Task 14.2 Divide into small groups of five to seven persons. Se.docxjosies1
*Task 1
4.2 Divide into small groups of five to seven persons. Select a group discussion leader and a person to record responses. Use the brainstorming guidelines to conduct a five-minute brainstorming session on the following topic. Your goal is to identify creative solutions to the problem: Employees in large companies often complain that personal worth perception is low. They feel that the company does not overtly reward them for their contributions and set procedures that allow them to be most productive and creative.
* Based on the problem given in 4.2, complete the following tasks:
a. Brainstorm how the company can reward efforts and increase the perception of personal worth other than issuing pay increases.
b. Use nominal group technique to find the best solution to the employee personal-worth perception problem. Consider the solutions from the brainstorming activity and select the "best" solution from that set.
c. Use consensus decision making with the goal of selecting a solution to the employee personalworth perception problem to which all members of the group can commit
*Task 2
5.1 Develop a set of general frames to codify the following:
• A horse
• A student
• An airline pilot
Use these frames and describe the following:
• Flashdance, an 18-hand thoroughbred
• Brenda, a medium-height, fourth-year liberal arts students
• Fred, a 30-year veteran airline captain
*Task 3
5.2 Someone suggested two types of potential knowledge developers: “Send me a well-developed computer programmer or a programmer competent in several languages, and we’ll make him or her into a successful knowledge developer.”
and
“Send me a talented generalist with well-developed interpersonal skills or somewhat more delicately, ‘a user friendly person’ and a rigorously analytical mind, and we’ll team him or her with a competent knowledge developer.”
In your opinion, which approach would be more successful in knowledge development? Why?
*Task 4
Task 1: Implementation of Knowledge Management
7.1 Give your views on failure of implementation of knowledge management at a global company based on five distinct stages of knowledge management:
Stage 1: Advocate and learn Stage
2: Develop strategy Stage
3: Design and launch KM initiatives Stage
4: Expand and support initiatives Stage
5: Institutionalize knowledge management
Case study: A global company (Source: Chua, A. and Lam, W., “Why KM projects fail: a multi-case analysis”, Journal of Knowledge Management, vol. 9, no. 3 (2005).)
A global company, which was one of the top ten organizations in its industry, lost a number of deals because of its inability to offer integrated solutions in the order handling line of business. In response, the management commissioned a KM project known as Alpha with the objective to create a “blueprint for gaining and maintaining global order handling services market leadership”. Underpinning Alpha was a comprehensive attempt to manage the knowledge across the company.
W.
This document discusses business ethics and defines key related concepts. It begins by describing two perspectives on business ethics - descriptive, which documents current practices, and normative, which evaluates the ethicalness of practices. It identifies stakeholders as those with interest in a business. It discusses debates around whether business ethics is an oxymoron and the role of codes of ethics. It outlines a history of business ethics and challenges employees face when confronting unethical behaviors. It provides guidance on resolving ethical dilemmas and justifying behaviors. Finally, it stresses the importance of developing detailed codes of ethics and supporting employees to build an ethical business culture.
Bechtel code of conduct (incluye mail no privacidad)Andres Baytelman
This document provides Bechtel's Code of Conduct which summarizes the company's standards and policies regarding business ethics. It addresses topics such as diversity and fair employment, environmental and safety standards, accurate record keeping, conflicts of interest, anti-corruption, and political activities. The Code of Conduct applies to all Bechtel employees globally and is intended to help employees recognize and appropriately handle any ethics issues that may arise. It provides guidance, examples, and resources for addressing questions or reporting violations.
MGT630 Understanding and Economic Impacts of Sustainability.docx4934bk
This document provides an overview and copyright information for the textbook "Business & Society: Ethics, Sustainability, and Stakeholder Management". It lists the authors, publisher, copyright details, and table of contents. The textbook covers topics such as corporate social responsibility, stakeholder management, business ethics, and the relationship between business and society. It is intended to provide a managerial approach and focus on sustainability and stakeholder themes.
