Monthly Income, age 27 (+)
No tobacco use, age 27 (+)
d # of adult arrests, age 27 (-)
Jobless for more than 2 years, age 40 (-)
Ever on welfare (-)
ent
Total charges of viol.crimes with victim costs, age 40, (-)
Total charges of all crimes, age 40 (-)
Total # of lifetime arrests, age 40 (-)
n Total # of adult arrests, age 40 (-)
Total # of misdemeanor arrests, age 40 (-)
Total charges of all crimes with victim costs, age 40 (-)
Any charges of a crime with victim cost, age 40 (-)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100%
Cognitive Factors Socio-Emotional State
Personal Behavior Other Factors
Source: Heckman, Malofeeva, et al. (2008, revised 2011).
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

288. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
The Dynamics of Life Cycle Investment
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

289. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Gaps in cognitive and noncognitive skills open up early across
social and economic groups.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

290. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Gaps in cognitive and noncognitive skills open up early across
social and economic groups.
For both cognitive and socioemotional traits, ability gaps across
socioeconomic groups open up at early ages and persist.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

291. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 53: Trend in mean cognitive score by maternal education
1
Mean cognitive score
.5
0
3 5 8 18
Age (years)
College grad
Each score standardized within observed sample. Using all observations and assuming data
missing at random. Source: Brooks-Gunn et al. (2006).
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

292. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 53: Trend in mean cognitive score by maternal education
1
Mean cognitive score
.5
0
3 5 8 18
Age (years)
College grad Some college
Each score standardized within observed sample. Using all observations and assuming data
missing at random. Source: Brooks-Gunn et al. (2006).
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

293. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 53: Trend in mean cognitive score by maternal education
1
Mean cognitive score
.5
0
3 5 8 18
Age (years)
College grad Some college HS Grad
Each score standardized within observed sample. Using all observations and assuming data
missing at random. Source: Brooks-Gunn et al. (2006).
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

294. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 53: Trend in mean cognitive score by maternal education
1
Mean cognitive score
.5
0
3 5 8 18
Age (years)
College grad Some college HS Grad Less than HS
Each score standardized within observed sample. Using all observations and assuming data
missing at random. Source: Brooks-Gunn et al. (2006).
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

295. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Average Percentile Rank on Anti-Social
Figure 54: Average percentile rank on anti-social behavior score, by
Behavior Score, by Income Quartile
income quartile
(The higher the score, the worse are behavioral problems)
ation 55
ent
50
45
Score Percentile
ce
40
and
ve 35
30
nment
e 25
tes 20
tion 4 Yrs 6 Yrs 8 Yrs 10 Yrs 12 Yrs
Age
ary
Lowest Income Quartile
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

296. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Average Percentile Rank on Anti-Social
Figure 54: Average percentile rank on anti-social behavior score, by
Behavior Score, by Income Quartile
income quartile
(The higher the score, the worse are behavioral problems)
ation 55
ent
50
45
Score Percentile
ce
40
and
ve 35
30
nment
e 25
tes 20
tion 4 Yrs 6 Yrs 8 Yrs 10 Yrs 12 Yrs
Age
ary
Lowest Income Quartile
Second Income Quartile
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

297. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Average Percentile Rank on Anti-Social
Figure 54: Average percentile rank on anti-social behavior score, by
Behavior Score, by Income Quartile
income quartile
(The higher the score, the worse are behavioral problems)
ation 55
ent
50
45
Score Percentile
ce
40
and
ve 35
30
nment
e 25
tes 20
tion 4 Yrs 6 Yrs 8 Yrs 10 Yrs 12 Yrs
Age
ary
Lowest Income Quartile
Second Income Quartile
Third Income Quartile
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

298. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Average Percentile Rank on Anti-Social
Figure 54: Average percentile rank on anti-social behavior score, by
Behavior Score, by Income Quartile
income quartile
(The higher the score, the worse are behavioral problems)
ation 55
ent
50
45
Score Percentile
ce
40
and
ve 35
30
nment
e 25
tes 20
tion 4 Yrs 6 Yrs 8 Yrs 10 Yrs 12 Yrs
Age
ary
Lowest Income Quartile
Second Income Quartile
Third Income Quartile
Highest Income Quartile
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

299. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
The early origins of gaps in cognitive and noncognitive skills
may suggest a genetic basis.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

300. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
The early origins of gaps in cognitive and noncognitive skills
may suggest a genetic basis.
Cognitive and noncognitive traits are not determined solely by
genetics but genetics plays a role.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

301. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
The early origins of gaps in cognitive and noncognitive skills
may suggest a genetic basis.
Cognitive and noncognitive traits are not determined solely by
genetics but genetics plays a role.
50% of variance in the traits is heritable.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

302. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
The early origins of gaps in cognitive and noncognitive skills
may suggest a genetic basis.
Cognitive and noncognitive traits are not determined solely by
genetics but genetics plays a role.
50% of variance in the traits is heritable.
Family investment and early childhood programs promote both
cognitive and noncognitive skills.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

303. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
IQ can be fostered in the very early years (0-3).
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

304. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
IQ can be fostered in the very early years (0-3).
IQ becomes rank stable by the early teenage years.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

305. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
IQ can be fostered in the very early years (0-3).
IQ becomes rank stable by the early teenage years.
Achievement (crystallized intelligence or knowledge) can be
acquired throughout ones lifetime but not raw “fluid”
intelligence.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

306. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
IQ can be fostered in the very early years (0-3).
IQ becomes rank stable by the early teenage years.
Achievement (crystallized intelligence or knowledge) can be
acquired throughout ones lifetime but not raw “fluid”
intelligence.
Personality skills are more malleable until later ages.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

307. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
IQ can be fostered in the very early years (0-3).
IQ becomes rank stable by the early teenage years.
Achievement (crystallized intelligence or knowledge) can be
acquired throughout ones lifetime but not raw “fluid”
intelligence.
Personality skills are more malleable until later ages.
Schools and early family environments (parenting practices)
serve to shape these skills.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

308. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 55: A Life Cycle Framework for Organizing Studies and
Integrating Evidence: The Technology of Skill Formation
Prenatal Parental Parental Prenatal
Fetal Traits PRENATAL
Environments Investment
Childhood traits
Perinatal Parental
(personality, cognition,
Environments BIRTH
and health)
Investment:
Parenting and
Preschool EARLY
Parental Traits
CHILDHOOD 0-3
Environments
Parenting and
Parental Preschool LATER
Environments Traits
CHILDHOOD 3-6
Parenting and
School
Adult Traits ADULTHOOD
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

309. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 56: Synergies among Investment and Traits
Cognition (early) Cognition (later)
Personality (early) Personality (later)
Investment (early) Investment (later)
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

310. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 56: Synergies among Investment and Traits
Cognition (early) Cognition (later)
Personality (early) Personality (later)
Investment (early) Investment (later)
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

311. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 56: Synergies among Investment and Traits
Cognition (early) Cognition (later)
Personality (early) Personality (later)
Investment (early) Investment (later)
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

312. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 56: Synergies among Investment and Traits
Cognition (early) Cognition (later)
Personality (early) Personality (later)
Investment (early) Investment (later)
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

313. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 56: Synergies among Investment and Traits
Cognition (early) Cognition (later)
Personality (early) Personality (later)
Investment (early) Investment (later)
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

314. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 56: Synergies among Investment and Traits
Cognition (early) Cognition (later)
Personality (early) Personality (later)
Investment (early) Investment (later)
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

315. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 56: Synergies among Investment and Traits
Cognition (early) Cognition (later)
Personality (early) Personality (later)
Investment (early) Investment (later)
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

316. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 56: Synergies among Investment and Traits
Cognition (early) Cognition (later)
Personality (early) Personality (later)
Investment (early) Investment (later)
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

317. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 56: Synergies among Investment and Traits
Cognition (early) Cognition (later)
Personality (early) Personality (later)
Investment (early) Investment (later)
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

318. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Cunha, Heckman and Schennach [2010] estimate these
relationships using longitudinal data on the development of
children with rich measures of parental investment and child
traits.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

319. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Cunha, Heckman and Schennach [2010] estimate these
relationships using longitudinal data on the development of
children with rich measures of parental investment and child
traits.
Persistence of traits becomes stronger as children become
older, for both cognitive and noncognitive capabilities.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

320. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Cunha, Heckman and Schennach [2010] estimate these
relationships using longitudinal data on the development of
children with rich measures of parental investment and child
traits.
Persistence of traits becomes stronger as children become
older, for both cognitive and noncognitive capabilities.
It is more difficult to compensate for the effects of adverse
environments on cognitive endowments at later ages than it is
at earlier ages.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

321. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Explains a large body of evidence on ineffective cognitive
remediation strategies for disadvantaged adolescents.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

322. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Explains a large body of evidence on ineffective cognitive
remediation strategies for disadvantaged adolescents.
Personality traits foster the development of cognition but not
vice versa.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

323. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Explains a large body of evidence on ineffective cognitive
remediation strategies for disadvantaged adolescents.
Personality traits foster the development of cognition but not
vice versa.
It is estimated to be equally easy to substitute at both stages
for personality skills over the life cycle (Cunha, Heckman and
Schennach [2010]).
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

324. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Explains a large body of evidence on ineffective cognitive
remediation strategies for disadvantaged adolescents.
Personality traits foster the development of cognition but not
vice versa.
It is estimated to be equally easy to substitute at both stages
for personality skills over the life cycle (Cunha, Heckman and
Schennach [2010]).
Overall, 16% of the variation in educational attainment is
explained by factors extracted from cognitive traits, 12% is due
to factors extracted from personality traits, and 15% is due to
factors extracted from measured parental investments.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

325. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Prioritizing Investment
Given the fluidity and malleability of traits while young.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

326. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Prioritizing Investment
Given the fluidity and malleability of traits while young.
And the difficulty in changing traits the older the person.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

327. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Prioritizing Investment
Given the fluidity and malleability of traits while young.
And the difficulty in changing traits the older the person.
We should invest relatively more in the early-preschool years.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

328. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Prioritizing Investment
Given the fluidity and malleability of traits while young.
And the difficulty in changing traits the older the person.
We should invest relatively more in the early-preschool years.
Builds the skill base that makes later-age investment more
productive.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

329. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Prioritizing Investment
Given the fluidity and malleability of traits while young.
And the difficulty in changing traits the older the person.
We should invest relatively more in the early-preschool years.
Builds the skill base that makes later-age investment more
productive.
Avoids costly and usually ineffective remediation.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

330. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 57: Returns to a unit cruzeiro invested
AGE
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

331. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 57: Returns to a unit cruzeiro invested
AGE
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

332. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 57: Returns to a unit cruzeiro invested
AGE
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

333. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 57: Returns to a unit cruzeiro invested
AGE
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

334. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Yet society invests relatively more in the later years.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

335. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Yet society invests relatively more in the later years.
Brasil used to be terrible in this regard, especially for
disadvantaged children.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

336. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Yet society invests relatively more in the later years.
Brasil used to be terrible in this regard, especially for
disadvantaged children.
Has shifted focus towards primary education.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

337. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Yet society invests relatively more in the later years.
Brasil used to be terrible in this regard, especially for
disadvantaged children.
Has shifted focus towards primary education.
Should shift further toward preschool years.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

338. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Costs of Neglecting Soft Skills: Lessons from the GED
Testing Program in the U.S.
Induces Dropping Out
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

339. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Costs of Neglecting Soft Skills: Lessons from the GED
Testing Program in the U.S.
Induces Dropping Out
Deceptive Statistics
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

340. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
The GED Induces Students to Drop Out
Loss of skills acquired in high school.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

341. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
The GED Induces Students to Drop Out
Loss of skills acquired in high school.
Delay in attaining a BA even for those who get it.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

342. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 58: Effect of Eliminating the GED
Source: Heckman et al. (2008).
a Note: The numbers in columns (1) and (2) are computed as fractions of the overall
population.
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343. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 59: Graduation Rate Before and After Implementing the GED
Program, CaliforniaRate Before andother States GED Program, California vs. All other States
Figure 11. Graduation vs. All After Implementing the
DiD Estimate
84% DiD Estimate DiD Estimate -2.6%
-3.1% -3.6%
82%
79.8%
80%
77.9% 77.8%
78% 76.2% 76.1%
75.5%
Graduation Rate
75.5%
76%
73.7% 73.0% 73.3%
74%
71.3% 70.6%
72%
70%
68%
66%
Overall Males Females
U.S. (Excl. CA) Pre-74 California Pre-74 U.S. (Excl. CA) Post-74 California Post-74
Notes: Authors' calculations based on NCES data. The graduation rate is the number of regular public and private high school diplomas issued over the 14 year old
population four years previous. Population totals for the U.S. were obtained from the U.S. Census Bureau. California population estimates were obtained from the
California Demographic Research Unit. Huber-White robust standard errors in parentheses. State 15 year old population are used as weights. Pre-period is defined as
1971-1973 and Post-period as 1975-1977.
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344. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Induces Dropping Out
Immature decision makers tempted by bad choices (Steinberg,
2009).
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

345. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Induces Dropping Out
Immature decision makers tempted by bad choices (Steinberg,
2009).
(a) Slowly developing prefrontal cortex.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

346. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Induces Dropping Out
Immature decision makers tempted by bad choices (Steinberg,
2009).
(a) Slowly developing prefrontal cortex.
(b) Youth need guidance.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

347. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Induces Dropping Out
Immature decision makers tempted by bad choices (Steinberg,
2009).
(a) Slowly developing prefrontal cortex.
(b) Youth need guidance.
(c) Giving them a GED option distorts lifetime choices.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

348. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 39: Proportion of Individuals in Each Age Group Scoring at or
Above the Mean for 26- to 30-Year-Olds on Indices ofPersonality Psychology and
Intellectual and
Psychosocial Maturity.
% scoring at mean adult level
55 Intellectual ability
Psychosocial maturity
45
35
25
15
5
10 − 11 12 − 13 14 − 15 16 − 17 18 − 21 22 − 25 26 − 30
Age
Source: From Steinberg, Cauffman, Woolard et al. (2009), submitted for publication.
27 Proportion of Individuals in Each Age Group Scoring at or Above the Mean for
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

349. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Costs of dropout and delay:
(a) Delay in attainment: 10% loss in present value for each year of
delay; delay is 2–3 years for those who attain the degree.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

350. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Costs of dropout and delay:
(a) Delay in attainment: 10% loss in present value for each year of
delay; delay is 2–3 years for those who attain the degree.
(b) Loss of skills acquired in high school from seat time.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

351. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Distorts Statistics
On Secondary School Dropout Rate
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

352. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Inflates the High School Graduation Rate
Effects of the GED on the Measured High School Graduation Rate
Reduction in
Graduation Rate If
GEDs Excluded
Panel A. Overall
All Races -7.4%
Whites -7.5%
Blacks -9.5%
Hispanics -5.7%
Panel B. Males
All Races -8.1%
Whites -8.7%
Blacks -10.3%
Hispanics -5.0%
Panel C. Females
All Races -6.6%
Whites -6.3%
Blacks -8.7%
Hispanics -6.5%
Notes: Authors’ calculations based on Census 2000 data (IPUMS). All estimates are weighted and race categories are
mutually exclusive. Calculations are for the 20-24 year old population. Total GED recipients are estimated from GED testing
service data. The recent immigrant category contains only those who are in the civilian non-institutional population and who
emigrated to the U.S. after 1990. Those still enrolled in high school are excluded from calculations. The percentage of GEDs
who are recent immigrants is estimated from CPS October data. Estimates of GEDs who are incarcerated or in the military
are obtained from BJS and DOD data, respectively. The bias calculations are computed sequentially so that those belonging
to multiple groups are only counted once. The order of the categories excluded matches the column order in each table.
Source: Heckman and LaFontaine (2010).
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

353. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Overall U.S. Graduation Rate by Race, Census IPUMS 1970-2000
Table III. Overall U.S. Graduation Rate by Race, Census IPUMS 1970-2000
Year of Birth Range 1946-1950 1951-1955 1956-1960 1961-1965 1966-1970 1971-1975 1976-1980
Panel A. Males and Females
All Races 80.8% 81.0% 78.6% 77.9% 79.4% 79.2% 77.1%
Whites 83.8% 84.2% 81.7% 81.6% 82.6% 82.8% 81.7%
Blacks 63.7% 69.1% 68.0% 63.9% 69.2% 68.9% 66.4%
Hispanics 58.6% 64.6% 65.2% 62.6% 64.9% 62.3% 62.9%
Hispanics Inc. Immigrants 56.6% 54.5% 56.8% 53.3% 54.7% 52.0% 53.9%
Panel B. Males
All Races 80.8% 80.6% 76.8% 76.2% 77.1% 77.3% 74.1%
Whites 84.0% 83.8% 80.2% 80.1% 80.8% 81.5% 79.1%
Blacks 60.9% 66.1% 62.8% 62.3% 64.6% 65.8% 61.0%
Hispanics 60.0% 64.0% 62.8% 61.0% 62.9% 61.4% 59.5%
Hispanics Inc. Immigrants 58.1% 54.0% 54.6% 49.6% 51.1% 48.2% 50.1%
Panel C. Females
All Races 80.7% 81.4% 80.5% 79.7% 80.3% 81.0% 80.3%
Whites 83.6% 84.5% 83.2% 83.3% 83.3% 84.1% 84.3%
Blacks 66.0% 71.5% 72.6% 66.2% 71.3% 74.5% 71.5%
Hispanics 57.5% 64.4% 66.6% 71.0% 68.1% 67.3% 66.7%
Hispanics Inc. Immigrants 55.4% 55.1% 59.0% 57.5% 58.6% 56.3% 58.5%
Note: Authors' calculations from Census 1970, 1980, 1990 and 2000 data. Census graduation rates are ages 20-24 or 25-29 depending on
cohort and do not include recent immigrants. Recent immigrants are those who entered the U.S. within the last ten years for 20-24 year olds
and within the last fifteen years for 25-29 year olds. GED recipients are estimated for each cohort using GEDTS data and are deducted
from the Census high school completer totals. 1981-1985 estimates from 2004 ACS data. Those who report never having enrolled in school
are excluded. All races calculations include Asians, Native Americans and other race groups not shown separately.
Source: Heckman and LaFontaine (2010).
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

354. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Distorts Statistics on Wage Differentials
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

355. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
The Role of the GED in Explaining Rising Educational Wage Gaps, Males
and Females, Ages 25-29, NLSY79
Annual Earnings Weekly Wage
Growth in College-HS Gap 18.40 12.82
(8.26) (6.04)
Growth in College-Dropout Gap 23.67 13.60
(27.30) (23.23)
Source: Heckman and LaFontaine (2010).
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

356. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Summary
1 Personality traits can be measured and have predictive power
on par with cognitive traits.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

357. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Summary
1 Personality traits can be measured and have predictive power
on par with cognitive traits.
2 There is a growing body of evidence that shows the causal
status of these traits—not just a correlation.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

358. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Summary
1 Personality traits can be measured and have predictive power
on par with cognitive traits.
2 There is a growing body of evidence that shows the causal
status of these traits—not just a correlation.
3 Both cognitive and personality traits can be enhanced by policy.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

359. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Summary
1 Personality traits can be measured and have predictive power
on par with cognitive traits.
2 There is a growing body of evidence that shows the causal
status of these traits—not just a correlation.
3 Both cognitive and personality traits can be enhanced by policy.
4 Cognitive traits less malleable after ages 10–12.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

360. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Summary
1 Personality traits can be measured and have predictive power
on par with cognitive traits.
2 There is a growing body of evidence that shows the causal
status of these traits—not just a correlation.
3 Both cognitive and personality traits can be enhanced by policy.
4 Cognitive traits less malleable after ages 10–12.
5 Personality traits are more malleable until later ages and are an
avenue of policy through the young adult years.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

361. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Summary
6 There is a dynamic to capability formation: capabilities cross
foster each other and are self-productive.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

362. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Summary
6 There is a dynamic to capability formation: capabilities cross
foster each other and are self-productive.
7 It is important to lay down the foundations early when children
are malleable.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

363. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Summary
6 There is a dynamic to capability formation: capabilities cross
foster each other and are self-productive.
7 It is important to lay down the foundations early when children
are malleable.
8 Early intervention more cost effective than later life
remediation.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

364. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Summary
6 There is a dynamic to capability formation: capabilities cross
foster each other and are self-productive.
7 It is important to lay down the foundations early when children
are malleable.
8 Early intervention more cost effective than later life
remediation.
9 There are real costs to society of ignoring soft skills—
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

365. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Summary
6 There is a dynamic to capability formation: capabilities cross
foster each other and are self-productive.
7 It is important to lay down the foundations early when children
are malleable.
8 Early intervention more cost effective than later life
remediation.
9 There are real costs to society of ignoring soft skills—
a produces perverse incentives for children and teachers;
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

366. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Summary
6 There is a dynamic to capability formation: capabilities cross
foster each other and are self-productive.
7 It is important to lay down the foundations early when children
are malleable.
8 Early intervention more cost effective than later life
remediation.
9 There are real costs to society of ignoring soft skills—
a produces perverse incentives for children and teachers;
b produces distorted statistics.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

367. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Appendix
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

368. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 56: Annual Income Differences - By Age - NLSY79 -
(Females, All Races)
(a) All Post-Secondary Education (b) No Post-Secondary Education
20000
20000
15000
15000
10000
10000
5000
5000
0
0
Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG
Age 20 to 24 Age 25 to 29 Age 30 to 34 Age 35 to 39 Age 20 to 24 Age 25 to 29 Age 30 to 34 Age 35 to 39
GED p<0.05(GED vs.HSG) S.E. GED p<0.05(GED vs.HSG) S.E.
High School p<0.05(GED/HSG vs.Dropout) High School p<0.05(GED/HSG vs.Dropout)
Source: National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979. Controls: “Raw” – age and region or
state of residence; “Abil” – AFQT adjusted for schooling at time of test; “BG” – mother’s
highest grade completed, urban status at age 14, family income in 1979, broken home status
in 1979, south at age 14 and AFQT. Regressions exclude those reporting earning more than
$300,000 or working more than 4,000 hours.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

369. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 57: Hourly Wage Differences - By Age - NLSY79 -
(Females, All Races)
(a) All Post-Secondary Education (b) No Post-Secondary Education
8
8
6
6
4
4
2
2
0
0
−2
−2
Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG
Age 20 to 24 Age 25 to 29 Age 30 to 34 Age 35 to 39 Age 20 to 24 Age 25 to 29 Age 30 to 34 Age 35 to 39
GED p<0.05(GED vs.HSG) S.E. GED p<0.05(GED vs.HSG) S.E.
High School p<0.05(GED/HSG vs.Dropout) High School p<0.05(GED/HSG vs.Dropout)
Source: National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979. Controls: “Raw” – age and region or
state of residence; “Abil” – AFQT adjusted for schooling at time of test; “BG” – mother’s
highest grade completed, urban status at age 14, family income in 1979, broken home status
in 1979, south at age 14 and AFQT. Regressions exclude those reporting earning more than
$300,000 or working more than 4,000 hours.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

370. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 58: Employment Differences - By Age - NLSY79 -
(Females, All Races)
(a) All Post-Secondary Education (b) No Post-Secondary Education
.4
.4
.3
.3
.2
.2
.1
.1
0
0
Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG
Age 20 to 24 Age 25 to 29 Age 30 to 34 Age 35 to 39 Age 20 to 24 Age 25 to 29 Age 30 to 34 Age 35 to 39
GED p<0.05(GED vs.HSG) S.E. GED p<0.05(GED vs.HSG) S.E.
High School p<0.05(GED/HSG vs.Dropout) High School p<0.05(GED/HSG vs.Dropout)
Source: National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979. Controls: “Raw” – age and region or
state of residence; “Abil” – AFQT adjusted for schooling at time of test; “BG” – mother’s
highest grade completed, urban status at age 14, family income in 1979, broken home status
in 1979, south at age 14 and AFQT. Regressions exclude those reporting earning more than
$300,000 or working more than 4,000 hours.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

371. Introduction Lessons History IQ Origins Modern Stability Appendix References
Figure 59: Hours Worked Differences - By Age - NLSY79 -
(Females, All Races)
(a) All Post-Secondary Education (b) No Post-Secondary Education
600
600
400
400
200
200
0
0
−200
−200
Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG Raw Abil BG
Age 20 to 24 Age 25 to 29 Age 30 to 34 Age 35 to 39 Age 20 to 24 Age 25 to 29 Age 30 to 34 Age 35 to 39
GED p<0.05(GED vs.HSG) S.E. GED p<0.05(GED vs.HSG) S.E.
High School p<0.05(GED/HSG vs.Dropout) High School p<0.05(GED/HSG vs.Dropout)
Source: National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979. Controls: “Raw” – age and region or
state of residence; “Abil” – AFQT adjusted for schooling at time of test; “BG” – mother’s
highest grade completed, urban status at age 14, family income in 1979, broken home status
in 1979, south at age 14 and AFQT. Regressions exclude those reporting earning more than
$300,000 or working more than 4,000 hours.
Heckman Hard Evidence on Soft Skills

