The document outlines the course learning outcomes for a module in instructional technology, focusing on designing and using various media resources for effective student learning. It covers key topics including communication theories, types of human communication, and instructional media classification, while emphasizing the importance of employing technology in education. Additionally, the document details the approaches to educational technology and its significance in improving teaching and learning processes.

1. INSTRUCTIONAL
TECHNOLOGY
PGDT 425
1

2. Course learning outcomes
On successful completion of this module, students
will be able to:
• Design, produce and use different media resources
for student learning purposes.
• Use computer technology broadcast media
including plasma in delivering lessons and student
learning purposes
• Acquire the knowledge of communication theory
and history and impact of technology.
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3. Continued
• Demonstrate the ability to utilize an online
resource to present and respond to reviews of
credible articles pertaining to topics relevant
to the class.
• Demonstrate an understanding of the
differences between hardware and software
technologies and the proper application of
each.
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4. Major topic/contents of the course IT
Unit 1:
• Media in the instructional process
unit 2:
• Information communication technologies
unit 3:
• Instructional media and their classification
unit 4:
• Instructional media materials: their nature and use
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5. Unit One
1.0 MEDIA IN THE INSTRUCTIONAL PROCESS
Course sub topics are
Section one: Definition of Basic terms in Instructional
Technology
 What is Instruction ?
 Instructional media
 Instructional Technology
Section Two : Instruction as human communication
interaction
 What is communication ?
 Elements of communication
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6. Continued
Section 3:Types or Forms of human Communication
 Intra-personal communication
 Interpersonal communication
 Intergroup (mediated) communication
 Mass communication
Section 4 :Models of Communication in instructional
Process
 Teacher centered model of communication
 Medium centered model of communication
 Learner centered model of communication
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7. Unit One: learning out comes
On successful completion of this unit, students will
be able to:
 Define concept of Instruction, instruction media and
Technology and instructional technology
 Apply different communication models in the teaching
and learning process
 Explain different forms of communication in teaching
and learning process
 Design strategies for analyzing and discussing media
messages
 Evaluate the steps of systematic planning for the
effective use of media
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8. Unit 1: MEDIA IN THE INSTRUCTIONAL PROCESS
1.1. Definition of Basic Terms in Instructional Technology
1) Instruction
According to Heinich and others (1996), instruction
is the arrangement of information and environment
to facilitate learning.
By environment they mean not only classroom or
laboratory but also the methods, media and
equipment needed to convey information and
guide the learner’s study.
8

9.  Instruction refers to the arrangement of environment (media-
presented information) in an effort to maximize the probability that
learners interacting with this environment will learn what the
instruction intends.
 CONSTRUCTIVIST INSTRUCTION
Jonassen, Peck and Wilson (1999) include the following five categories
representing necessary components of meaningful learning
environments.
a) Opportunities for Authentic Learning
Instructional contexts are defined that reflect the manner in which
the outcomes to be learned are practiced in the real world.
9

10. .
b) Opportunities for Active Learning: The instructional context
enables the learners to explore and manipulate the components
and parameters of their environment, and observe the results of
their activities.
c) Opportunities for Intentional Learning
Pr0cess
The instruction provides the learners with an
opportunity to determine and set their own goals
and manage/regulate their own activities.
d) Opportunities for Constructive Learning:
Instructional strategies are facilitated that
encourage learners to articulate what they have
been learning and reflect upon the importance and
meaning of the outcomes in larger social and
intellectual contexts. 10

11. .
e) Opportunities for Cooperative Learning:
Instructional strategies are implemented that enable
learners to collaborate and socially negotiate their
meanings of the events and information presented within
the learning experience between themselves and other
learners, outside experts, and the teacher.
2.BEHAVIORIST PERSPECTIVE
B.F. Skinner, a proponent of Behaviorism, was interested in
voluntary behavior change rather than the reflective
behavior change demonstrated by Pavlov’s salivating dog.
11

12. Continued
Skinner demonstrated that behavior of an organism could be
shaped by reinforcing, rewarding, and the desired response to the
environment. Skinners reinforcement theory gave rise to what is
known programmed instruction, where structure subject content is
presented piece by piece and successful completion of a piece
serves as a reward to go to the next.
Programmed instruction has been defined as a method of giving
individualized instruction, in which the student is active and
proceeds at his own pace and is provided with immediate
knowledge of result. The physical presence of the teacher is not
essential in this strategy. 12

13. …
a) The Concrete-Abstract Continuum
 Human Experience is made up of our contact with real world
and the immediate mental abstraction that we keep in our
mind.
 In the process of gaining experience, the combination, the
physical contact with the real world and the mental
engagement in abstraction varies.
 When you gain experience by doing, the concretion (the
physical involvement) is greater than the abstraction (the
mental involvement).
 When you gain experience through reading and listening the
concretion goes to the minimum while abstraction goes to
the maximum.
13

14. .
 Experience refers to the knowledge or skill gained through
doing something or participating in a particular event or
situation.
 It can help gain means accumulated knowledge through the
feelings, thoughts, and sensations that arise during those events.
 Experience can be positive or negative, pleasurable or painful,
and vary greatly depending on the individual, the context, and
the particular circumstance
 Experience is the result of the interaction of the learner
and the learning environment. I,e personal social political
educational emotional sensorial cultural professional religious
14

15. We perceive the world by our senses; hence, experience is the
interaction of our senses and the learning environment which
is the medium. The following clarifies the type of experience
and the media and senses involved to create that experience.
 Listening=verbal symbols + hearing
 Reading=visual symbols + association
 Watching=pictures ,images + seeing +hearing
 Doing= realia + all senses
 2. The Medium
Medium is anything that carries message that includes
real objects, models, pictures, and drawings, verbal and
visual symbols.
15

16. Cont’d
 Medium determines learning by simplifying message. It
may also dictate learning if in appropriately used. Print
materials do not facilitate learning of emotions and
feelings. Such changes in behavior could be facilitated by
role plays, drams, small group discussions and other
audio visuals.
 3. Instructional Media
Instructional media is a name given to all media
materials, methods and techniques used to facilitate
the teaching and learning process. All media used in the
instructional process to present information is what is
known as instructional media.
16

17. Continued
 Instructional Media The word media comes from the Latin
“medius” which means “middle”. In general, all forms of media are
the intermediary for the spread, carry or convey something to the
recipient of messages and ideas. Media are generally defined as the
means by which information is conveyed from one place to
another.
 Instructional media is also called:
 Teaching aids
 Learning aids
 Teaching and learning aids
 Instructional media?
17