57268
File Attachment
Cover.jpg
FFIRS3GXML 10/20/2012 0:58:24 Page 4
FFIRS3GXML 10/20/2012 0:58:24 Page 1
�F O U R T H E D I T I O N
ETHICS
AND
TECHNOLOGY
Controversies, Questions, and Strategies
for Ethical Computing
HERMAN T. TAVANI
Rivier University
FFIRS3GXML 10/20/2012 0:58:24 Page 2
VP & Executive Publisher: Donald Fowley
Executive Editor: Beth Lang Golub
Editorial Assistant: Katherine Willis
Marketing Manager: Chris Ruel
Marketing Assistant: Marissa Carroll
Associate Production Manager: Joyce Poh
Production Editor: Jolene Ling
Designer: Kenji Ngieng
Cover Photo Credit: Bernhard Lang/Getty Images, Inc.
Production Management Services: Thomson Digital
This book was set in 10/12 TimesTenLTStd-Roman by Thomson Digital, and printed and bound by Edwards Brothers Malloy.
The cover was printed by Edwards Brothers Malloy.
This book is printed on acid free paper.
Founded in 1807, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. has been a valued source of knowledge and understanding for more than 200 years,
helping people around the world meet their needs and fulfill their aspirations. Our company is built on a foundation of principles
that include responsibility to the communities we serve and where we live and work. In 2008, we launched a Corporate
Citizenship Initiative, a global effort to address the environmental, social, economic, and ethical challenges we face in our
business. Among the issues we are addressing are carbon impact, paper specifications and procurement, ethical conduct within
our business and among our vendors, and community and charitable support. For more information, please visit our website:
www.wiley.com/go/citizenship.
Copyright # 2013, 2011, 2007, 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording,
scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the
prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright
Clearance Center, Inc. 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, website www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for
permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030-
5774, (201)748-6011, fax (201)748-6008, website http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
Evaluation copies are provided to qualified academics and professionals for review purposes only, for use in their courses during
the next academic year. These copies are licensed and may not be sold or transferred to a third party. Upon completion of the
review period, please return the evaluation copy to Wiley. Return instructions and a free of charge return mailing label are
available at www.wiley.com/go/returnlabel. If you have chosen to adopt this textbook for use in your course, please accep ...
57268
File Attachment
Cover.jpg
FFIRS3GXML 10/20/2012 0:58:24 Page 4
FFIRS3GXML 10/20/2012 0:58:24 Page 1
�F O U R T H E D I T I O N
ETHICS
AND
TECHNOLOGY
Controversies, Questions, and Strategies
for Ethical Computing
HERMAN T. TAVANI
Rivier University
FFIRS3GXML 10/20/2012 0:58:24 Page 2
VP & Executive Publisher: Donald Fowley
Executive Editor: Beth Lang Golub
Editorial Assistant: Katherine Willis
Marketing Manager: Chris Ruel
Marketing Assistant: Marissa Carroll
Associate Production Manager: Joyce Poh
Production Editor: Jolene Ling
Designer: Kenji Ngieng
Cover Photo Credit: Bernhard Lang/Getty Images, Inc.
Production Management Services: Thomson Digital
This book was set in 10/12 TimesTenLTStd-Roman by Thomson Digital, and printed and bound by Edwards Brothers Malloy.
The cover was printed by Edwards Brothers Malloy.
This book is printed on acid free paper.
Founded in 1807, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. has been a valued source of knowledge and understanding for more than 200 years,
helping people around the world meet their needs and fulfill their aspirations. Our company is built on a foundation of principles
that include responsibility to the communities we serve and where we live and work. In 2008, we launched a Corporate
Citizenship Initiative, a global effort to address the environmental, social, economic, and ethical challenges we face in our
business. Among the issues we are addressing are carbon impact, paper specifications and procurement, ethical conduct within
our business and among our vendors, and community and charitable support. For more information, please visit our website:
www.wiley.com/go/citizenship.
Copyright # 2013, 2011, 2007, 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording,
scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the
prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright
Clearance Center, Inc. 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, website www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for
permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030-
5774, (201)748-6011, fax (201)748-6008, website http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
Evaluation copies are provided to qualified academics and professionals for review purposes only, for use in their courses during
the next academic year. These copies are licensed and may not be sold or transferred to a third party. Upon completion of the
review period, please return the evaluation copy to Wiley. Return instructions and a free of charge return mailing label are
available at www.wiley.com/go/returnlabel. If you have chosen to adopt this textbook for use in your course, please accep.
Task 14.2 Divide into small groups of five to seven persons. Se.docxjosies1
*Task 1
4.2 Divide into small groups of five to seven persons. Select a group discussion leader and a person to record responses. Use the brainstorming guidelines to conduct a five-minute brainstorming session on the following topic. Your goal is to identify creative solutions to the problem: Employees in large companies often complain that personal worth perception is low. They feel that the company does not overtly reward them for their contributions and set procedures that allow them to be most productive and creative.