372. Glossary of Psychology Terms
Definition (American Psychological Association 2007
Psychology Term Dictionary definition in quotes) Example Measures
“Any experience of feeling or emotion, ranging from
suffering to elation, from the simplest to the most complex Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS; (Watson, Clark, &
Affect
sensations of feeing, and from the most normal to the most Tellegen, 1988))
pathological emotional reactions.”
“The tendency to act in a cooperative, unselfish manner,
construed as one end of a dimension of individual
Big Five Agreeableness Agreeableness domain of any Big Five questionnaire.
differences (agreeableness vs. disagreeableness) in the Big
Five personality model.”
“The tendency to be organized, responsible, and
Big Five hardworking, construed as one end of a dimension of
Conscientiousness domain of any Big Five questionnaire
Conscientiousness individual differences (conscientiousness vs. lack of
direction) in the Big Five personality model.”
“An orientation of one’s interests and energies toward the
outer world of people and things rather than the inner world
of subjective experience. Extraversion is a broad personality
Big Five Extraversion Extraversion domain of any Big Five questionnaire.
trait and, like introversion, exists on a continuum of attitudes
and behaviors. Extroverts are relatively more outgoing,
gregarious, sociable, and openly expressive.”
Big Five Neuroticism “One of the dimensions of the…Big Five personality model
characterized by a chronic level of emotional instability and Neuroticism domain of any Big Five questionnaire.
(or Emotional Stability)
proneness to psychological distress.”
Big Five Openness to
Openness domain of any Big Five questionnaire; Typical Intellectual
Experience (or “A dimension of the Big Five personality model that refers Engagement (Goff & Ackerman, 1992)
Intellect) to individual differences in the tendency to be open to new
aesthetic, cultural, or intellectual experiences.”
“A model of the primary dimensions of individual
Big Five personality differences in personality. The dimensions are usually NEO-PI-R (Costa & McCrae, 1992);
model labeled extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, Big Five Inventory (John & Srivastava, 1999)
conscientiousness, and openness to experience, though the
labels vary somewhat among researchers.”
A specific mental ability. The tendency to reflect before
Cognitive reflection Cognitive Reflection Test (Frederick, 2005)
taking an intuitive answer as correct.
“Ability to produce original work, theories, techniques or
Creativity thoughts […] Related with imagination, expressiveness, Creative Personality Scale (Gough, 1979)
originality.”
“Forgoing immediate reward in order to obtain a larger or Preschool Delay of Gratification Task (Mischel & Metzner, 1962);
Delay of gratification
more desirable reward in the future” Choice Delay task (Duckworth & Seligman, 2005)

373. Glossary of Psychology Terms (Continued)
“Ability to process emotional information and use it in
reasoning and other cognitive activities. According to Mayer
and Salovey 1997 model it comprises four abilities: to
perceive and appraise emotions accurately, to access and
Emotional Intelligence MSCEIT (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2002)
evoke emotions when they facilitate cognition, to
comprehend emotional language and make use of emotional
information, and to regulate one’s own and others’ emotions
to promote growth and well-being”
“Higher level cognitive processes that organize and order
behavior, including logic and reasoning, abstract thinking,
problem solving, planning and carrying out and terminating
Innumerable neuropsychology tasks (e.g., go/no-go, Stroop,
Executive Function goal-directed behavior” Executive function generally refers
Continuous Performance Task); BRIEF rating scale (Donders, 2002)
to the broad array of functions attributed to the frontal
cortex; some psychologists include general intelligence in
this array whereas others do not.
Goal: “The end state toward which a human is striving”
Thematic Apperception Test (McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, &
Goals and Motives Lowell, 1976; McClelland & Koestner, 1992); Jackson Personality
Motive: “Physiological or psychological state of arousal that
Research Form (Jackson, 1974)
directs an organism’s energies toward a goal”
Intelligence: “The ability to derive information, learn from
experience, adapt to the environment, understand and
correctly utilize thought and reason. There are many
different definitions of intelligence, including an operational
one, proposed by Edwin Boring, that intelligence is what is
tested by intelligence tests. There is currently much debate,
as there has been in the past, over the exact nature of
intelligence.” Intelligence is used by most psychologists
synonymously with cognitive ability and mental ability.
g or general factor: “A hypothetical source of individual
Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), Weschler Adult
Intelligence, g, IQ differences in general ability, which represents individuals’
Intelligence Scale (WAIS), Raven Progressive Matrices
abilities to perceive relationships and to derive conclusions
from them. The general factor is said to be a basic ability
that underlies the performance of different varieties of
intellectual tasks, in contrast to specific abilities, which are
alleged each to be unique to a single task. Even theorists
who posit multiple mental abilities have often suggested that
a general factor may underlie these (correlated) mental
abilities”
IQ or intelligence quotient: “A standard measure of an
individual’s intelligence level based on psychological tests.”