18. .
 For simplicity, you can use instructional media and
instructional materials interchangeably. Instructional materials
can be defined as those materials a learner learners from and
teachers teach by.
Instructional materials play a great role in facilitating
instructional process making learning simplified at every grade
level and type of subject. More specifically instructional
materials do have the following roles
18
 can replace an
accessible real objects
 Teach and entertain
 Relate theory with
practice
 Help students
remember longer
 Facilitate active learning
 Encourage creative thinking
 Help in student skill
development
 Overcome the limitations of
space and time
 simplify abstract concepts

19. Discussion
questions
What is
technology mean
to you?
What is
educational
technology and
instructional
technology ?
List and discuss
approaches of
educational
technology
Discuss the
importance of
educational
technology
19

20. 4.Educational technology and instructional technology
Educational technology is a more comprehensive and
broad-based concept.
Instructional technology is a subsystem of the main
system of educational technology. Education is a
comprehensive process and imparting of instruction is
one of the several means to achieve the goals of
education. As a result, the technology of instruction may
be regarded as a part and section of the whole
phenomenon of technology of education
20

21. educational technology is concerned with the
scientific use of the available human and non-
human resources for solving various problems of
education (including instruction) for optimizing
the results of the whole teaching- learning process.
21

22. What is Technology?
 The word technology has been attached to science with different
connotations or interpretations. Technology is the usage and
knowledge of tools, crafts, techniques, or systems, or methods of
organizations. It is both a product and a process. Instructional
materials are products of the application of technological processes.
 Machinery and equipment developed from the application of
scientific knowledge.
 “… tools, instruments, machines, systems, processes, and
environments developed by humans to live in and manage our
natural environment .” Definitions from Oxford Languages
 Technology refers to the tools, methods, and systems that are
developed to improve various areas of life such as communication,
transportation, medical care, entertainment, etc.
22

23. Cont’d
 Technology is not about machines, so, employing technology
in teaching would introduce better efficiency in the
instructional system as applied:
 Expands the possible modalities of learning.
 Adds some measure of reality to learning (concreteness)
 Increases the perceptual scope of the linear (immediacy).
 Motivates the learner by making learning easier more
interesting, and challenging.
 Provides teacher with more reflective time for improving
instruction.
 Makes record keeping and evaluation easier.
Technology encompasses two concepts, that is, technique
which means tools and materials, and logic which covers the
different approaches in solving a problem.
23

24. Cont;
 The term technology as applied to the process of
education includes ways of organizing events and
activities to achieve educational objectives as well
as the materials and equipment involved in the
process.
 A technology for learning is defined as specific teaching-
learning patterns that serve reliably as templates for
achieving demonstrably effective learning.
For example,
For individual instruction: programmed instruction
programmed tutoring.
For a small group instruction: cooperative learning,
games, simulations
For large group instruction: mastery learning,
programmed teaching
24

25. ..
. Instructional Technology
Instructional technology is then, a systemic and systematic
application of strategies and techniques derived from
behavioral, cognitive, and constructivist theories to the
solution of instructional problems. It combination of
instructional design and instructional development .
Instructional design, (which is the systematic development of
instructional specifications using learning and instructional
theory to ensure the quality of instruction)
25

26. .
These instructional designs, as Dr. Robert C.Branch,
(1996:44), are meant for “responding to the complexities
associated with the instructional episode by analyzing,
defining, testing and recommending strategies for
implementing instruction.”
instructional development (process of implementing the
design plans) are both important components of
instructional technology as part of educational technolog.
26

27. Cont’d
Instructional Design + Instructional Development =
Instructional Technology
In education, instructional technology is “the theory and
practice of design, development, utilization,
management, and evaluation of processes and resources
for learning,” according to the Association for Educational
Communications and Technology definitions and
Terminology Committee. Instructional technology is often
referred to as a
27

28. 5. Approachs of Educational Technology
 Approaches /components of educational technology
according to Lumsdaine (1964)
 1. Technology in Education or ET-I
 2. Technology of Education or ET-II
 3. Systems Approach or ET-II
1. Technology in Education or ET-I(hardware technology)
Technology in education refers to application of
engineering principles in the development of electro-
mechanical equipment used for instructional purposes.
This type of technology is known as ET-I or Hardware or
Media
Beginning with simple audio-visual aids to the most
sophisticated electronic gadgets, they all fall in this type of
ET 28

29. Continued
 The hardware technology of education implies the use of
mechanical materials and equipment in the area of education.
In this sense, audio-visual aids like charts, models, filmstrips,
slides, audio cassettes and sophisticated equipment and
gadgets like films, projectors, radio, tape recorder, record
player, television, video teaching machines and computers, etc.
come under the category of hardware.
2.Technology of education or ET-II:
ET II is also a process and a way of thinking about a problem.
Substantial contribution of social sciences, specifically principles
of psychology, operant conditioning of Skinner, etc. led to the
development of ET. Technology of education refers to the
detailed application of psychology of learning to practical
teaching problems.
29

30. .
 The emphasis is on the scientific way of teaching-designing,
structuring and implementing teaching to achieve well
defined objectives. Consequently a greater diversity of
strategies is being used to meet diverse needs and learning
styles of students. This type of technology is also known as
ET-II or software or programmed instruction
 Technology of education suggests us the best way to use
those media to accomplish certain specific objectives.The
software approach or software technology of education owes
its origin to the behavioral sciences and their applied aspects
concerned with the psychology of learning.
 Called behavioral technology /software technology /
30

31. 3.System approach or ET-III
A system is defined as a collection of related
components that interact to perform a task in order to
accomplish a goal.
A system may not work very well, but it is nevertheless a
system. The point of systems analysis and design is to
ascertain how a system works and then take steps to make
it be.
Computer based information system consists of hardware,
software, people, procedures, and data, as well as
communication setups. These works together to provide
people with information for running the organization
better.
31

32. .
 System approach being scientific in its base helps to study
the problems of educational administration and management
in a more scientific, more economic and more effective way.
It also helps in formulating scientific instructional outline.
 It is a systematic application of educational technology to
the whole system of education, and considers the process of
education from entry behavior to the terminal behavior as
one whole.
 It incorporates all aspects and all parts of the whole system
of education, such as pupils, teachers, curriculum, content,
instructional materials, instructional strategy, physical
environment and the evaluation of the best people at the best
time and at the best price.
32