* Based on the problem given in 4.2, complete the following tasks:
a. Brainstorm how the company can reward efforts and increase the perception of personal worth other than issuing pay increases.
b. Use nominal group technique to find the best solution to the employee personal-worth perception problem. Consider the solutions from the brainstorming activity and select the "best" solution from that set.
c. Use consensus decision making with the goal of selecting a solution to the employee personalworth perception problem to which all members of the group can commit
*Task 2
5.1 Develop a set of general frames to codify the following:
• A horse
• A student
• An airline pilot
Use these frames and describe the following:
• Flashdance, an 18-hand thoroughbred
• Brenda, a medium-height, fourth-year liberal arts students
• Fred, a 30-year veteran airline captain
*Task 3
5.2 Someone suggested two types of potential knowledge developers: “Send me a well-developed computer programmer or a programmer competent in several languages, and we’ll make him or her into a successful knowledge developer.”
and
“Send me a talented generalist with well-developed interpersonal skills or somewhat more delicately, ‘a user friendly person’ and a rigorously analytical mind, and we’ll team him or her with a competent knowledge developer.”
In your opinion, which approach would be more successful in knowledge development? Why?
*Task 4
Task 1: Implementation of Knowledge Management
7.1 Give your views on failure of implementation of knowledge management at a global company based on five distinct stages of knowledge management:
Stage 1: Advocate and learn Stage
2: Develop strategy Stage
3: Design and launch KM initiatives Stage
4: Expand and support initiatives Stage
5: Institutionalize knowledge management
Case study: A global company (Source: Chua, A. and Lam, W., “Why KM projects fail: a multi-case analysis”, Journal of Knowledge Management, vol. 9, no. 3 (2005).)
A global company, which was one of the top ten organizations in its industry, lost a number of deals because of its inability to offer integrated solutions in the order handling line of business. In response, the management commissioned a KM project known as Alpha with the objective to create a “blueprint for gaining and maintaining global order handling services market leadership”. Underpinning Alpha was a comprehensive attempt to manage the knowledge across the company.
W.
This document discusses business ethics and defines key related concepts. It begins by describing two perspectives on business ethics - descriptive, which documents current practices, and normative, which evaluates the ethicalness of practices. It identifies stakeholders as those with interest in a business. It discusses debates around whether business ethics is an oxymoron and the role of codes of ethics. It outlines a history of business ethics and challenges employees face when confronting unethical behaviors. It provides guidance on resolving ethical dilemmas and justifying behaviors. Finally, it stresses the importance of developing detailed codes of ethics and supporting employees to build an ethical business culture.
Bechtel code of conduct (incluye mail no privacidad)Andres Baytelman
This document provides Bechtel's Code of Conduct which summarizes the company's standards and policies regarding business ethics. It addresses topics such as diversity and fair employment, environmental and safety standards, accurate record keeping, conflicts of interest, anti-corruption, and political activities. The Code of Conduct applies to all Bechtel employees globally and is intended to help employees recognize and appropriately handle any ethics issues that may arise. It provides guidance, examples, and resources for addressing questions or reporting violations.
MGT630 Understanding and Economic Impacts of Sustainability.docx4934bk
This document provides an overview and copyright information for the textbook "Business & Society: Ethics, Sustainability, and Stakeholder Management". It lists the authors, publisher, copyright details, and table of contents. The textbook covers topics such as corporate social responsibility, stakeholder management, business ethics, and the relationship between business and society. It is intended to provide a managerial approach and focus on sustainability and stakeholder themes.
57268
File Attachment
Cover.jpg
FFIRS3GXML 10/20/2012 0:58:24 Page 4
FFIRS3GXML 10/20/2012 0:58:24 Page 1
�F O U R T H E D I T I O N
ETHICS
AND
TECHNOLOGY
Controversies, Questions, and Strategies
for Ethical Computing
HERMAN T. TAVANI
Rivier University
FFIRS3GXML 10/20/2012 0:58:24 Page 2
VP & Executive Publisher: Donald Fowley
Executive Editor: Beth Lang Golub
Editorial Assistant: Katherine Willis
Marketing Manager: Chris Ruel
Marketing Assistant: Marissa Carroll
Associate Production Manager: Joyce Poh
Production Editor: Jolene Ling
Designer: Kenji Ngieng
Cover Photo Credit: Bernhard Lang/Getty Images, Inc.
