Israel began investigating nuclear weapons in the 1950s and built a secret nuclear reactor and reprocessing plant called Dimona with French assistance in the late 1950s. While Israel did not publicly confirm it had nuclear weapons, the US intelligence community assessed by the late 1960s that Israel had successfully produced nuclear weapons and likely possessed between 10-20 warheads by the mid-1970s based on estimates of potential Israeli targets. The size of Israel's nuclear arsenal remains uncertain but reports indicate they had 2 bombs in 1967 and assembled additional weapons during the 1973 Yom Kippur War out of fear of defeat.
The document provides historical background on Israel's nuclear program, beginning in the 1950s. It details Israel's cooperation with France to develop nuclear technology and build secret nuclear facilities, such as the Dimona nuclear reactor. By the late 1960s, the CIA assessed that Israel had begun producing nuclear weapons. Estimates suggest Israel developed a stockpile of 100-200 warheads by the 1990s, delivered via missiles like the Jericho I and Jericho II, as well as aircraft such as the F-4 Phantom and F-16 Falcon. The existence of Israel's nuclear program remains ambiguous due to its policy of deliberate ambiguity on the issue.
The document provides historical background on Israel's nuclear weapons program from its earliest days in the 1950s. It details how Israel began researching nuclear technology and established agencies and facilities like Dimona to develop an independent nuclear capability in secret with assistance from France. While the U.S. was aware of Israel's nuclear program by the 1960s, it took little action and turned a blind eye as Israel successfully deceived international inspectors and developed a nuclear weapons program without impediment. The document outlines the key events and deceptions that allowed Israel to develop nuclear weapons while maintaining ambiguity over whether it actually possesses them.
The document discusses the history of official U.S. military investigations into UFOs, known as Project Sign and Project Grudge. It describes some notable UFO sightings in 1947 that prompted the creation of Project Sign. Project Sign studied UFO reports and determined that some objects might be under intelligent control and of extraterrestrial origin. The document also briefly mentions a related secret program called Project Paperclip involving German scientists after World War II.
These historic events had a profound impact on humanity:
- Atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945 marked the end of WWII and ushered in the atomic age.
- The September 11 terrorist attacks in 2001 shocked the world and led the US to declare war on terror.
- Major events like the Cuban Missile Crisis brought the world to the brink of nuclear war, while advances like the first moon landing united humanity in a spirit of scientific progress.
History of the Russian Nuclear Weapon ProgramWendy Permana
Disclaimer:
Los Alamos National Laboratory, an affirmative action/equal opportunity employer,is operated by the Los Alamos National Security, LLC for the National NuclearSecurity Administration of the U.S. Department of Energy under contract DE-AC52 06NA25396. By approving this article, the publisher recognizes that the U.S. Government retains nonexclusive, royalty-free license to publish or reproduce the published form of this contribution, or to allow others to do so, for U.S. Government purposes. Los Alamos National Laboratory requests that the publisher identify this article as work performed under the auspices of the U.S. Departmentof Energy. Los Alamos National Laboratory strongly supports academic freedom and a researcher's right to publish; as an institution, however, the Laboratory does not endorse the viewpoint of a publication or guarantee its technical correctness
The document provides a timeline of early settlement in the Oak Ridge, Tennessee area from the 1600s through World War II and the Manhattan Project. It details the Cherokee presence in the 1600s, white settlement beginning in the 1700s, and the establishment of schools and post offices in the 1800s-early 1900s. It then discusses the development of nuclear research in the 1930s-1940s that led to the secret Manhattan Project and the construction of facilities in Oak Ridge beginning in 1943, including K-25, Y-12, and S-50 plants.
Here are some recommendations the committee could make to further nuclear nonproliferation and disarmament:
1. Urge all states that possess nuclear weapons to decrease their stockpiles in accordance with their obligations under Article VI of the NPT, with the ultimate goal of total elimination of nuclear weapons.
2. Encourage states to establish additional nuclear-weapon-free zones, especially in regions like the Middle East that currently do not have any treaties.
3. Call on all states, especially those not party to the NPT, to accept comprehensive International Atomic Energy Agency safeguards on all their nuclear activities and sign an Additional Protocol.
4. Request that the P5 states take further unilateral measures to reduce the
The document provides historical background on Israel's nuclear program, beginning in the 1950s. It details Israel's cooperation with France to develop nuclear technology and build secret nuclear facilities, such as the Dimona nuclear reactor. By the late 1960s, the CIA assessed that Israel had begun producing nuclear weapons. Estimates suggest Israel developed a stockpile of 100-200 warheads by the 1990s, delivered via missiles like the Jericho I and Jericho II, as well as aircraft such as the F-4 Phantom and F-16 Falcon. The existence of Israel's nuclear program remains ambiguous due to its policy of deliberate ambiguity on the issue.
The document provides historical background on Israel's nuclear weapons program from its earliest days in the 1950s. It details how Israel began researching nuclear technology and established agencies and facilities like Dimona to develop an independent nuclear capability in secret with assistance from France. While the U.S. was aware of Israel's nuclear program by the 1960s, it took little action and turned a blind eye as Israel successfully deceived international inspectors and developed a nuclear weapons program without impediment. The document outlines the key events and deceptions that allowed Israel to develop nuclear weapons while maintaining ambiguity over whether it actually possesses them.
The document discusses the history of official U.S. military investigations into UFOs, known as Project Sign and Project Grudge. It describes some notable UFO sightings in 1947 that prompted the creation of Project Sign. Project Sign studied UFO reports and determined that some objects might be under intelligent control and of extraterrestrial origin. The document also briefly mentions a related secret program called Project Paperclip involving German scientists after World War II.
These historic events had a profound impact on humanity:
- Atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945 marked the end of WWII and ushered in the atomic age.
- The September 11 terrorist attacks in 2001 shocked the world and led the US to declare war on terror.
- Major events like the Cuban Missile Crisis brought the world to the brink of nuclear war, while advances like the first moon landing united humanity in a spirit of scientific progress.
History of the Russian Nuclear Weapon ProgramWendy Permana
Disclaimer:
Los Alamos National Laboratory, an affirmative action/equal opportunity employer,is operated by the Los Alamos National Security, LLC for the National NuclearSecurity Administration of the U.S. Department of Energy under contract DE-AC52 06NA25396. By approving this article, the publisher recognizes that the U.S. Government retains nonexclusive, royalty-free license to publish or reproduce the published form of this contribution, or to allow others to do so, for U.S. Government purposes. Los Alamos National Laboratory requests that the publisher identify this article as work performed under the auspices of the U.S. Departmentof Energy. Los Alamos National Laboratory strongly supports academic freedom and a researcher's right to publish; as an institution, however, the Laboratory does not endorse the viewpoint of a publication or guarantee its technical correctness
The document provides a timeline of early settlement in the Oak Ridge, Tennessee area from the 1600s through World War II and the Manhattan Project. It details the Cherokee presence in the 1600s, white settlement beginning in the 1700s, and the establishment of schools and post offices in the 1800s-early 1900s. It then discusses the development of nuclear research in the 1930s-1940s that led to the secret Manhattan Project and the construction of facilities in Oak Ridge beginning in 1943, including K-25, Y-12, and S-50 plants.