33. .
 The system approach to the design and analysis of teaching/training
situations is the basis of the great majority of modern educational
technology related developments.
 This type of technology is called ET-III or operating Systems or
Management technology. The concept refers to a dynamic order of
parts and process in mutual interaction
An organization may feel the need for a system due to a variety of
reasons. Some examples are:
 A single individual who believes that something badly needs
changing is all it takes to get the project rolling.
 An employee may influence a supervisor.
 A customer or supplier may get the attention of someone in higher
management.
 Top management may decide independently to take a look at a
system that looks inefficient.
 A steering committee may be formed to decide which of many
possible projects should be worked on 33

34. 6. SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOG
1. In revitalizing and reorienting existing resources :
i) To capitalize on the existence of a large number of
institutions and facilities, nationwide networks and trained,
professional and creative manpower in the area of ET.
ii) ii) To recognize the potential of ICT and the internet and
promote universal access.
2. In systematic reforms:
i) To ensure that technology is used for equitable and
democratic manner to enhance education of all.
ii) ii) To help to shift focus from fixed curricula to a flexible
one. iii) to enhance open education
34

35. 7. Scope of Educational Technology
3. In refreshing skills of in-service teachers:
I. i) To help to create a system of lifelong professional
development and support in the area of education.
II. ii) To support development and nurture teachers for their
professional development.
4. In Pre-service teacher education:
I. i) To introduce teachers to flexible models of reaching
curriculum goals.
II. ii) To introduce the use of media and technology in the
teaching learning process of teachers.
III. iii) To enable trainee teachers to access sources of
knowledge to create knowledge
35

36. 7. Scope of Educational Technology
5. Improving quality of school education:
 i) To enable students to develop explanatory reasoning and
higher order skills.
 ii) To enable students to access sources of knowledge and
interpret them and create knowledge rather than be passive
learners.
 iii) To promote flexible curriculum and flexible models of
evaluation.
6. In research:
 i) To find out new initiatives for improvement
 ii) To examine the possibilities of mobile technologies for
learning purposes.
 iii) To optimize learning paths for learners with different
learning styles coming from a variety of social backgrounds 36

37. 8. IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
 The importance of educational technology is to promote the
efficiency of education by improving the quality of teaching, of
educational administration and of educational research. So,
educational technology is important for the following reasons
1. For effective instruction: Research in instructional media reveals
that motivated students can learn a great deal from any of the
media.ET can improve the effectiveness of instruction.
2. For facilitating individual differences: ET facilitates individual
students to learn according to their requirement and pace of
learning. Individual students interact with instructional materials
and pursue their learning tasks by themselves at their own arte of
learning and are presented with opportunities to obtain information
about their progress. Thus ET individualizes instruction.
37

38. Continued
3. For providing equal educational opportunities: ET is
needed to provide equal educational opportunities to all. For
instance educational radio and television programmes being
broadcasted all over the country caters to all and unlimited
number of students without discrimination. Programmed
instructions tests can be studied by any student remote or under
developed or employed or drop out etc.
4. For preservation of knowledge: Modern electronic gadgets
provide tremendous capabilities t preserve knowledge and
information for future use including print medium. Bulk of
information can be preserved electromechanically in the form of
audio-video programmes, computer software, video discs etc.
even this very lesson is a part of ET
38

39. ..
5. For transmission of knowledge: Use of modern medial in
education can reach and teach students in any part of the globe.
Almost the entire country can be covered simultaneously through
radio or television networking system.
Communication satellites have added to the effectiveness and
efficacy of communication at a distance and made it possible to
link more than one location and more than one group of students
through two way talk back system.
6. For imparting quality education: Because of advance
planning and involvement of experts available in the area of
study, mediated-teaching imparts quality education to unlimited
number of students. Mediated education enables the use of the
best teacher available in the area.
39

40. .
7. For educational planning: Educational technology helps in
overall social planning and is concerned with qualitative and
quantitative design of a community’s entire education system. A
systematic approach to teaching-learning includes specification of
objectives designing and structuring content, determining evaluation
techniques, etc.
8. For improving learning: It is needed to facilitate human learning
through systematic identification, development, organization and
utilization of a full range of learning resources and through the
management of these resources.
9. For pre-service and in-service teacher education: Educational
technology is need to make teacher training more effective via various
new approaches, viz., microteaching, simulated teaching, models of
teaching and interaction analysis- all for improving classroom
interaction, producing effective teachers and helping teachers to
become better teachers
40

41. 9. The goal of Technology in education
 The goal of Technology in education is to develop in students:
skills of analysis and problem-solving;
skills of information processing and computing;
an understanding of the role of science and technology in
society with scientific and technological skills;
an appreciation and understanding of, and concern for,
balanced development and global environment; and
a capacity to exercise judgment in matters of morality,
ethics ,quality, accessibility, efficiency
41

42. Cont’d
1.2. Instruction as Human Communication Interaction
 The word communication originates from the Latin word
“communis”, which means common. Communication,
therefore, is an act by which a person shares knowledge,
feelings, ideas and information, in ways such that each
gains a common understanding of the meaning, intent and
use of the message.
 Communication:-
“ is a process by which two or more people exchange
ideas, facts, feelings or impressions in ways that each
gains a common understanding of the message. In
essence, it is the act of getting a sender and a receiver
turned together for a particular message or series of
message”. 42

43. Cont’d
 communication is defined as the “a means of exchanging
messages or an act of giving information and
receiving a response”.
 For a message to be part of a communication there has to
be a sender (source) and also a person who receives the
message (receiver)-who actually hears it and responds to
it.
 If it is just a noise which is ignored, then it has not been
received. When we communicate, we have to consider how
much our audience will understand or perceive. First if the
ideas are too difficult, then there will be little
comprehension.
43

44.  Verbal and non-verbal communication
Communication can be verbal or non-verbal. In verbal
communication, we use words/language in the written or
spoken form. Non-verbal communication is often given
secondary importance, but it is much more important than
verbal communication. It includes a series of gestures, such
as facial expression, signs, body movement, eye contact,
tone of voice, and sounds.
People can receive valuable information through non-verbal cues
such as:
 Eye contact
 Facial expression
 Head nodding or shaking
 Playing with objects
 Making sounds/Signs
 Touch
 Taste
44

45. Cont’d
Communication and Instruction
 Both communication and instruction involve Sharing,
transferring and construction of information.
Instruction and communication are inseparable processes.
There cannot be instruction that do not involve
communication.
Their differences could be that of the purpose or
intention. The purpose of instruction is educational,
but there will also be communication in which its
intention is not educational .
45