Production Management Services: Thomson Digital
This book was set in 10/12 TimesTenLTStd-Roman by Thomson Digital, and printed and bound by Edwards Brothers Malloy.
The cover was printed by Edwards Brothers Malloy.
This book is printed on acid free paper.
Founded in 1807, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. has been a valued source of knowledge and understanding for more than 200 years,
helping people around the world meet their needs and fulfill their aspirations. Our company is built on a foundation of principles
that include responsibility to the communities we serve and where we live and work. In 2008, we launched a Corporate
Citizenship Initiative, a global effort to address the environmental, social, economic, and ethical challenges we face in our
business. Among the issues we are addressing are carbon impact, paper specifications and procurement, ethical conduct within
our business and among our vendors, and community and charitable support. For more information, please visit our website:
www.wiley.com/go/citizenship.
Copyright # 2013, 2011, 2007, 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording,
scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the
prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright
Clearance Center, Inc. 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, website www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for
permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030-
5774, (201)748-6011, fax (201)748-6008, website http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
Evaluation copies are provided to qualified academics and professionals for review purposes only, for use in their courses during
the next academic year. These copies are licensed and may not be sold or transferred to a third party. Upon completion of the
review period, please return the evaluation copy to Wiley. Return instructions and a free of charge return mailing label are
available at www.wiley.com/go/returnlabel. If you have chosen to adopt this textbook for use in your course, please accep ...
57268
File Attachment
Cover.jpg
FFIRS3GXML 10/20/2012 0:58:24 Page 4
FFIRS3GXML 10/20/2012 0:58:24 Page 1
�F O U R T H E D I T I O N
ETHICS
AND
TECHNOLOGY
Controversies, Questions, and Strategies
for Ethical Computing
HERMAN T. TAVANI
Rivier University
FFIRS3GXML 10/20/2012 0:58:24 Page 2
VP & Executive Publisher: Donald Fowley
Executive Editor: Beth Lang Golub
Editorial Assistant: Katherine Willis
Marketing Manager: Chris Ruel
Marketing Assistant: Marissa Carroll
Associate Production Manager: Joyce Poh
Production Editor: Jolene Ling
Designer: Kenji Ngieng
Cover Photo Credit: Bernhard Lang/Getty Images, Inc.
Production Management Services: Thomson Digital
This book was set in 10/12 TimesTenLTStd-Roman by Thomson Digital, and printed and bound by Edwards Brothers Malloy.
The cover was printed by Edwards Brothers Malloy.
This book is printed on acid free paper.
Founded in 1807, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. has been a valued source of knowledge and understanding for more than 200 years,
helping people around the world meet their needs and fulfill their aspirations. Our company is built on a foundation of principles
that include responsibility to the communities we serve and where we live and work. In 2008, we launched a Corporate
Citizenship Initiative, a global effort to address the environmental, social, economic, and ethical challenges we face in our
business. Among the issues we are addressing are carbon impact, paper specifications and procurement, ethical conduct within
our business and among our vendors, and community and charitable support. For more information, please visit our website:
www.wiley.com/go/citizenship.
Copyright # 2013, 2011, 2007, 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording,
scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the
prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright
Clearance Center, Inc. 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, website www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for
permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030-
5774, (201)748-6011, fax (201)748-6008, website http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
Evaluation copies are provided to qualified academics and professionals for review purposes only, for use in their courses during
the next academic year. These copies are licensed and may not be sold or transferred to a third party. Upon completion of the
review period, please return the evaluation copy to Wiley. Return instructions and a free of charge return mailing label are
available at www.wiley.com/go/returnlabel. If you have chosen to adopt this textbook for use in your course, please accep.
This document is Lockheed Martin's Code of Ethics and Business Conduct. It provides guidance to employees on ethical standards and compliance with laws and regulations. The Code emphasizes integrity, respecting others, and performing with excellence. It addresses topics like discrimination, conflicts of interest, accurate record keeping, and protecting sensitive information. Employees are responsible for understanding and upholding the standards in the Code. Violations should be reported, and there is no retaliation against employees who report concerns in good faith.