Here are some recommendations the committee could make to further nuclear nonproliferation and disarmament:
1. Urge all states that possess nuclear weapons to decrease their stockpiles in accordance with their obligations under Article VI of the NPT, with the ultimate goal of total elimination of nuclear weapons.
2. Encourage states to establish additional nuclear-weapon-free zones, especially in regions like the Middle East that currently do not have any treaties.
3. Call on all states, especially those not party to the NPT, to accept comprehensive International Atomic Energy Agency safeguards on all their nuclear activities and sign an Additional Protocol.
4. Request that the P5 states take further unilateral measures to reduce the
1. The Manhattan Project was a US-led research and development program that produced the first atomic bombs during World War II.
2. The project was conducted at sites across the US, Canada, and UK and involved over 125,000 people and cost around $2 billion.
3. The first atomic bomb was successfully tested in New Mexico in July 1945. Two atomic bombs were then dropped on Japan in August 1945, leading to Japan's surrender and the end of World War II.
The document summarizes the controversial Philadelphia Experiment, which was allegedly conducted by the US Navy in 1943 to create an invisible ship. It describes witness accounts from Carlos Allende and Alfred Bielek, who claimed crew members experienced bizarre effects like teleportation or becoming stuck in bulkheads. The technical details of the experiment are unclear and debated among scientists. While the Navy denies it occurred, some details of reported effects are consistent with experiments involving electromagnetic fields, ultrasonic waves, or thermal fields. However, solid evidence for the experiment has never been found.
The document summarizes the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. The US issued the Potsdam Declaration calling for Japan's surrender, but Japan refused. The US then decided to use atomic bombs, developed through the secret Manhattan Project, to force Japan's surrender and end WWII. On August 6th, the US dropped a uranium bomb on Hiroshima, killing 70,000 people. After Japan did not surrender, on August 9th the US dropped a plutonium bomb on Nagasaki, killing 135,000 people. Japan surrendered on August 14th, ending WWII.
Atomic bomb blasts in hiroshima and nagasakiতাসনুভা শাহরিন
The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 marked the first and only use of nuclear weapons in war. The U.S. dropped atomic bombs called "Little Boy" and "Fat Man" on the cities, resulting in massive destruction and at least 200,000 immediate deaths from blast effects and radiation sickness. Long-term health effects persisted for decades, including higher rates of cancer, birth defects, and other issues. The bombings contributed to Japan's surrender and ended World War II, but also demonstrated the immense destructive power of nuclear weapons and their lingering effects on populations and the environment.
1) In 1932, Einstein warned President Roosevelt about Nazi Germany's efforts to purify uranium, which could be used to create an atomic bomb. This led the US to begin the secret Manhattan Project to develop a bomb.
2) The Manhattan Project took 6 years and over $2 billion, led by Robert Oppenheimer. They successfully tested the first atomic bomb called "The Gadget" in New Mexico in 1945.
3) In early August 1945, the US dropped atomic bombs called "Little Boy" on Hiroshima on August 6th and "Fat Man" on Nagasaki on August 9th, causing widespread destruction and many casualties in both cities. Japan surrendered on August 15th, ending World
This document provides an overview of environmental science and discusses the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. It introduces environmental science as an interdisciplinary field studying human interactions with the natural world. It notes the importance of environmental education for sustainability. It then describes Hiroshima and Nagasaki before the bombings, highlighting their populations and industrial significance. It explains the attacks, noting that the atomic bombs killed 90,000-166,000 in Hiroshima and 60,000-80,000 in Nagasaki from acute effects within months. Japan surrendered on August 15th, six days after Nagasaki.
Atomic bomb blasting of Hiroshima and Nagasaki .pptতাসনুভা শাহরিন
The document summarizes the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945. It describes the immediate and ongoing effects of the bombings, including the high death toll initially from burns and trauma (over 80,000 in Hiroshima and 40,000 in Nagasaki) and later illnesses from radiation exposure like leukemia. It also discusses the destruction of infrastructure in the cities and suppression of information about the bombings' impacts by the occupying Allied forces. The bombings marked the first and only use of nuclear weapons in war.
The Atomic Bombings Of Hiroshima And Nagasakinamelessacorn
The document summarizes the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. On August 6th, 1945, the U.S. dropped an atomic bomb called Little Boy on Hiroshima, killing 70,000 initially and 130,000 from radiation over 5 years. On August 9th, another bomb called Fat Man was dropped on Nagasaki due to poor weather, killing 40,000 immediately and 60,000 injured. While more powerful, Fat Man caused less damage due to Nagasaki's terrain. These bombings ended World War 2 but began the nuclear era.
The United States dropped two atomic bombs on Japan in August 1945. The first bomb was dropped on Hiroshima on August 6th, killing around 90,000-166,000 people. The second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki on August 9th, killing around 60,000-80,000 people. In response to the bombings and the Soviet declaration of war, Japan surrendered on August 15th, officially ending World War II. The bombings led Japan to adopt a policy forbidding nuclear weapons.
The document outlines the history of nuclear non-proliferation treaties from the 1940s through the 1960s. It discusses key events like the US testing nuclear bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, the Soviet Union testing its first nuclear bomb in 1949, the UK and France testing bombs in the 1950s, China's first nuclear test in 1964, and draft proposals of nuclear non-proliferation treaties in the 1960s, culminating in the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty entering into force in 1970.
This document provides a timeline of major events in U.S. history from 1982 to 2004, including Michael Jackson releasing his best-selling album Thriller in 1982, the communist party ending 45 years of power in East Germany in 1990 leading to German reunification, Bill Clinton being elected president in 1992 marking the end of the Cold War, and George W. Bush being nominated for a second term by the Republican party in 2004.
The document discusses the US decision to drop atomic bombs on Japan to end World War II. It describes how Japan refused to surrender and the US wanted to avoid invading Japan, which would cost hundreds of thousands of American lives. Hiroshima and Nagasaki were chosen as targets because they were mostly untouched by the war. The Enola Gay dropped a uranium bomb called "Little Boy" on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945, resulting in an estimated 237,000 deaths and widespread destruction across the city.
WWII Presentation (Make Up Assignment) (Fall 2012)Lindsey Mae
The document provides details about the development of atomic weapons during World War II through the Manhattan Project. It describes how early atomic research was conducted at universities before being transferred to military control. Over 125,000 people worked in secret cities as part of the Manhattan Project without knowing its true purpose of developing nuclear weapons. The first atomic bomb was tested in New Mexico in 1945 and then two bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan later that year, causing widespread destruction and loss of life. The consequences of nuclear weapons emerged in the years after the war through radiation sickness and birth defects. The development of nuclear weapons had major implications for international security and arms control in the postwar period.
The document summarizes the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by the United States in 1945. It discusses the Potsdam Declaration that called for Japan's surrender, the reasoning for using atomic bombs to end the war, and the targeting of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. It then describes the delivery of atomic bombs by planes to both cities and the massive destruction and estimated deaths of over 200,000 people between the two bombings. Japan surrendered a few days later, ending World War II.
This Presentation brings forth the Causes, Aftermaths and many other facts regarding the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. It also includes Albert Einstein's Letter.
This was made for Educational Purpose.