46. Cont’d
Elements of the Communication Process
 Message-A piece of information spoken or
written, to be passed from one person to
another. It is the subject matter of
communication. It may involve any fact, idea,
opinion, figure, feeling, attitude, or course
of action including information.
 Sender/Transmitter-He is the sender of
message or communicator or spreader, a
person who transmits message.
 Encoding(Communication Symbol)-The
process of conversion of the subject matter
into symbols is called as encoding. 46

47. .
 Communication Channel-Later the transmitter has to select
channel for sending the information. Communication channel
means the medium or media through which message passes. The
words, symbols, or signs selected should be transmitted to the
receiver or listener through certain channel or medium.
 Receiver-There is always a receiver in the process of
communication. Receiver is the person to whom the message is
meant for the sender. A person who receives the message is called
receiver.
 Decoding-Decoding is the process of translation of an encoded
message into ordinary understandable language. Receiver
converts the symbols, words or signs received from the sender to
get meaning of the message.
47

48. Cont’d
 Acting-According to the understanding of the message,
the receiver acts or implements the message.
 Feedback-The sending back of the knowledge about the
message to the transmitter is known as feedback.
1.3. Types or Forms of Human Communication
I. Intra-personal Communication
II. Interpersonal Communication
III. Intergroup (Mediated)
IV. Mass Communication
I. Intra-Personal Communication-
Is Communication transaction that takes place within one
individual. It is talking to oneself. This type of
communication is intrinsic or reflective.
48

49. …………
II. Interpersonal Communication
Interpersonal communication is a type of communication where
there is one-to-one interaction or interaction among a small
group. This is the most commonly used form of
communication.
Interpersonal communication has the following
characteristics:
 The interaction takes place in a face-to-face situation;
 Separate individual act as source (producer/sender) and
receiver of information;
 Both source and receiver share the same social and physical
environment;
 There is a possibility of getting immediate response or feedback;
49

50. . There is a possibility of using all senses to collect
information;
 Source and receiver share not only words but also
feelings, and emotion;
 It gives the sense of togetherness and is considered
as humane because it gives warmth and
belongingness to participants.
Purposes of Interpersonal Communication
The four commonly accepted informative purpose of
interpersonal Communication,
entertainment purpose,
persuasive,
sale/advertisement purpose and
educative purpose of interpersonal communication. 50

51.  III. Mediated Communication
 Mediated communication also called media
communication is communication at a distance use some
means that creates the connection between the source and the
receiver.
 Mediated communication is basically interpersonal
communication where identified source communicates with
identified receiver. Some devices allow immediate feedback
like telephone.
 Major differences with interpersonal communication are
involvement of limited sense organs (hearing or seeing and
rarely both); lack of proximity (nearness); and utilization of
devices to cover distance in media communication. The lack
of proximity (nearness) in communication diminishes the
warmth of human company.
51

52. Cont’d
IV. Mass Communication
 Mass communication is the process of creating shared
meaning between the mass media and their audiences.
 Mass communication is a type of communication where a large
body (millions of people) of people is addressed.
1.4. model of communication
52

53. 1.4. Models of Communication in the Instructional Process
 Though there are different varieties of model of
communication from different perspectives, in the context
of teaching and learning process we do have three major
models of communication namely:
1. The teacher centered model of communication
2. The medium centered model of communication
3. The learner centered model of communication
i) The Teacher centered model of communication
 This model assumes the teacher as both the source and
medium of communication. T
 his is a one way communication that makes students passive
receivers of knowledge from their teachers. This model has its
root from the Aristotelian source-centered model of
communication.
53

54. …….
ii)The medium centered model of communication.
The medium is the method that carries the
message. Let us assume you are assigned to teach
your surrounding community about the harmful
effects of female genital mutilation. Which of the
following methods do you think can best help in
improving the practice of the community?
 Oral lecture
 Discussion
 Video assisted learning
 Brochures
 Charts
 Role play 54

55. ….
iii) The learner centered model of communication
 This type of communication values the role of students
needs, background experience and aspirations in the
process of teaching-learning which is a process of
communication.
 Learner centered communication is against the one way
communication that makes students passive receivers of
knowledge from their teachers.
 In this model of communication it is assumed that
effective learning is the result of active participation of the
learner in the teaching-learning process.
55

56. Cont’d
Activity
1. Please, list the basic elements of communication
process, and discuss the major ones you think are as
applied to classroom communication.
2. What are the drawbacks of each of the models of
communication we have discussed above?
3. of communication barriers in classroom, and classify
into three major communication barriers (judgmental
attitude, know it all attitude and unconcerned
attitude).
4. What is technology? Discuss the advantages and
disadvantages of technology in education.
56

57. UNIT TWO
INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES
2. 1: Electronic Communication Technologies
57

58. .1. Instructional Radio
As a teacher you will most likely think of using radio
either as a teaching medium or a teaching companion.
Or you will find a radio in the school which the head
of department will tell you it provides useful
information for your learners. Many schools globally
have a number of broadcasts to schools program.
There are a number of reasons why national broadcast
stations would opt to have these programs. Can you
think of some? One reason is that historically many
people usually think of a radio as a good teaching
medium.
58

59. Cont’d
 Strengths of radio:
 Program origination and transmission is done for you free.
This allows you to spend the saved preparation time to do
other things for your class e.g. preparing visuals and
assessments.
 Very little power required to power radio sets which allows
for affordable direct current (DC) batteries to bring radio to
your class.
 The receiving medium is relatively affordable by most
families and most of the learners have regular experience
listening to the radio. This reduces the possibility of
distraction caused by the novelty of the medium.
 The infusion of media professionalism and the best teachers
in production presents a very rich experience for both
learners and teachers.
59

60. Cont’d
What purpose does the radio serve in the
teaching/learning process?
 the recorded sounds might help in fixing the concept in
the minds of your learners.
 Also the image might help in cognitive loading.
60

61. Cont’d
PROBLEMS IN USING RADIO INSTRUCTION
 Radio broadcasting goes by very tight scheduling. That is, a particular
program a particular program comes on air at specific day and time. This
means that you’re your class must be there to listen or else that miss out.
Radio station schedule do not follow school time-tables. It therefore
becomes difficult to schedule a school lesson with the radio broadcast
schedule.
 At the pedagogical level there are problems too. Radio is transitory, that is,
what has passed cannot be recalled for feedback purposes. This poses two
problems. First, the teacher must prepare to reinforce the radio lesson.
Second is the problem of attention span. The human mind cannot retain
much of listened to content.
 Lack of interactivity. You cannot interrupt a program to receive comments,
questions, make clarifications or give guidance which can become a source
of frustration.
 If the signal is weak due to poor infrastructure, there is frustration.
61