3GFPREF 10/01/2013 11:12:37 Page xvi
3GFFIRS1 10/15/2013 15:26:35 Page i
MANAGING BUSINESS ETHICS
Straight Talk about How To Do It Right
Sixth Edition
LINDA KLEBE TREVI ~NO
Distinguished Professor of Organizational Behavior and Ethics
Smeal College of Business
The Pennsylvania State University
KATHERINE A. NELSON
Instructor
Fox School of Business
Temple University
3GFFIRS1 10/15/2013 15:26:36 Page ii
VICE PRESIDEN T & EXECUTIVE PUBLISH ER George Hoffman
EXECUTIVE EDITOR Lis�e Johnson
PROJECT EDITOR Brian Baker
EDITORIAL ASSIS TANT Jacqueline Hughes
DIRECTOR OF MARKETI NG Amy Scholz
SENIOR MARKETI NG MANAGER Kelly Simmons
MARKETING ASSISTANT Juliette San Fillipo
DESIGN DIRECTOR Harry Nolan
PRODUCT DESIGN ER Allison Morris
SENIOR PRODUCTI ON MANAGER Janis Soo
ASSOCIAT E PRODUCTION MANAGER Joel Balbin
PRODUCTION EDITOR Yee Lyn Song
COVER DESIGN ER Kenji Ngieng
COVER PHOTO CREDIT # na rvikk/Getty Images
This book was set in 10/12 Times Roman by Thomson Digital and printed and bound by Courier Westford. The cover
was printed by Courier Westford.
This book is printed on acid-free paper. �1
Founded in 1807, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. has been a valued source of knowledge and understanding for more than
200 years, helping people around the world meet their needs and fulfill their aspirations. Our company is built on a
foundation of principles that include responsibility to the communities we serve and where we live and work. In 2008,
we launched a Corporate Citizenship Initiative, a global effort to address the environmental, social, economic, and
ethical challenges we face in our business. Among the issues we are addressing are carbon impact, paper specifications
and procurement, ethical conduct within our business and among our vendors, and community and charitable support.
For more information, please visit our website: www.wiley.com/go/citizenship.
Copyr ig ht # 2014, 2011, 2007, 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act,
wi th ou t e it he r t he pr io r w ritte n p er mi ss i on o f t he P ub lis he r, or a uth or iz atio n t hr oug h pa ym ent of t he a pp ro pri at e p er- co py
fe e t o t h e Co py ri gh t C le ar an ce Ce nt e r, In c. 22 2 Ro sewoo d D rive , D anve rs , M A 0 19 23 , we bs i te ww w. copyr ig ht .c om.
Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111
River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774, (201)748-6011, fax (201)748-6008, website http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
Evaluation copies are provided to qualified academics and professionals for review purposes only, for use in their
courses during the next academic year. These copies are license.
3GFPREF 10/01/2013 11:12:37 Page xvi
3GFFIRS1 10/15/2013 15:26:35 Page i
MANAGING BUSINESS ETHICS
Straight Talk about How To Do It Right
Sixth Edition
LINDA KLEBE TREVI ~NO
Distinguished Professor of Organizational Behavior and Ethics
Smeal College of Business
The Pennsylvania State University
KATHERINE A. NELSON
Instructor
Fox School of Business
Temple University
3GFFIRS1 10/15/2013 15:26:36 Page ii
VICE PRESIDEN T & EXECUTIVE PUBLISH ER George Hoffman
EXECUTIVE EDITOR Lis�e Johnson
PROJECT EDITOR Brian Baker
EDITORIAL ASSIS TANT Jacqueline Hughes
DIRECTOR OF MARKETI NG Amy Scholz
SENIOR MARKETI NG MANAGER Kelly Simmons
MARKETING ASSISTANT Juliette San Fillipo
DESIGN DIRECTOR Harry Nolan
PRODUCT DESIGN ER Allison Morris
SENIOR PRODUCTI ON MANAGER Janis Soo
ASSOCIAT E PRODUCTION MANAGER Joel Balbin
PRODUCTION EDITOR Yee Lyn Song
COVER DESIGN ER Kenji Ngieng
COVER PHOTO CREDIT # na rvikk/Getty Images
This book was set in 10/12 Times Roman by Thomson Digital and printed and bound by Courier Westford. The cover
was printed by Courier Westford.