The document discusses the history and development of the jet engine. It describes how Frank Whittle and Hans von Ohain independently developed theories for jet propulsion in the 1920s and 1930s. The first operational jet engine was built by Ohain in Germany in 1937 and powered the world's first jet aircraft. During World War 2 both Britain and Germany developed jet aircraft, with Germany achieving the first jet fighter and jet combat. After the war, the US, Britain, and USSR developed advanced jet aircraft, leading to the first jet airliner and jet combat during the Korean War between American and Russian planes. The jet revolutionized air travel and warfare.
The document summarizes the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by the United States in 1945. It discusses the Potsdam Declaration that called for Japan's surrender, the reasoning for using atomic bombs to end the war, the selection of Hiroshima and Nagasaki as targets, and the devastating effects of the bombings that killed a total of around 237,000 people in Hiroshima and 135,000 in Nagasaki and destroyed much of the cities. Japan surrendered a few days after the second bombing of Nagasaki, bringing World War 2 to an end.
The document summarizes the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by the United States in August 1945. It notes that Hiroshima was bombed on August 6th by the Enola Gay dropping the atomic bomb Little Boy, killing between 60,000-70,000 people. Nagasaki was then bombed two days later on August 9th by the bombing plane Bockscar dropping the Fat Man bomb, resulting in 42,000 deaths and 40,000 injuries.
The document provides a top 10 list of important historical events from 1900-2100. It summarizes the Stock Market Crash of 1929 which led to the Great Depression. It also discusses the rise of Hitler and Nazi Germany in the 1930s and 1940s, the D-Day invasion on June 6, 1944, the 9/11 terrorist attacks, the Wright brothers' first flight in 1903, women's suffrage in the US in 1920, the first moon landing in 1969, the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, and the invention of the Internet which connected the world. The document cites the major impacts and significance of each of these pivotal moments in history.
The document summarizes the ongoing nuclear arms race and tensions over Iran's nuclear program. It discusses Niels Bohr's warnings about nuclear weapons in the 1940s and how the arms race continued with more countries obtaining nuclear weapons. It outlines the recent IAEA report finding evidence Iran has pursued nuclear weapons and the international response, as well as threats from Iranian leaders. The document speculates that Israel may carry out airstrikes against Iranian nuclear sites as it has done before in Iraq and Syria, but notes Iran's facilities are more dispersed and some underground, making strikes more difficult. It warns that a nuclear-armed Iran could pressure other Middle Eastern countries to pursue their own nuclear programs.
Amid the growing violence in the Libyan uprising, there are fears that Gaddafi will unleash chemical weapons on his own people. In fact, Libya’s chemical weapons capacity is at best limited, and using it poses a logistical challenge – and even a threat to Gaddafi’s own forces.
An Uncertain Armageddon The Manhattan Project and the Birth of the Atomic Bo...Sandra Valenzuela
This summary provides an overview of the key points from the document:
1) In August 1945, Emperor Hirohito of Japan announced Japan's surrender after the US dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, acknowledging the devastating power of this new weapon.
2) From 1942-1946, the top secret Manhattan Project was undertaken by the US, UK, and Canada to develop an atomic bomb before Nazi Germany could. The project was led by General Leslie Groves and J. Robert Oppenheimer.
3) In 1939, Hungarian physicists Leó Szilárd and Eugene Wigner convinced Albert Einstein to write a letter to President Roosevelt warning that Nazi Germany may be pursuing nuclear weapons and that
1. The Manhattan Project was a US-led research and development program that produced the first atomic bombs during World War II.
2. The project was conducted at sites across the US, Canada, and UK and involved over 125,000 people and cost around $2 billion.
3. The first atomic bomb was successfully tested in New Mexico in July 1945. Two atomic bombs were then dropped on Japan in August 1945, leading to Japan's surrender and the end of World War II.
The document summarizes the controversial Philadelphia Experiment, which was allegedly conducted by the US Navy in 1943 to create an invisible ship. It describes witness accounts from Carlos Allende and Alfred Bielek, who claimed crew members experienced bizarre effects like teleportation or becoming stuck in bulkheads. The technical details of the experiment are unclear and debated among scientists. While the Navy denies it occurred, some details of reported effects are consistent with experiments involving electromagnetic fields, ultrasonic waves, or thermal fields. However, solid evidence for the experiment has never been found.
The document summarizes the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. The US issued the Potsdam Declaration calling for Japan's surrender, but Japan refused. The US then decided to use atomic bombs, developed through the secret Manhattan Project, to force Japan's surrender and end WWII. On August 6th, the US dropped a uranium bomb on Hiroshima, killing 70,000 people. After Japan did not surrender, on August 9th the US dropped a plutonium bomb on Nagasaki, killing 135,000 people. Japan surrendered on August 14th, ending WWII.
Atomic bomb blasts in hiroshima and nagasakiতাসনুভা শাহরিন
The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 marked the first and only use of nuclear weapons in war. The U.S. dropped atomic bombs called "Little Boy" and "Fat Man" on the cities, resulting in massive destruction and at least 200,000 immediate deaths from blast effects and radiation sickness. Long-term health effects persisted for decades, including higher rates of cancer, birth defects, and other issues. The bombings contributed to Japan's surrender and ended World War II, but also demonstrated the immense destructive power of nuclear weapons and their lingering effects on populations and the environment.
1) In 1932, Einstein warned President Roosevelt about Nazi Germany's efforts to purify uranium, which could be used to create an atomic bomb. This led the US to begin the secret Manhattan Project to develop a bomb.
2) The Manhattan Project took 6 years and over $2 billion, led by Robert Oppenheimer. They successfully tested the first atomic bomb called "The Gadget" in New Mexico in 1945.
3) In early August 1945, the US dropped atomic bombs called "Little Boy" on Hiroshima on August 6th and "Fat Man" on Nagasaki on August 9th, causing widespread destruction and many casualties in both cities. Japan surrendered on August 15th, ending World
This document provides an overview of environmental science and discusses the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. It introduces environmental science as an interdisciplinary field studying human interactions with the natural world. It notes the importance of environmental education for sustainability. It then describes Hiroshima and Nagasaki before the bombings, highlighting their populations and industrial significance. It explains the attacks, noting that the atomic bombs killed 90,000-166,000 in Hiroshima and 60,000-80,000 in Nagasaki from acute effects within months. Japan surrendered on August 15th, six days after Nagasaki.
Atomic bomb blasting of Hiroshima and Nagasaki .pptতাসনুভা শাহরিন
The document summarizes the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945. It describes the immediate and ongoing effects of the bombings, including the high death toll initially from burns and trauma (over 80,000 in Hiroshima and 40,000 in Nagasaki) and later illnesses from radiation exposure like leukemia. It also discusses the destruction of infrastructure in the cities and suppression of information about the bombings' impacts by the occupying Allied forces. The bombings marked the first and only use of nuclear weapons in war.
The Atomic Bombings Of Hiroshima And Nagasakinamelessacorn
The document summarizes the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. On August 6th, 1945, the U.S. dropped an atomic bomb called Little Boy on Hiroshima, killing 70,000 initially and 130,000 from radiation over 5 years. On August 9th, another bomb called Fat Man was dropped on Nagasaki due to poor weather, killing 40,000 immediately and 60,000 injured. While more powerful, Fat Man caused less damage due to Nagasaki's terrain. These bombings ended World War 2 but began the nuclear era.