62. Cont’d
 How can we use broadcasts for your teaching?
1.Record the programs and use them at an appropriate
time.
2. Record, edit and then use in your class.
This allows us to add learners” responses so that they
can compare their responses with the program
3.plan teaching using the broadcast program as a
resource.
In this use we can drill our learners and then play the
recording to show the right response or pronunciation.
62

63. Cont…
2. Audio Cassettes
 It is a cassette that used to record radio instructional
activities
 A cassette player has a stop/start facility that helps to stop
the cassette, go over an exercise or experiment, and restart
to go on or get feedback. This means that an audio cassette
can engage learners in exercise thus making the learning
interactive.
 It can be employed for DirectTeaching.
 Alternatively you as a teacher can teach your lesson and
intersperse it with short recordings to enhance your
teaching.
63

64. Cont’d
 These can, for example, contain animal sounds for
biology, excursions for geography, and stream engines
for physics or rhythm either for music or mathematics.
This function is called Enrichment. By listening to
these recordings your learners gain on recall of taught
content or concepts.
3.Television as a teaching/learning medium
 Telvision is one of the electronic media that helps to
present educational activities in the form of audio- visual
64

65. Cont…
Strengths of Television:
 Cost of program production and transmission can be very
expensive depending on the origination, transmission and
royalties. When provided by the national broadcast system all
these costs are paid for you.
 Television combines both audio and visuals to describe and
illustrate complex concepts.
 It is an effective way to take learners to new environments that
would not have been accessible any other way e.g. showing the
magnitude and magnificence of the, Hashengie River, Tekeze River
and Mount Soloda in our country.
 It is good at demonstration e.g. technical drawings or dissections.
 The infusion of media professionalism and educational pedagogy
brings the best experiences to both learners and teachers.
 It spurs teachers to prepare better, seek more information and
improve their teaching as they try to emulate TV teachers.
65

66. Cont’d
Weaknesses:
 The receiving equipment is expensive and sometimes requires heavy
investment in operating power and infrastructure such as receiving
antennae or dishes.
 The medium is not that familiar to most homes in Ethiopia and
therefore novelty might distract learners from the content of the
broadcast.
 The attempt to cater for the learning of the average learner might
affect the needs of learners with special needs e.g. slow learners,
physical impairments and so on. The infusion of media
professionalism an educational pedagogy might affect the needs of
learners with special needs e.g. slow learners, physical impairments
and so on.
 The infusion of media professionalism and educational pedagogy
might make learners to start looking down at their teachers. Also
unqualified teachers might start exhibiting inferiority complex with
unpleasant outcomes for both the school community and media.
66

67. Cont’d
4. Closed Circuit Television (CCTV)
 This is a television system that is installed by an institution
for its internal use.
 You may not have come across this in schools but you have
definitely seen video cameras placed at strategic points in a
bank or supermarket.
 The technology here is simple in that this can be
accomplished with one camera but there should be a good
technician to make sure that what is recorded is the students
actions, and not a result of shaky hands or other body
movements and attention (or the lack of it) by the camera-
man.
67

68. cont…
5. Video for teaching
 This is a recorded video used for teaching a certain content.
 This involves taking an existing program and introducing pauses for
discussions or explanations.
 You can achieve this by :
a) re-recording on another tape and introducing pause gaps as cues for
stops.
b) use the timer in-case you want to jump certain parts of the program
taken to ensure accurate stops to avoid distractions that might be
caused. You must be caused by unsure fast-forward and reverse
maneuvers.
 There are a number of ways in which you can use video to teach or
accompany you teach the class. Some are:
68

69. cont…
 a) Using a video program designed for teaching:
 This involves taking an existing program and introducing
pauses for discussions or explanations. You can achieve this
by re-recording on another tape and introducing pause gaps
as cues for stops.
b) Using multi-videotapes
 Sometimes there may be no suitable teaching video available.
But you have a number of videotapes that have some sections
that might communicate your content in a more powerful
way. One way is to pick those clips and copy them into one
tape with adequate gaps for stops as you teach or discuss with
your learners.
 If you do not have a copier, the best way is to make those parts
using the play-back timer and then stack them in the order
you want to use them. Once again care must be taken to avoid
distractions that might be caused by incompetent operations.
69

70. cont’d
c)Producing your own material
 This comes in if you train yourself to be a good amateur video
producer. Video cameras have become quite cheap (provided
you do not go for the newest, state of the art) and
developments in communication technology allow for
camera to carry programs which tell you what to or
automatically anticipate your needs at any particular
situation like auto-focus and lighting. This allows you to
shoot clips, flora and fauna, airplanes, the list is endless.
Remember as a teacher you are likely to have more
excursions and opportunities for travel than your learners.
The clips can be put together for your lessons.
70

71. Cont’d
d) Collaboration in producing video teaching materials:
 This is achieved by requesting other teachers who might have
familiar interests as you in shooting amateur video. The
materials produced can transverse your collective disciplines
leading to a good repository. You can go further and request
your learners to contribute in shooting and editing in a media
club. This can lead to the career interest in the media for some
of your learners. But you must be committed and focused.
6. Computers
Strengths of Computers
 Today the computer can be used to assist the teacher to teach
more effectively. You can use the graphic capacity to simulate
situations and circumstances that would have been impossible in
a traditional lecture or exposition. Computers today have
microphones for recording voice for voice-over effects.
71

72. Cont…
 The internet makes possible for student and teachers to view
and download teaching material from the numerous sites
around the world.
 The computer allows flexibility of learning. Once the content
has been placed on the platform the learners chose the time
when to visit the site. They work on the set tasks and receive
feedback at the click of a button.
 Computers are interactive. This is because unlike the radio or
television the computer is not a mass medium. It is a highly
individualized technology and its content is prepared for
consumption by individuals, hence, the flexibility and
interactivity.
72

73. Cont’d
Limitations of computers:
 Computer networks are costly to develop. It can cost more
than a million dollars to create a school backbone to allow
internal connectivity. The infrastructure to move out of the
school is prohibitive.
 The rapid change in technology might render your newly
installed system obsolete before you even utilize it.
 The technology/pedagogy gap, where the onset of the
technology has not resulted in teacher preparation for the use
and operation of the technology as a teaching tool, has made
cam is about one third of the earth and this area of computer
training a function of commercialism thus looking out its
advantages from those who could best benefit from it.
73

74. 2.2. Media Literacy
Defining Media Literacy
 Media literacy takes on slightly different meanings depending on the
orientation of the person or organization dong the definition. In a special issue
of journal of Communication dedicated to media literacy, media researcher,
Alan Rubin cited these definitions of media literacy.