This book is printed on acid-free paper. �1
Founded in 1807, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. has been a valued source of knowledge and understanding for more than
200 years, helping people around the world meet their needs and fulfill their aspirations. Our company is built on a
foundation of principles that include responsibility to the communities we serve and where we live and work. In 2008,
we launched a Corporate Citizenship Initiative, a global effort to address the environmental, social, economic, and
ethical challenges we face in our business. Among the issues we are addressing are carbon impact, paper specifications
and procurement, ethical conduct within our business and among our vendors, and community and charitable support.
For more information, please visit our website: www.wiley.com/go/citizenship.
Copyr ig ht # 2014, 2011, 2007, 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act,
wi th ou t e it he r t he pr io r w ritte n p er mi ss i on o f t he P ub lis he r, or a uth or iz atio n t hr oug h pa ym ent of t he a pp ro pri at e p er- co py
fe e t o t h e Co py ri gh t C le ar an ce Ce nt e r, In c. 22 2 Ro sewoo d D rive , D anve rs , M A 0 19 23 , we bs i te ww w. copyr ig ht .c om.
Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111
River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774, (201)748-6011, fax (201)748-6008, website http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
Evaluation copies are provided to qualified academics and professionals for review purposes only, for use in their
courses during the next academic year. These copies are license.
This document provides a table of contents for a book on business ethics. It outlines three parts that define and discuss business ethics from different perspectives. Part 1 defines business ethics and explores ethical theories and dilemmas. Part 2 examines the practice of business ethics through lenses of organizational ethics, corporate social responsibility, corporate governance, and the role of government. Part 3 considers the future of business ethics in relation to globalization and maintaining ethical standards in competitive markets. The table of contents previews key topics, chapters, and elements that will be covered in each part of the book.
This document summarizes a study of Philadelphia's arts and culture sector from 2007 to 2011. It finds that:
1) Most organizations remained financially weak, with over 70% living in a vulnerable state with weak business models and limited cash reserves.
2) Competition in the sector increased during this period, as the number of organizations grew.
3) The market was in a period of transition, with major shifts including institutions in crisis, high-profile mergers, and changes in philanthropic support.
4) Common assumptions that increased scale, marketing spending, fundraising staff, or focus on artistic quality alone would lead to growth and financial stability are questioned by the study's findings.
Office administration – grade 11 petty cash book test name SAHIL781034
This document summarizes Dennis Gioia's reflections on his involvement in the infamous Pinto fires case from the 1970s while working at Ford Motor Company. As the vehicle recall coordinator, Gioia had opportunities to initiate recalls regarding fuel tank problems in the Pinto but voted not to on both occasions. Gioia believes his decision process, which is often cited as an example of unethical corporate behavior, was influenced by normal human tendencies to develop cognitive shortcuts and schemas to simplify overwhelming information. Rather than accusations that he did not truly hold strong values or was intimidated, Gioia argues a more plausible explanation is how organizational complexity can impact moral decision-making.
How to Write an Essay on Drunk Driving. Texting and Driving vs. Drinking and Driving Essay - Free Essay Example. Drunk Driving Essay - Kevin Tulsie English Composition Better Be .... Writing drunk driving persuasive essay - copywritingname.web.fc2.com. Essay on drunk driving can be stopped - eassaywritting.x.fc2.com. Drinking whike driving essay. Research paper on drinking and driving - The Best Place to Buy Same day .... Drunk Driving - Person Drives Under the Influence of Alcohol - Free .... Essay On Drink Driving in English || Drunken driving essay || lets ....
Reforming the entrepreneurship ecosystem in post revolutionary egypt and tunisiaHany Sewilam Abdel Hamid
This document summarizes a report by Amr Adly on reforming entrepreneurship ecosystems in post-revolutionary Egypt and Tunisia. It examines barriers to entrepreneurship through surveys of entrepreneurs in both countries. Key findings include:
- Entrepreneurs in Egypt and Tunisia face significant barriers related to property rights and rule of law, including difficulties registering businesses and enforcing contracts. Access to finance, especially for small and young businesses, is also a major challenge.
- In Egypt, informality is widespread due to the costs of formalization, and informal entrepreneurs report higher exposure to corruption. Contract enforcement and access to finance also vary by gender and region.
- Tunisian entrepreneurs similarly struggle with access to finance
Fast Essay Writing Service Writing Services, Essay Writing, AcademicKristen Wilson
1. The document discusses the importance of an "incarnational apologetics" approach, where one validates the information they share about Christianity through their outward behavior and lifestyle.