The United States dropped two atomic bombs on Japan in August 1945. The first bomb was dropped on Hiroshima on August 6th, killing around 90,000-166,000 people. The second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki on August 9th, killing around 60,000-80,000 people. In response to the bombings and the Soviet declaration of war, Japan surrendered on August 15th, officially ending World War II. The bombings led Japan to adopt a policy forbidding nuclear weapons.
The document outlines the history of nuclear non-proliferation treaties from the 1940s through the 1960s. It discusses key events like the US testing nuclear bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, the Soviet Union testing its first nuclear bomb in 1949, the UK and France testing bombs in the 1950s, China's first nuclear test in 1964, and draft proposals of nuclear non-proliferation treaties in the 1960s, culminating in the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty entering into force in 1970.
This document provides a timeline of major events in U.S. history from 1982 to 2004, including Michael Jackson releasing his best-selling album Thriller in 1982, the communist party ending 45 years of power in East Germany in 1990 leading to German reunification, Bill Clinton being elected president in 1992 marking the end of the Cold War, and George W. Bush being nominated for a second term by the Republican party in 2004.
The document discusses the US decision to drop atomic bombs on Japan to end World War II. It describes how Japan refused to surrender and the US wanted to avoid invading Japan, which would cost hundreds of thousands of American lives. Hiroshima and Nagasaki were chosen as targets because they were mostly untouched by the war. The Enola Gay dropped a uranium bomb called "Little Boy" on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945, resulting in an estimated 237,000 deaths and widespread destruction across the city.
WWII Presentation (Make Up Assignment) (Fall 2012)Lindsey Mae
The document provides details about the development of atomic weapons during World War II through the Manhattan Project. It describes how early atomic research was conducted at universities before being transferred to military control. Over 125,000 people worked in secret cities as part of the Manhattan Project without knowing its true purpose of developing nuclear weapons. The first atomic bomb was tested in New Mexico in 1945 and then two bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan later that year, causing widespread destruction and loss of life. The consequences of nuclear weapons emerged in the years after the war through radiation sickness and birth defects. The development of nuclear weapons had major implications for international security and arms control in the postwar period.
The document summarizes the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by the United States in 1945. It discusses the Potsdam Declaration that called for Japan's surrender, the reasoning for using atomic bombs to end the war, and the targeting of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. It then describes the delivery of atomic bombs by planes to both cities and the massive destruction and estimated deaths of over 200,000 people between the two bombings. Japan surrendered a few days later, ending World War II.
This Presentation brings forth the Causes, Aftermaths and many other facts regarding the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. It also includes Albert Einstein's Letter.
This was made for Educational Purpose.
The document discusses the history and development of the jet engine. It describes how Frank Whittle and Hans von Ohain independently developed theories for jet propulsion in the 1920s and 1930s. The first operational jet engine was built by Ohain in Germany in 1937 and powered the world's first jet aircraft. During World War 2 both Britain and Germany developed jet aircraft, with Germany achieving the first jet fighter and jet combat. After the war, the US, Britain, and USSR developed advanced jet aircraft, leading to the first jet airliner and jet combat during the Korean War between American and Russian planes. The jet revolutionized air travel and warfare.
The document summarizes the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by the United States in 1945. It discusses the Potsdam Declaration that called for Japan's surrender, the reasoning for using atomic bombs to end the war, the selection of Hiroshima and Nagasaki as targets, and the devastating effects of the bombings that killed a total of around 237,000 people in Hiroshima and 135,000 in Nagasaki and destroyed much of the cities. Japan surrendered a few days after the second bombing of Nagasaki, bringing World War 2 to an end.
The document summarizes the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by the United States in August 1945. It notes that Hiroshima was bombed on August 6th by the Enola Gay dropping the atomic bomb Little Boy, killing between 60,000-70,000 people. Nagasaki was then bombed two days later on August 9th by the bombing plane Bockscar dropping the Fat Man bomb, resulting in 42,000 deaths and 40,000 injuries.
The document provides a top 10 list of important historical events from 1900-2100. It summarizes the Stock Market Crash of 1929 which led to the Great Depression. It also discusses the rise of Hitler and Nazi Germany in the 1930s and 1940s, the D-Day invasion on June 6, 1944, the 9/11 terrorist attacks, the Wright brothers' first flight in 1903, women's suffrage in the US in 1920, the first moon landing in 1969, the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, and the invention of the Internet which connected the world. The document cites the major impacts and significance of each of these pivotal moments in history.
The document summarizes the ongoing nuclear arms race and tensions over Iran's nuclear program. It discusses Niels Bohr's warnings about nuclear weapons in the 1940s and how the arms race continued with more countries obtaining nuclear weapons. It outlines the recent IAEA report finding evidence Iran has pursued nuclear weapons and the international response, as well as threats from Iranian leaders. The document speculates that Israel may carry out airstrikes against Iranian nuclear sites as it has done before in Iraq and Syria, but notes Iran's facilities are more dispersed and some underground, making strikes more difficult. It warns that a nuclear-armed Iran could pressure other Middle Eastern countries to pursue their own nuclear programs.
Amid the growing violence in the Libyan uprising, there are fears that Gaddafi will unleash chemical weapons on his own people. In fact, Libya’s chemical weapons capacity is at best limited, and using it poses a logistical challenge – and even a threat to Gaddafi’s own forces.
An Uncertain Armageddon The Manhattan Project and the Birth of the Atomic Bo...Sandra Valenzuela
This summary provides an overview of the key points from the document:
1) In August 1945, Emperor Hirohito of Japan announced Japan's surrender after the US dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, acknowledging the devastating power of this new weapon.
2) From 1942-1946, the top secret Manhattan Project was undertaken by the US, UK, and Canada to develop an atomic bomb before Nazi Germany could. The project was led by General Leslie Groves and J. Robert Oppenheimer.
3) In 1939, Hungarian physicists Leó Szilárd and Eugene Wigner convinced Albert Einstein to write a letter to President Roosevelt warning that Nazi Germany may be pursuing nuclear weapons and that
Nuclear power provides both benefits and risks. It can generate electricity and power while also posing dangers if misused. The document discusses the history of nuclear power development in several countries. It led to conflicts between nations developing nuclear weapons during the Cold War and other incidents like the Iran-Iraq war. Both advantages like clean energy production and disadvantages like radioactive waste are examined.
NUCLEAR WEAPONS: THE WORLD HAS WEAPONS THAT ARE BIGGER THAN THE WARS ITSELFKeshav Prasad Bhattarai
1) Several countries are developing or expanding their nuclear weapons programs, heightening global tensions. Iran and North Korea have announced plans to test ballistic missiles capable of carrying nuclear warheads.
2) Nuclear weapons have become more powerful than conventional wars, with the ability to end conflicts on a global scale. However, their spread also threatens global security if acquired by unstable or terrorist groups.
3) Strong international cooperation and legal frameworks are urgently needed to prevent further nuclear proliferation, regulate stockpiles, and ensure safety. The nonproliferation treaty has limitations and a revised system must gain broader trust and authority.
The Manhattan Project was a secret US military project during World War II to develop the first atomic bombs. It was led by US physicist Robert Oppenheimer and General Leslie Groves, and involved research facilities at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, Hanford, Washington, and Los Alamos, New Mexico to produce weapons-grade materials. The first nuclear device was successfully tested at Alamogordo, New Mexico in July 1945, and two atomic bombs were subsequently dropped on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, leading to Japan's surrender. The Manhattan Project officially ended in 1946 when it was incorporated into the new Atomic Energy Commission.