From the National Leadership Conference on Media literature:
Media literacy is the ability access, analyze, evaluate, and communicate
messages (1998, p.3).
 From media scholar Paul Messaris:
Media literacy is knowledge about how media function society (1998, p.3).

From mass communication researchers Justin Lewis and SutJhally:
 Media literacy is understanding cultural, economic, political and technological
constraints on
 the creation, production, and transmission of message (1998, p.3).
74

75. Cont’d
Rubin (cited in Baran, 2002) went on to provide his own definition
of media literacy:
 Media literacy, then, is about understanding the sources and
technologies of communication, the codes that are used, the
messages that are produced,and the selection, interpretation, and
impact of those messages. (p.51)
The National Communication Association (1996), a professional
scholarly organization composed largely of university academics,
offers this description of media literacy:
 Being a critical and reflective consumer of communication
requires an understanding of how words, images, graphics, and
sounds work together in ways that are both subtle and profound.
Mass media such as radio, television, and film and electronic
media such the telephone, the internet, and computer conferencing
influence the way meanings are created, communications need to
be aware of the distinctive characteristics of each medium.
75

76. Cont’d
 From the definitions most conceptualizations (of media
literacy) include the following elements:
 media are constructed and construct reality;
 media have commercial implications;
 media have ideological and political implications;
 form and content are related in each medium, each of
which has a unique aesthetic, codes and conversions; and
 receivers negotiate meaning in media.
76

77. cont…
Characteristics of media literacy
Media scholar Art Silverblatt (1995) and Stanley&Baran (2002)
identified the following fundamental characteristics of media
literacy.
 An awareness of the impact of media
 An understanding of the process of mass communication
 Strategies for analyzing and discussing media messages
 An understanding of media content as a text that provides
insight into our culture and our livesThe ability to enjoy,
understand, and appreciate media content
 An understanding of the ethical and moral obligations of
media practitioners. development of appropriate and effective
production skills.
77

78. Cont’d
Media literacy skills
 Media literate consumption, however, requires a number of
specific skills:
 The ability and willingness to make an effort to understand
content
 An understanding of and respect for the power of media
messages
 The ability to distinguish emotional from reasoned reactions
when responding to content and to act accordingly.
 Development of heightened expectations of media content
 A knowledge of genre conventions and the ability to
recognize when they are being mixed
 The ability to think critically about media messages, no
matter how credible their sources.
 Knowledge of the internal language of various media and
the ability to understand its effects, no matter how complex.
78

79. cont…
2.3. Distance Education
 Distance education takes place when a teacher and students are
separated by physical distance, and technology (i.e. voice, video,
data, and print), often in concert with face-to-face
communication, is used to bridge the instructional gap.
Ways of Delivery of Distance Education
 1)Voice-instructional audio tools include the interactive
technologies of telephone, audio conferencing, and short-wave
radio. Passive (i.e., one-way) audio tools include tapes and radio.
 2) Video- instructional video tools include still images such as
slides, pre-produced moving images (i.e., film, videotape), and
real-time moving images combined with audio conferencing (one-
way or two-way video with two-way audio).
 3) Data-computers send and receive information electronically.
For this reason, the term data is used to describe this broad
category of instructional tools. Computer applications for distance
education are varied and include:
79

80. ..
 Computer-assisted instruction (CAI)-uses the computer as a self-
contained teaching machine to present individual lessons.
 Computer managed instruction (CMI)- uses the computer to
organize instruction and track student records and progress. The
instruction itself need not be delivered via a computer, although
CAI is often combined with CMI.
 Computer-mediated education (CME)- describes computer
application that facilitate the delivery of instruction. Example
includes electronic mail, fax, real-time computer conferencing, and
the World-Wide Web (WWW) application.
 Print- is a foundational element of distance education programs
and the basis from which all other delivery systems have evolved.
Various print formats are available including: textbooks, study
guides, workbooks, course syllabi, and case studies. The first
distance-delivered courses were offered by correspondence study,
with print materials sent and returned to students by mail. While
technological developments have added to the repertoire of tools
available to the distance educator, print continues to be a
significant component of all distance education programs.
80

81. Cont’d
Advantages of Print Materials
 Spontaneous-print materials can be used in any setting
without the need for sophisticated presentation
equipment.
 Instructionally transparent- the medium of delivery should
enhance, not complete with, the content for the learner’s
attention. If the student reads well, the print medium is the
most transparent instructional medium of all.
 Non-threatening- reading is second nature to most
students. As a result, they are easily able to focus on the
content, without becoming mesmerized or frustrated by
the process of reading itself.
81

82. Cont’d
Learner Activity
 How did the printing press make possible mass
communication?
 Discuss media literacy, what are its components?
 Consider the changes brought about by the shift from
oral to literate cultures. How similar or different do you
think the changes will be as we move to a more fully
computer literate culture?
 What are the advantages and disadvantages of electronic
media in educational settings?
 What type of technology is best for distance education?

82

83. Unit 3: Instructional Media and Their classification
3.1.Types of Instructional Media
 Instructional materials can be broadly classified as
three dimensional that includes real objects and their
model; two dimensional including diagrams, pictures,
charts, graphs and maps; audio Visual media that
includes educational radio broadcast and TV; and
display boards including chalk board and cloth board.
83

84. Cont…
 Three Dimensional Media
a) Real objects
 Real objects are real things which have been removed from their
natural settings and brought to school settings or to be accessed
while in their natural settings for instructional purposes. Locally
manufactured products, coins, plants or their parts, insects,
different body parts of dead animals are some of the examples of
real objects which can be used effectively in teaching various
subjects.
 Real objects help students to learn by involving more
than one sense organ so that they can easily
understand and remember longer. What do you think
is the difference teaching and learning the different
parts a flower using a chart and using the real flower?
84

85. Cont’d
 There are some real objects that can be brought to
classroom to facilitate the teaching and learning. Tin can
grown plant, parts of plants, conserved insects and animals
and different manufactured products can be examples that
can be brought to classrooms to facilitate the teaching and
learning. It’s also possible to access real objects by going to
their natural settings. This can be done by a field trip.
b) Models
 There are times where we cannot bring or access the real
object. In this case we may use the representation of the
real object. This representative of the real object is called a
model. Models are three dimensional objects. They reduce
large objects to a size convenient for observation of the
fundamental parts of the real object. 85