2. It argues that evangelism involves both communicating proper information about Christianity, as well as living out one's faith in a way that validates this information to others.
3. The author provides an example of a Muslim man who converted to Christianity not primarily because of logical arguments, but because he saw evidence of a transformed life in how his Christian friend cared for and treated him consistently over time.
This document discusses barriers that have prevented small businesses from engaging in sustainable business practices and opportunities for them through IoT technologies. Some key barriers include small businesses being overlooked by environmental groups, regulators, and consultants who focus on large corporations due to scale; and internal inertia within small businesses due to lack of awareness, high perceived costs, and uncertainty around the process. However, IoT solutions can now help small businesses operate more efficiently and sustainably through applications like smart lighting, windows, HVAC, fleet management, and water conservation sensors to reduce costs and enhance competitiveness. Resources are also available to help small businesses assess priorities and fund sustainability initiatives.
The document provides instructions for creating an account on HelpWriting.net to request writing assistance services such as paper writing. The 5-step process involves 1) creating an account, 2) completing an order form with instructions and deadline, 3) reviewing writer bids and choosing one, 4) reviewing the completed paper, and 5) requesting revisions if needed. The site promises original, high-quality content and refunds for plagiarized work.
The author describes their grandmother as their hero who had a significant positive influence on their life. Through her devotion to her Christian faith and unconditional love, she helped shape the author into also becoming a Christian and thankful mother. The grandmother played a key role in the author accepting Jesus Christ after explaining what it meant to let the Lord into one's heart. This changed the course of the author's life.
How To Improve Print Handwriting Worksheets FDawn Robertson
1. The document discusses how to improve print handwriting worksheets by creating an account on HelpWriting.net, completing an order form with instructions and deadline, and reviewing bids from writers to choose one and place a deposit to start the assignment.
2. After receiving the paper, the customer ensures it meets expectations. If satisfied, they authorize payment for the writer. HelpWriting.net offers free revisions and stands by its promise to provide original, high-quality content or offer a full refund.
3. Customers can request multiple revisions to ensure satisfaction with the writing assistance received from HelpWriting.net.
Issues Identify at least seven issues you see in the case1..docxbagotjesusa
Issues: Identify at least seven issues you see in the case
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
What is the Key issue you see in the case: __________________________
What facts pertain to the case: Identify at least three important facts that pertain to the case
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
What assumptions do you plan to make in your analysis: None is an acceptable answer
1.
2.
3
What people and organizations may have an impact on the case: There should be at least five.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
You are writing the case from the perspective of which person or organization:______________
What tools of Analysis would you use in this case: You only need to identify them and explain what information each will give you that you feel is important.
Based upon the above information – provide three alternatives
Alternative 1 is the Status Quo or to do nothing different that the current situation.
Identify at least three arguments in favor and three against this approach
Pros
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Cons
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Alternative 2 ____________________________________________________
Identify at least three arguments in favor and three against this approach
Pros
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Cons
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Alternative 3 ______________________________________________
Identify at least three arguments in favor and three against this approach
Pros
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Cons
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Given the information above select your recommended alternative and explain why you feel it is the best alternative: This should take three to five paragraphs and be based upon the information presented in your case.
.
Issues and disagreements between management and employees lead.docxbagotjesusa
Issues and disagreements between management and employees lead to formation of labor unions. Over the decades, the role of labor unions has been interpreted in various ways by employees across the globe.
What are some of the reasons employees join labor unions?
Did you ever belong to a labor union? If you did, do you think union membership benefited you?
If you've never belonged to a union, do you think it would have benefited you in your current or past employment? Why or why not?
.
ISSA Journal September 2008Article Title Article Author.docxbagotjesusa
ISSA Journal | September 2008Article Title | Article Author
1�1�
ISSA The Global Voice of Information Security
Extending the McCumber Cube
to Model Network Defense
By Sean M. Price – ISSA member Northern Virginia, USA chapter
This article proposes an extension to the McCumber
Cube information security model to determine the best
countermeasures to achieve a desired security goal.
Confidentiality, integrity, and availability are the se-curity services of a system. In other words they are the security goals of system defense, intangible at-
tributes� providing assurances for the information protected.