This document provides an overview of evidence that micronukes and nuclear weapons were used to destroy the World Trade Center towers on 9/11. It references eyewitness accounts of underground explosions, molten steel and iron oxide found in the rubble which are signs of nuclear explosions. Photos show Israeli agents arrested on 9/11 celebrating and holding boxes of explosives. The document asserts that 9/11 was a false flag operation carried out by the US, Israel and Saudi Arabia to advance geopolitical agendas. It provides detailed evidence of US and Israeli government foreknowledge and involvement in the attacks.
The Manhattan Project was a secret US government project during World War II to develop the first atomic bombs. It involved over 130,000 people and cost around $2 billion over 7 years. The project successfully developed atomic bombs that were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, leading to Japan's surrender and the end of WWII. The Manhattan Project opened up nuclear technology and had lasting consequences around the world.
A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission (fission bomb) or from a combination of fission and fusion reactions (thermonuclear bomb). Both bomb types release large quantities of energy from relatively small amounts of matter.
Today, nine states have nuclear weapons and many more can easily acquire those, although only five states are officially recognized as possessing nuclear weapons by the 1968 nuclear Non Proliferation Treaty (NPT). Those are
• The United States (1945)
• Russia (1949)
• The United Kingdom (1952)
• France (1960) and
• China (1964)
Four states never joined the NPT but are known to possess nuclear weapons:
• Israel
• India (1974)
• Pakistan (1998) and
• North Korea (2006)
The document discusses nuclear testing from the first test in 1945 to more recent tests. It provides images and details of numerous atmospheric and underground nuclear tests conducted by various countries from 1945 to 1998, including the Trinity test, Operation Crossroads, Castle Bravo, Sedan Crater, Fishbowl Bluegill, and Pokhran-II. The tests ranged from kilotons to megatons and served to develop newer nuclear weapons and understand their effects.
USAF intercepted a report of a Cuban pilot's encounter with a UFO. In the 1970s, reliable military personnel sighted unidentified aerial objects near nuclear weapons facilities. Though the Air Force said these were isolated incidents, an Air Force document revealed they implemented increased security measures. Newly declassified documents from the CIA, FBI and other agencies indicate unidentified flying objects exist and some pose a threat to national security by demonstrating technologies beyond present human capability. However, the government has misled the public about the true nature and implications of the UFO phenomenon.
The document summarizes Project Twinkle, an Air Force investigation into reports of unusual aerial phenomena in the southwestern US from 1950-1951. Key findings include:
- Observations over a year were mostly inconclusive, attributing most sightings to natural or man-made objects like airplanes, balloons, small clouds, or meteorites.
- Askania camera surveillance from contracted observers provided no useful data, as simultaneous sightings were not achieved.
- Post-contract inquiries in 1951 found few recent reports and little attention now given to the topic. Most sightings were deemed having reasonable explanations.
The document provides background information on the development of nuclear fission and the atomic bomb during World War II. It discusses several key scientists involved in the Manhattan Project, including Szilard, Fermi, and Oppenheimer. It describes some of the early nuclear experiments at Chicago and the establishment of the Los Alamos laboratory. It also summarizes the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the initial positive public response, as well as some later dissent from scientists about the use of the bomb.
The document discusses several Jewish physicists who contributed to early nuclear research and the development of atomic weapons, including the atomic bomb and hydrogen bomb. It describes the work of Edward Teller, Eugene Wigner, and Leó Szilárd on the Manhattan Project. It also includes a 1939 letter from Albert Einstein to Franklin D. Roosevelt warning about the possibility of developing nuclear weapons from uranium and recommending the US work with physicists on nuclear fission.
The document discusses evidence that governments, including the US government, have misled the public about UFOs and the potential threat they pose. It provides examples of UFO sightings near military installations that interfered with equipment. It argues the CIA and other agencies have secretly studied UFOs more extensively than acknowledged. Some UFOs appear to demonstrate advanced technologies beyond current human capabilities and warrant further open scientific study for national security reasons.
The document discusses evidence that the US government has misled the public about UFOs and the potential threat they pose. It provides examples of sightings near military installations that disrupted equipment. It argues the CIA and other agencies have secretly studied UFOs more extensively than acknowledged. While some sightings may be natural phenomena, reports of advanced technology and interference with military systems warrant further open investigation for national security reasons.
The document discusses evidence that governments, including the US government, have misled the public about UFOs and the potential threats they pose. It provides examples of UFO sightings near military installations that interfered with equipment. It argues the CIA and other agencies have secretly studied UFOs more extensively than acknowledged. Some UFOs appear to demonstrate advanced technologies beyond current human capabilities and warrant further open scientific study for national security reasons.
This document discusses the history of uranium mining and processing, and the development of nuclear weapons. It notes that in the 1930s, uranium ore was mined at Port Radium in the Northwest Territories of Canada for its radium content. The ore was then transported to facilities in the US and Canada for further processing and research. This led to the top-secret Manhattan Project during World War II that developed the first atomic bombs. The bombs were then used on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, helping to end the war. However, it marked the start of the nuclear arms race between the US and USSR that continued for decades.
UFOs are unidentified flying objects that remain unidentified after examination by trained individuals. There have been reported sightings of UFOs since biblical times, but several prominent waves occurred in the early 1900s and 1940s-1950s. While some military sightings were later explained as natural phenomena or secret weapons, many cases remain unexplained, fueling speculation about what they could be and whether governments are hiding information about UFOs.
Jeremy Clarkson was allegedly sacked by the BBC for criticizing Israel and Benjamin Netanyahu in a social media post. In the post, Clarkson expressed support for Israel but condemned its shelling of civilians on a beach in Gaza and driving Palestinian children into the arms of terrorist recruiters, saying this was not the way to achieve peace and security. He called on Netanyahu to recognize that shelling children turns people away from Israel in disgust.
13 SATANIC BLOODLINES OF THE ILLUMINATI THAT RULE THE WORLD
ROCKEFELLER
ROTHSCHILD
KENNEDY
ASTOR
BUNDY
COLLINS
DuPONT
FREEMAN
LI
ONASSIS
Reynolds
RUSSELL
VAN DUYN
THE MEROVINGIAN
The great bank robbery how the federal reserve is destroying americaMustakeem Chaudhri
The document alleges that over $300 billion in gold bars were stolen during the 9/11 WTC attacks. It claims that the Federal Reserve and other banks are involved in a cover up of missing gold reserves and warns that the Comex Gold Report and London Bullion Market Association are perpetuating misinformation about gold supplies. A YouTube video is linked that presumably provides further evidence for these claims.
Bill Gates, along with other organizations such as the Rockefeller Foundation, are investing in a global seed bank called the Svalbard Global Seed Vault, located in the Arctic. The vault will store up to 3 million seed varieties as a way to conserve crop diversity for the future. However, the document raises questions about what future threats to seed availability the sponsors foresee, given existing seed bank protections. It also notes that Gates, Rockefeller, Monsanto, and Syngenta collaborating raises issues around their past efforts to promote industrial agriculture and GMOs globally, including through the Green Revolution of the 1950s-60s. There are concerns the same interests are now promoting a "Gene Revolution" and new Green Revolution in Africa through organizations
Meet the remaining heirs of the legendary rothschild dynastyMustakeem Chaudhri
This document profiles the current members of the prominent Rothschild banking dynasty. It introduces Nat Rothschild, who runs an advisory business in emerging markets, and other family members who are involved in finance, environmental activism, media, and classical music. The document then provides more details on individual family members, including their lineages and current activities. It aims to show that while less prominent than previous generations, today's Rothschilds still wield significant influence through their businesses, networks, and descendants who occupy important positions globally.