86. cont…
Two Dimentional Medias
c) Pictures and charts
 Pictures and Charts are very useful instructional
resources. Pictures most commonly used in instruction
can be photographs, your own drawings, and
illustrations. Pictures are said to be one of the oldest,
least expensive and most universally available forms of
instructional resource that can facilitate teaching and
learning.
86

87. Maps
 Maps are reduced, simplified and plain representation
of the Earth’s surface. They are used to show the
distribution of climate, population, vegetation, land
forms etc. Teachers and students can make maps from
the locally available materials and use them in the
teaching learning process.
 Maps are graphic instructional materials that facilitate
learning by showing students how to quickly and
effectively locate different place and natural phenomena
of the world. Maps are designed to the location of
geographical ‘’reality’’. Besides to this they can show
relationships, links, what is happening where, history,
geology, as well as getting from on place to another.
87

88. Audio media
 Audio media offer wide range of opportunities for
group or Individual use. They can be used to deliver
instruction involving verbal information, and also for
guiding the learning of intellectual and motor skills
Principles' of The use of Media and Technology
 Choose the media that best suits your instructional
objectives.
 Use a variety of tools, PowerPoint, mpeg/movie films,
internet, and, yes the chalkboard not only keeps
students’ interest but also responds to the needs of
those who receive information in different ways.
 Check out the media or technology before class starts
to be sure it is working properly.
88

89. Classification of Media Materials on the basis of
Degree of Realism
 Hoban, Hoban (Jr.) and Zissman (1937) classified
media materials on basis of their degree of realism--
how near or far the media represents the reality.
 Words, diagrams, maps, flat picture and slides are
abstract while
 stereographs, films, models, objects and total situation
are concrete ones.
89

90. THE CONE OF EXPERIENCE
 Edgar Dale (1969) took the same degree of realism
construct and added Jrome Bruner’s three major ways
of gaining experience to and produced the
classification he named “Cone of Experience”
The major building blocks of useable human knowledge
are made up of:
 Direct contact with reality or its direct representation
(the concrete experience) and
 The abstract experience
Abstract + Concrete= the knowledge we
use in our everyday life
90

91.  Jerome Bruner’s Three Major Ways of Gaining
Experience
 Enactive--learning through doing
 Experience= iconic--learning through observation
 (C+A) symbolic----learning through abstraction
(listening reading)
C-Concrete A- Abstract
Bruner identified three major ways of gaining
experience and named them: enactive, Iconic, and
symbolic.
Edgar Dale combined the two constructs of the
Hoban’s Degree of Realism with Bruner’s three ways of
gaining experience and classified media resources on
the combined sense.
91

92. Edgar Dale cone of experience
92
7/30/2024

93. .
 The cone of experience tries to show us the relationship between
experiences, medium, our senses and its implication to learning.
The experiences in the cone are categorized based on: the type of
medium used & Degree of physical involvement they allow us
 We get concrete experience through the media that allow us
maximum physical involvement (at the base), and abstract
experience through minimum physical involvement (at the
apex).
 Different experiences could mean different media and
different degree of involvement of our senses. If an experience
involves more senses and the media approaches to reality, then
the experience is concrete. On the other hand, if an experience
involves min. senses and the media approaches to symbols,
then the experience is abstract.
7/30/2024 93

94.  Dale identified eleven categories grouped under three
ways of gaining experience. He represented human
experience with a cone and placed the Enactive at the
bottom and the symbolic at top and the iconic in
between.
Components of the cone of experience
A. The enactive group- the first three bands of the cone
of experience are under enactive way of gaining
experience (learning by doing). The learners are active
participants with relative difference of materials used
as you go up the cone.
1.Direct purposeful experience- this is the direct, first-hand way
of gaining human experience. The learner directly faces reality and
gathers information through all the sense organs—seeing,hearing,
touching, smelling and tasting.
94

95. Example :
learning how to swim. The learner immerses his/her body
in the water and moves the body parts. We can neither use
models of water nor can we learn by observing others
swimming.
There are three important combinations in the process of
learning:
 Directness- meaning direct sensory and physical contact.
 Purposefulness- the learner does it for a purpose, like to
enjoy swimming, cross a river or save life
 Responsibility for the outcome-the learner is responsible
for the end result. She/he may lose her life if she/he does
not properly swim.
95

96. 2. Contrived experience
is the way learners gain experience through the use of
working models, mockups, specimen or simulation.
The limitations of direct purposeful experience are improved
through the use of edited representation of reality.
a) The materials used are somehow changed
representations of reality but the involvement of the
learner is still direct.
b) All senses are used to collect information and the learner
is the actor, the doer.
96

97. What are the changes in the materials used?
Specimen
 is a sample of materials not found easily. The learner
does not use their real environment; the specimen is
used in changed situation. Examples :Money currently
samples of past times or rock samples removed from
their natural setting or leaves removed from its mother
plant .
Simulation
Imitating real action under controlled situation.
Simulators are the materials used. Examples are
simulators of airplane cockpits (pilots quarter) where
pilots are trained about airplanes movement being in the
training center before flying in air. 97

98. Working models
are three dimensional simplified representation of
reality that shows the working of the reality. Models of
cars that move like are examples. The change is either in
size or complexity or in both.
Mock Ups
are models that emphasize only a part of the reality it
represents. An example of mock up will be a model of
human body that shows only the blood circulation
system.
Dramatization
 Gaining experience about past events and thoughts by
recreating them through her/his action it is said to be
dramatization.
 Students act and learn. 98

99. There are different kinds of drama used like:
 Role play-allow learners to act like someone;
 Socio-dram which reveals social actions;
 Plays which has complex plots in the action;
 Puppetry-show action through models or puppets;
•Dramatization-When the learner gains experience about past events and thoughts by recreating them through her/his action it is said
99

100. B. Iconic group
 The materials used either reflects reality as-it-is or is
direct imitation. The learner here is an observer. The
difference with the enactive way of gaining experience is
that the learner is not directly involved rather is a witness
of what goes on.
1.Demonstration
 Demonstration is showing how something works using
verbal explanation.
 In simple expression it is an audio-visual presentation for
learning purposes.
2. Study trip
 The next on the Cone of experience is study trip.
 Study trip which is taking students to any location out of
the classroom, near or far, for the purpose of learning
through selective observation.
100

101. 3.Exhibits-
 Exhibits are using a collection of materials under
controlled situation for learning through direct
observation. The materials collected are usually rare, not
easily found ones.
 Exhibits give students a firsthand observation chance to
students.
C. The Symbolic Group
1.Visuals symbols
 Visuals symbols Include designed materials like cartoons,
sketches, diagrams, maps, graphs, posters, charts, comic
drawings and the likes.
2. Verbal Symbols (Words)
 These are the most abstract or indirect representations of reality.
 The most abstract are the written words for they further symbolize the
sound into written symbols. 101