374. Glossary of Psychology Terms (Continued)
Self-Directed Search (http://www.self-directed-
Interests “Attitude characterized by a need to give selective attention search.com/Holland.html), Strong Interest Inventory
to something that is significant to the individual”. (http://www.cpp.com/products/strong/index.asp)
“Perception of how much control individuals have over
Locus of control Internal-External Locus of Control Scale (Rotter, 1966)
conditions of their lives”.
“A personality test designed to classify individuals
according to their expressed choices between contrasting
alternatives in certain categories of traits. The categories,
Myers-Briggs Type based on Jungian typology, are extraversion-Introversion,
MBTI (http://www.cpp.com/products/mbti/index.asp)
Indicator (MBTI) Sensing-Intuition, Thinking-Feeling, and Judging-
Perceiving…The test has little credibility among research
psychologists but is widely used in educational counseling
and human resource management…”
“Patterns of behavior or thought processes that are abnormal
or maladaptive”. A broad category comprising dysfunctional
patterns of thought, feeling, or behavior. Most disorders are
included in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Beck Depression Inventory; Beck Anxiety Inventory; Minnesota
Psychopathology Disorders (DSM) manual published by the American Multiphasic Personality Inventory (omnibus measure of multiple
Psychiatric Association. Axis I disorders (e.g., depression) disorders); Child Behavior Checklist
are more intense and episodic/discreet, whereas Axis II
disorders (i.e., personality disorders) are more tonic and
enduring.
“An individual’s capacity to act effectively to bring about Generalized self-efficacy scales 1 . Children's Perceived Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy
desired results, especially as perceived by the individual.” Scales (Pastorelli et al., 2001).
Self-esteem “The degree to which the qualities and characteristics Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1989)
contained in one’s self concept are perceived to be positive”
“The tendency to search out and engage in thrilling activities
as a method of increasing stimulation and arousal. It takes
Sensation-Seeking Scale (M. Zuckerman, 1974; Marvin Zuckerman,
Sensation Seeking the form of engaging in highly stimulating activities
2006)
accompanied by a perception of danger.” A facet of either
Big Five Conscientiousness or Extraversion
A dimension of Big Five Extraversion that includes facets
Social dominance such as dominance, independent, and self-confidence, NEO-PI-R Assertiveness scale; 16PF Dominance Scale
especially in social settings.
“Abilities as measured by tests of an individual in areas of
spatial visualization, perceptual need, number facility, verbal
Specific mental abilities Subtest scores on IQ tests
comprehension, word fluency, memory, inductive reasoning
and so forth”
1
Bandura, originator of the concept "self-efficacy" emphasizes the importance of measuring domain-specific measures (Bandura, 1999).

375. Glossary of Psychology Terms (Continued)
A dimension of Big Five Extraversion that includes traits California Personality Inventory (CPI)Sociability Scale; NEO-PI-R
Social vitality
such as sociability, positive effect, and gregariousness. Gregariousness and Activity Scales
“Basic foundation of personality, usually assumed to be Children's Behavior Questionnaire
Temperament
biologically determined and present early in life[…] (http://www.bowdoin.edu/~sputnam/rothbart-temperament-
(childhood)
Includes characteristics such as energy level, emotional questionnaires/)
responsiveness, response tempo and willingness to explore”
Type A personality is “a personality pattern characterized by
chronic competitiveness, high levels of achievement
Type A/Type B motivation, and hostility.” Type B personality is “a Jenkins Activity Survey (Jenkins, Zyzanski, & Rosenman, 1971)
personality personality pattern characterized by low levels of
competitiveness and frustration and a relaxed, easy going
approach.”
“A moral, social or aesthetic principle accepted by an
Values in Action Inventory of Strengths (Peterson & Seligman,
Values individual (or society) as a guide to what is good, desirable
2004)
or important.”