This document lists and provides information on the richest monarchs in the world as of 2013. It ranks Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom as the richest with a net worth of over £60 billion based on her ownership of Crown estates, palaces, jewels, art collections, and investments. The second richest is King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia with over £40 billion from oil revenues. The third richest is Sheikh Khalifa of Abu Dhabi with over £30 billion from oil reserves and investments. The list continues providing details on the significant wealth sources of each monarch, primarily from oil revenues, global properties and investments.
This article discusses the increasing pressure on Switzerland to loosen its banking secrecy laws from international partners like the EU and US. Luxembourg recently agreed to lift banking secrecy for EU citizens, potentially leaving Switzerland more isolated. Both the EU and US are pushing Switzerland to automatically share bank client information for tax purposes. While some Swiss politicians argue it's time to negotiate, others want to resist further concessions to protect the country's financial services industry.
The document discusses evidence that the recent earthquakes in Denver and Washington D.C. on August 23rd were caused by underground nuclear explosions rather than being natural occurrences. Specifically, it points to seismograph readings of the quakes which show strong P waves and weak S waves, a signature that matches underground nuclear detonations more than natural earthquakes. It also notes the unusual timing and locations of the quakes. The document then summarizes an interview where it was proposed that the nukes were detonated by "white hat" military forces to destroy underground bunker cities that were controlled by the New World Order. While speculative, the document argues the seismology evidence supports the quakes not being natural and warrants further investigation
The document discusses the extensive control and influence that the Rothschild banking family has established globally over centuries. It describes how the Rothschild family established a network of powerful banking institutions and alliances across Europe and North America. This international banking cartel, with the Rothschilds at the top, is said to covertly pull the strings of power and wield influence over governments and global affairs from behind the scenes. Some key banks and families that comprise this cartel include Rothschilds of London and Paris, Warburgs of Hamburg, Goldman Sachs, Lehmans, and Rockefellers.
This document summarizes 15 of the most impenetrable bank vaults from around the world based on their security features. Some of the vaults discussed include Fort Knox which requires a 10 person team to unlock its 22 ton vault door, the New York Federal Reserve vault which uses robots to move items around for added security, and the Bank of England gold vault whose walls are bombproof and provided protection during WWII air raids. Other extremely secure vaults mentioned are located in places like Dubai, Switzerland, Iran, and a vault in Denver, CO that is located in the room where millions were formerly counted and stored. Many of the vaults discussed have withstood explosions, fires and other disasters without being breached.
The document lists 30 little known facts about America, the IRS, IMF, and executive orders. Some key points include:
1) The IRS is an agency of the IMF, which is an agency of the UN. The US Treasury is now the IMF.
2) There is no actual US government since it has been bankrupt since the 1930s. All agencies were never actually part of the US government.
3) Social Security numbers are issued by the UN through the IMF. Social Security is not insurance and there is no trust fund. Benefits come directly from the IMF.
4) Legally, Americans own no property and are considered tenants. The most powerful court is the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania
List of the rothschild owned central banks of the worldMustakeem Chaudhri
The document lists the central banks of various countries around the world. It provides the name of each country and its corresponding central bank. There are over 180 central banks listed in total spanning countries across every inhabited continent. The central banks listed control and regulate the monetary systems of their respective nations.
The researchers from the University of Rochester have developed an "unjammable" quantum radar that uses the quantum properties of photons. The radar is able to detect any attempts to intercept and modify the radar signal, as this would change the quantum properties of the photons. Mehul Malik tested the concept by bouncing photons off a target and measuring errors in polarization of returned photons. The system imaged the target accurately without interference, but detected attempts to spoof the image, demonstrating the first unjammable quantum radar. However, the researchers note the system could still be vulnerable to more sophisticated jamming techniques.
The article discusses the ongoing "Great Culling" of the human population being carried out through covert means such as vaccines, GMOs, chemicals and other methods that promote infertility and reduce birth rates. It argues that global elites like Bill Gates and Ted Turner openly support reducing the world's population and that methods being used can function as an "intelligence test," removing "stupid genes" from the gene pool. It presents the current situation as a reality game called "Survivor" that people must work to win by ensuring their own genetic survival. It outlines seven major threats to survival/fertility and ten strategies for increasing odds of overcoming the depopulation efforts, such as avoiding poisons, growing one's own
The United States has discovered nearly $1 trillion in untapped mineral deposits in Afghanistan, including huge amounts of iron, copper, cobalt, gold and lithium. The mineral deposits are so valuable that they could transform Afghanistan's economy and potentially be developed to fund the country's economic growth. However, major challenges include the ongoing war, corruption, environmental protection concerns, and developing Afghanistan's infrastructure and capacity to manage this industry. The mineral wealth also risks fueling more conflict if not properly managed.
This document discusses the secret society of Illuminism and its beliefs. It claims that Illuminism worships Lucifer as the sun god and believes Lucifer guides the movement of the sun. It also alleges that Illuminist leaders like Albert Pike and others have secretly planned world wars to weaken nations and pave the way for a global takeover. The document warns that the ultimate goal of Illuminism is to eradicate individual characteristics of races through miscegenation to create a homogeneous, obedient slave population controlled by otherworldly gods.
Where will you be if the world does end on december 21Mustakeem Chaudhri
The document discusses various underground bunkers around the world that could potentially provide shelter for "doomsday preppers" as the end of the Mayan calendar approaches on December 21, 2012. Some key bunkers mentioned include JFK's former bunker on Peanut Island, Florida; luxurious underwater suites at the Hilton Maldives Resort; a declassified bunker in West Virginia converted to a hotel; and a former missile silo in upstate New York for sale for $1.76 million. The document also notes underground facilities in Sweden, Germany, China, and national efforts in the US to prepare for potential doomsday scenarios.
5 reasons why gold will unfortunately be worthless after the collapse of the ...Mustakeem Chaudhri
The document provides 5 reasons why gold will be worthless after the collapse of the US dollar: 1) Without currency, gold will not be able to be sold or traded for much needed goods and services. 2) There will be no US Mint workers to mint gold coins as currency since no one will be paid. 3) The government will not create a new currency and groups like the Illuminati will not introduce new currency without pay. 4) If the dollar collapses as the world's reserve currency, it will take down other national currencies as well. 5) Without paychecks or a functioning economy, gold will lose its material and industrial purpose. The document recommends buying and then selling gold just before the dollar collapse to acquire
Meet the 14th century african king who was richest man in the world of all timeMustakeem Chaudhri
1. Mansa Musa I, a 14th century king of the Malian Empire in West Africa, had the highest estimated net worth of $400 billion (adjusted for inflation). His empire's production of salt and gold contributed to his vast wealth.
2. The Rothschild family, a European banking dynasty founded in the 18th century, has a combined wealth of at least $350 billion spread across family members and businesses including mining, banks, and charities.