102. UNIT4: INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA MATERIALS:
THEIR NATURE AND USE
4.1. Systematic Planning for Use of Technology
 In selecting learning experiences to meet instructional
objectives, the availability of either materials or
equipments may influence ones decisions.
 Students come into schools with diverse needs,
abilities and styles of learning, thus, teachers need to
prepare, select and use different instructional
materials that accommodate the diversity.
 Besides to the learning objectives and accompanying
activities, instructional materials must fit student
capabilities and learning styles
102

103.  Heinich, et al (1996), have devised a systematic
procedure of planning the use of instructional
media called ASSURE to help to assure learning.
The letters in the word ASSURE represents the
steps that users are expected to follow when they
plan to use media resources.
A Analyze Learner Characteristics
U Utilization
S State Objectives
R Required Response
S Select and/or design media
E Evaluation
103

104. Step 1:Analyze Learners
 The first step in planning is to identify the learners.
Your learners may be, for example, students, trainees,
or members of an organization such as Sunday school,
civic club, youth group, or fraternal organization.
 must know your students to select the best medium to
meet the objectives.
 The audience can be analyzed in terms of:
(1) general characteristics,
(2) specific entry competencies and
(3) learning style.
104

105. Step 2: State objectives
 The next step is to state the objectives as specifically as
possible.
 The objectives may be derived from a course syllabus,
stated in a textbook, taken from a curriculum guide, or
developed by the instructor. They should be stated in
terms of what the learner will be able to do as a result of
instruction.
Step 3: Select and/or Design media, Methods and
Materials
 Establishe the beginning points and ending points of
instruction.
 Your task now is to build a bridge between these two
points by choosing appropriate methods and media
formats, then deciding on materials to implement these
choices. 105

106.  There are three options in selecting instructional
media:
 Select available materials-
Buy from market or from shelf;
Modify existing materials, or;
Designing new materials.
Step 4:Utilize media and materials
 To be effective, materials-based instruction should
require active mental engagement by learners.
 There should be activities within the lesson that
allow learners to process the knowledge or skills
and to receive feedback on the appropriateness of
their efforts before being formally assessed.
106

107. Step Five: Evaluate and Review
 After instruction, it is necessary to evaluate its impact
and effectiveness.
 To get the total picture, you must evaluate the entire
instructional process.
 Ask the following questions:
 Did the learners meet the objectives?
 Did the methods and media assist the
trainees in achieving the objectives?
 Could all students use the materials
properly?
107

108. Selection Criteria: General Characteristics of
Instructional Visuals
o When you think of selection your assumption is based
on availability of choices of instructional materials.
Where there is no material, there will be no selection.
o To select from available materials, you need to have
some kind of criteria in mind. Here we will examine
the selection criteria of instructional visuals.
a) General characteristics
 To select appropriate instructional visuals we examine
the following characteristics:
1.Content
 What-does-it-say is the first question to be asked.
Here again, content can be presented in a different
way. Does it serve the intended purpose?
108

109. 2.The best selection criteria are the visual
characteristics.
a) Balance
 Our mind almost all time draws an imaginary line (axis)
that divides the background in to two equal parts--
horizontally or vertically and weigh the visual content on
both sides.
 If there is equilibrium between the content of the two
sides of the axis (symmetrical balance) then brain takes
it as normal or accepted.
b) Color contrast
 Color contrast between body of content and background is a
vital criterion for the visibility of the visual content. White on
white cannot be read while black on white is easily visible.
 Different color combinations should be used to show differences,
relationships, position, etc. cleanliness is vital. Unclean parts act
109

110. c)Dynamism of reality
 Dynamism of reality needs to be reflected. Degree of
realism in the picture also matters. How far does the
visual reflect the reality it represents?
d)Emphasis
 Emphasis is also part of visual presentation that let
parts to come out and be observable than others.
Dominant colors, spacing, placement background
contrast, are means of giving contrast.
e) Fidelity or quality
 Fidelity or quality of the whole visual presentation and
the absence of distortions; and the
f)Graphic harmony
 Graphic harmony of the total visual presentation is the major
area of observation for making relatively better selection of 110

111. 4.Visuals are to be read.
 They should let the eye of the reader move from one part to
the other with less strain, in a relaxed manner.
 There should not be congestion or clustering of visual
information at one place.
5.Cost effectiveness
 Cost effectiveness or getting the worth or the value of the
mental effort, money, time and physical strength that you
put in to the preparation of the visual should also be
considered for selection.
 Less/more expensive and more used is better than
more/less expensive and less used.
6.Lettering
 The way the letters are written equally matters.
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112.  The title and labeling from part of the visual
presentation as the representation of the abstract.
 They create conformity oneness among the different
interpretations. Thus lettering is also major criteria for
selection.
Preparation or Modification of Teacher-made
Instructional Visuals
 Graphics or preparation of visual materials takes the
skill of professionals who are trained and qualified/ all
teachers may not have the talent or the skill to present
information in visualized way.
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113. Simple Technicques of Preparaing Instructional
Media
Tracing Techniques
 Tracing is transforming visual information from
original source to another surface by placing very light
and semi-transparent material (paper, plastic …) over
the original visual.
 Tracing is a matter of following main outlines that you
see from underneath and making marks. When you are
sure you traced all the needed parts, you can your own
details too.
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114. Enlarging Techniques
 One of the common problems that teachers face in visual
presentation is the size of the visuals. One can get visual
information in almost all printed pages, in textbooks,
magazines, newspapers, pamphlets and the likes. But the
size of the visuals may be too small for a large class size.
 There are simple techniques that any teacher can us any
time to enlarge small visuals for group viewing. The one
that is widely used in most Ethiopian schools is the
Scaling or Squaring method, also known as Grid
method.
 Grid method is covering the small diagram with small-
scaled squares.
114

115.  Then on a larger piece of paper you draw another large-
scaled square. Then copy parts of the small diagram on
to large scaled square by square. Then copy parts of the
small diagram on to large scaled square by square at a
time. When you finish coping of all the squares you will
get an enlarged diagram with less distortion than the
freehand drawing of an amateur.
Lettering technique
 Lettering, as you know, is the way we write letters.
 As a teacher it is good to practice free hand lettering
because we have to use the chalkboard. In addition
however, there are many devises that are available to help
you write readable letters.
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116. Cont’d
Thank
You!!!
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