3. John D. Rockefeller, founder of Standard Oil, had a net worth of $340 billion at the time of his death in 1937, making him the richest American ever. He spent his later life funding scientific and medical research foundations.
Meet the 14th century african king who was richest man in the world of all time
Israel has nuclear weapons
1. WATCH THE VIDEO ON THE LINK BELOW
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QrekUKGRDR0&list=LLin_FELqihov4OmyyrACGDw
&feature=mh_lolz
Nuclear Weapons
Israel has not confirmed that it has nuclear weapons and officially maintains that it
will not be the first country to introduce nuclear weapons into the Middle East. Yet the
existence of Israeli nuclear weapons is a "public secret" by now due to the
declassification of large numbers of formerly highly classified US government
documents which show that the United States by 1975 was convinced that Israel had
nuclear weapons.
History
Israel began actively investigating the nuclear option from its earliest days. In 1949,
HEMED GIMMEL a special unit of the IDF's Science Corps, began a two-year
geological survey of the Negev desert with an eye toward the discovery of uranium
reserves. Although no significant sources of uranium were found, recoverable amounts
were located in phosphate deposits.
The program took another step forward with the creation of the Israel Atomic Energy
Commission (IAEC) in 1952. Its chairman, Ernst David Bergmann, had long
advocated an Israeli bomb as the best way to ensure "that we shall never again be led
as lambs to the slaughter." Bergmann was also head of the Ministry of Defense's
Research and Infrastructure Division (known by its Hebrew acronym, EMET), which
had taken over the HEMED research centers (HEMED GIMMEL among them, now
renamed Machon 4) as part of a reorganization. Under Bergmann, the line between the
IAEC and EMET blurred to the point that Machon 4 functioned essentially as the chief
laboratory for the IAEC. By 1953, Machon 4 had not only perfected a process for
extracting the uranium found in the Negev, but had also developed a new method of
2. producing heavy water, providing Israel with an indigenous capability to produce
some of the most important nuclear materials.
For reactor design and construction, Israel sought the assistance of France. Nuclear
cooperation between the two nations dates back as far as early 1950's, when
construction began on France's 40MWt heavy water reactor and a chemical
reprocessing plant at Marcoule. France was a natural partner for Israel and both
governments saw an independent nuclear option as a means by which they could
maintain a degree of autonomy in the bipolar environment of the cold war.
In the fall of 1956, France agreed to provide Israel with an 18 MWt research reactor.
However, the onset of the Suez Crisis a few weeks later changed the situation
dramatically. Following Egypt's closure of the Suez Canal in July, France and Britain
had agreed with Israel that the latter should provoke a war with Egypt to provide the
European nations with the pretext to send in their troops as peacekeepers to occupy
and reopen the canal zone. In the wake of the Suez Crisis, the Soviet Union made a
thinly veiled threat against the three nations. This episode not only enhanced the
Israeli view that an independent nuclear capability was needed to prevent reliance on
potentially unreliable allies, but also led to a sense of debt among French leaders that
they had failed to fulfill commitments made to a partner. French premier Guy Mollet
is even quoted as saying privately that France "owed" the bomb to Israel.
On 3 October 1957, France and Israel signed a revised agreement calling for France to
build a 24 MWt reactor (although the cooling systems and waste facilities were
designed to handle three times that power) and, in protocols that were not committed
to paper, a chemical reprocessing plant. This complex was constructed in secret, and
outside the IAEA inspection regime, by French and Israeli technicians at Dimona, in
the Negev desert under the leadership of Col. Manes Pratt of the IDF Ordinance
Corps.
Both the scale of the project and the secrecy involved made the construction of
Dimona a massive undertaking. A new intelligence agency, the Office of Science
Liasons,(LEKEM) was created to provide security and intelligence for the project. At
the height construction, some 1,500 Israelis some French workers were employed
building Dimona. To maintain secrecy, French customs officials were told that the
largest of the reactor components, such as the reactor tank, were part of a
desalinization plant bound for Latin America. In addition, after buying heavy water
from Norway on the condition that it not be transferred to a third country, the French
Air Force secretly flew as much as four tons of the substance to Israel.
Trouble arose in May 1960, when France began to pressure Israel to make the project
public and to submit to international inspections of the site, threatening to withhold the
3. reactor fuel unless they did. President de Gaulle was concerned that the inevitable
scandal following any revelations about French assistance with the project, especially
the chemical reprocessing plant, would have negative repercussions for France's
international position, already on shaky ground because of its war in Algeria.
At a subsequent meeting with Ben-Gurion, de Gaulle offered to sell Israel fighter
aircraft in exchange for stopping work on the reprocessing plant, and came away from
the meeting convinced that the matter was closed. It was not. Over the next few
months, Israel worked out a compromise. France would supply the uranium and
components already placed on order and would not insist on international inspections.
In return, Israel would assure France that they had no intention of making atomic
weapons, would not reprocess any plutonium, and would reveal the existence of the
reactor, which would be completed without French assistance. In reality, not much
changed - French contractors finished work on the reactor and reprocessing plant,
uranium fuel was delivered and the reactor went critical in 1964.
4. DIA Estimate For Israeli Nuclear Weapons
Excerpt from 160-page secret DIA report, first disclosed
and reproduced in Rowan Scarborough, Rumsfeld's
War(Regnery, 2004), pp. 194-223.
The United States first became aware of Dimona's existence after U-2 overflights in
1958 captured the facility's construction, but it was not identified as a nuclear site until
two years later. The complex was variously explained as a textile plant, an agricultural
station, and a metallurgical research facility, until David Ben-Gurion stated in
December 1960 that Dimona complex was a nuclear research center built for "peaceful
purposes."
5. There followed two decades in which the United States, through a combination of
benign neglect, erroneous analysis, and successful Israeli deception, failed to discern
first the details of Israel's nuclear program. As early as 8 December 1960, the CIA
issued a report outlining Dimona's implications for nuclear proliferation, and the CIA
station in Tel Aviv had determined by the mid-1960s that the Israeli nuclear weapons
program was an established and irreversible fact.
United States inspectors visited Dimona seven times during the 1960s, but they were
unable to obtain an accurate picture of the activities carried out there, largely due to
tight Israeli control over the timing and agenda of the visits. The Israelis went so far as
to install false control room panels and to brick over elevators and hallways that
accessed certain areas of the facility. The inspectors were able to report that there was
no clear scientific research or civilian nuclear power program justifying such a large
reactor - circumstantial evidence of the Israeli bomb program - but found no evidence
of "weapons related activities" such as the existence of a plutonium reprocessing plant.
Although the United States government did not encourage or approve of the Israeli
nuclear program, it also did nothing to stop it. Walworth Barbour, US ambassador to
Israel from 1961-73, the bomb program's crucial years, primarily saw his job as being
to insulate the President from facts which might compel him to act on the nuclear
issue, alledgedly saying at one point that "The President did not send me there to give
him problems. He does not want to be told any bad news." After the 1967 war,
Barbour even put a stop to military attach�s' intelligence collection efforts around
Dimona. Even when Barbour did authorize forwarding information, as he did in 1966
when embassy staff learned that Israel was beginning to put nuclear warheads in
missiles, the message seemed to disappear into the bureaucracy and was never acted
upon.
Nuclear Weapons Production
In early 1968, the CIA issued a report concluding that Israel had successfully started
production of nuclear weapons. This estimate, however, was based on an informal
conversation between Carl Duckett, head of the CIA's Office of Science and
Technology, and Edward Teller, father of the hydrogen bomb. Teller said that, based
on conversations with friends in the Israeli scientific and defense establishment, he
had concluded that Israel was capable of building the bomb, and that the CIA should
not wait for an Israeli test to make a final assessment because that test would never be
carried out.
CIA estimates of the Israeli arsenal's size did not improve with time. In 1974, Duckett
estimated that Israel had between ten and twenty nuclear weapons. The upper bound
was derived from CIA speculation regarding the number of possible Israeli targets,
6. and not from any specific intelligence. Because this target list was presumed to be
relatively static, this remained the official American estimate until the early 1980s.
The actual size and composition of Israel's nuclear stockpile is uncertain and the
subject of many - often conflicting - estimates and reports. It is widely reported that
Israel had two bombs in 1967, and that Prime Minister Eshkol ordered them armed in
Israel's first nuclear alert during the Six-Day War. It is also reported that, fearing
defeat in the October 1973 Yom Kippur War, the Israelis assembled 13 twenty-kiloton
atomic bombs.
Israel could potentially have produced a few dozen nuclear warheads in the period
1970-1980, and is thought to have produced sufficient fissile material to build 100 to
200 warheads by the mid-1990s. In 1986 descriptions and photographs of Israeli
nuclear warheads were published in the London Sunday Times of a purported
underground bomb factory at the Dimona nuclear reactor. The photographs were taken
by Mordechai Vanunu, a dismissed Israeli nuclear technician. His information led
some experts to conclude that Israel had a stockpile of 100 to 200 nuclear devices at
that time.
By the late 1990s the U.S. Intelligence Community estimated that Israel possessed
between 75-130 weapons, based on production estimates. The stockpile would
certainly include warheads for mobile Jericho-1 and Jericho-2 missiles, as well as
bombs for Israeli aircraft, and may include other tactical nuclear weapons of various
types. Some published estimates even claimed that Israel might have as many as 400
nuclear weapons by the late 1990s. We believe these numbers are exaggerated, and
that Israel's nuclear weapons inventory may include less than 100 nuclear weapons.
Stockpiled plutonium could be used to build additional weapons if so decided.
7. The Dimona nuclear reactor is the source of plutonium for Israeli nuclear weapons.
The number of nuclear weapons that could have been produced by Israel has generally
been estimated on the basis of assumptions about the power level of this reactor,
combined with estimates for the number of delivery vehicles (aircraft, missiles)
assigned a nuclear mission.
Information made public in 1986 by Mordechai Vanunu indicated that at that time,
weapons grade plutonium was being produced at a rate of about 40 kilograms
annually. If this figure corresponded with the steady-state capacity of the entire
Dimona facility, analysts suggested that the reactor might have a power level of at
least 150 megawatts, about twice the power level at which is was believed to be
operating around 1970. To accommodate this higher power level, analysts had
suggested that Israel had constructed an enlarged cooling system. An alternative
interpretation of the information supplied by Vanunu was that the reactor's power level
had remained at about 75 megawatts, and that the production rate of plutonium in the
early 1980s reflected a backlog of previously generated material.
The constraints on the size of Israel's stockpile include several potential variables,
several of which are generic to any nuclear weapons program. The Dimona reactor
may have operated an average of between 200 and 300 days annually, and produced
approximately 0.9 to 1.0 grams of plutonium for each thermal megawatt day. Israel
may have use between 4 and 5 kilograms of plutonium per weapon [5 kilograms is a
conservative estimate, and Vanunu reported that Israeli weapons used 4 kg].
8. The key variable that is specific to Israel is the power level of the reactor, which is
reported to be at least 75 MWt and possibly as high as 200 MWt. New high-resolution
satellite imagery provides important insight this matter. The imagery of the Dimona
nuclear reactor was acquired by the Public Eye Project of the Federation of American
Scientists from Space Imaging Corporation's IKONOS satellite. The cooling towers
associated with the Dimona reactor are clearly visible and identifiable in satellite
imagery. Comparison of recently acquired commercial IKONOS imagery with
declassified American CORONA reconnaissance satellite imagery indicates that no
new cooling towers were constructed in the years between 1971 and 2000. This
strongly suggests that the reactor's power level has not been increased significantly
during this period. This would suggest an annual production rate of plutonium of about
20 kilograms.
Based on plausible upper and lower bounds of the operating practices at the reactor,
Israel could have thus produced enough plutonium for at least 100 nuclear weapons,
but probably not significantly more than 200 weapons.
Some type of non-nuclear test, perhaps a zero yield or implosion test, occurred on 2
November 1966 [possibly at Al-Naqab in the Negev]. There is no evidence that Israel
has ever carried out a nuclear test, although many observers speculated that a
suspected nuclear explosion in the southern Indian Ocean in 1979 was a joint South
African-Israeli test.
Sources and Resources
Avner Cohen and William Burr, Israel Crosses the Thresshold, Bulletin of the
Atomic Scientists, May/June 2006
Israel Crosses the Threshold, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing
Book No. 189, April 28, 2006
Bibliography of Israeli Nuclear Science Publications by Mark Gorwitz, June
2005
Israeli Nuclear Forces, 2002, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists,
September/October 2002
The Bomb That Never Is by Avner Cohen, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists,
May/June 2000, Vol 56, No. 3 pp.22-23
Israel and the Bomb, a supporting repository on the National Security Archive
web site for Avner Cohen's book Israel and the Bomb (Columbia University
press, 1998), including declassified documents.
Obsessive secrecy undermines democracy By Reuven Pedatzur Ha'aretz.
Tuesday, August 8, 2000 -- Cohen published "Israel and the Bomb" in the
9. United States, and a Hebrew translation of the book has appeared here. In the
eyes of the defense establishment, Cohen has committed a double sin.
Fighting to preserve the tattered veil of secrecy By Ronen Bergman The
publication of Dr. Avner Cohen's book and of the Vanunu trial transcripts set
off alarm bells for the Defense Ministry's chief of security, who is striving to
protect the traditional opacity regarding Israel's nuclear affairs.
Blast, from the past to the present By Yirmiyahu Yovel Ha'aretz. 28 July 2000 -
- If, in the context of the peace agreements and talks with the United States,
Israel were to confirm its nuclear capability - while committing itself to no
nuclear testing and pledging to build its defense system on conventional
weapons as in the past - maybe then it might achieve at least de facto
recognition, if not international legitimacy, for its nuclear weaponry, to be used
only as a "last resort" and a tool for safeguarding peace after Israel withdraws.
The Third Temple's Holy Of Holies: Israel's Nuclear Weapons Warner D. Farr,
LTC, U.S. Army, September 1999
Israel: Plutonium Production The Risk Report Volume 2 Number 4 (July-
August 1996).
Israel: Uranium Processing and Enrichment The Risk Report Volume 2 Number
4 (July-August 1996).
Israel The Nuclear Potential of Individual Countries Treaty on
Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons Problems of Extension Appendix
2 Russian Federation Foreign Intelligence Service 6 April 1995
The Samson Option. Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign
Policy Seymour M Hersh, [New York: Random House, 1991]