Each service is realized when the appropriate countermea-
sures for a given information state are in place. But, it is not
enough to select countermeasures ad hoc. Countermeasures
should be selected to defend a system and its information
against specific types of attacks. When attacks against partic-
ular information states are considered, the necessary coun-
termeasures can be selected to achieve the desired security
service or goal. This article proposes an extension to the Mc-
Cumber Cube information security model as a way for the
security practitioner to consider the best countermeasures to
achieve the desired security goal.
Security models
Models are useful tools to help understand complex topics. A
well-developed model can often be represented graphically,
allowing a deeper understanding of the relationships of the
components that make the whole. A formal security model
is broadly applicable and rigorously developed using formal
methods.2 In contrast, an informal model is considered lack-
ing one or both of these qualities. There are a variety of in-
formal models in the information security world which are
regularly used by security practitioners to understand basic
information and concepts.
� Security goals often lack explicit definitions and are difficult to quantify. They are
usually based on policies with broad interpretations and tend to be qualitative. It is
true that security goals emerge from the confluence of information states and coun-
termeasures which have measurable attributes. But, the subjective nature of security
goals combined with informal modeling characterizes their attributes as intangible.
2 P. T. Devanbu and S. Stubblebine, “Software Engineering for Security: A Roadmap,”
Proceedings of the Conference on The Future of Software Engineering (2000), 227-239.
One such informal model is the generally accepted risk as-
sessment framework. This model is used to assess risk by
estimating asset values, vulnerabilities, threats with their
likelihood of exploiting a vulnerability, and losses. Figure �
illustrates this model. Note that this commonly used model
requires a substantial amount of estimating on the part of
the risk assessment participants. This is problematic when
reliable estimates cannot be obtained. Another problem with
this model is that it does not guide th.
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Founded in 1807, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. has been a valued source of knowledge and understanding for more than
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Issues Identify at least seven issues you see in the case1..docxbagotjesusa
Issues: Identify at least seven issues you see in the case
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
What is the Key issue you see in the case: __________________________
What facts pertain to the case: Identify at least three important facts that pertain to the case
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
What assumptions do you plan to make in your analysis: None is an acceptable answer
1.
2.
3
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
You are writing the case from the perspective of which person or organization:______________
What tools of Analysis would you use in this case: You only need to identify them and explain what information each will give you that you feel is important.
Based upon the above information – provide three alternatives
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Identify at least three arguments in favor and three against this approach
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1.
2.
3.
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5.
Cons
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Alternative 2 ____________________________________________________
Identify at least three arguments in favor and three against this approach
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1.
2.
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Cons
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3.
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5.
Alternative 3 ______________________________________________
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5.
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ISSA Journal | September 2008Article Title | Article Author
1�1�
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This article proposes an extension to the McCumber
Cube information security model to determine the best
countermeasures to achieve a desired security goal.
Confidentiality, integrity, and availability are the se-curity services of a system. In other words they are the security goals of system defense, intangible at-
tributes� providing assurances for the information protected.
Each service is realized when the appropriate countermea-
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should be selected to defend a system and its information
against specific types of attacks. When attacks against partic-
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allowing a deeper understanding of the relationships of the
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methods.2 In contrast, an informal model is considered lack-
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regularly used by security practitioners to understand basic
information and concepts.
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usually based on policies with broad interpretations and tend to be qualitative. It is
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2 P. T. Devanbu and S. Stubblebine, “Software Engineering for Security: A Roadmap,”
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requires a substantial amount of estimating on the part of
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reliable estimates cannot be obtained. Another problem with
this model is that it does not guide th.
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ISOL 536
Security Architecture and Design
Threat Modeling
Session 6a
“Processing Threats”
Agenda
• When to find threats
• Playing chess
• How to approach software
• Tracking threats and assumptions
• Customer/vendor
• The API threat model
• Reading: Chapter 7
When to Find Threats
• Start at the beginning of your project
– Create a model of what you’re building
– Do a first pass for threats
• Dig deep as you work through features
– Think about how threats apply to your mitigations
• Check your design & model matches as you
get close to shipping
Attackers Respond to Your Defenses
Playing Chess
• The ideal attacker will follow the road you
defend
– Ideal attackers are like spherical cows — they’re a
useful model for some things
• Real attackers will go around your defenses
• Your defenses need to be broad and deep
“Orders of Mitigation”
Order Threat Mitigation
1st Window smashing Reinforced glass
2nd Window smashing Alarm
3rd Cut alarm wire Heartbeat signal
4th Fake heartbeat Cryptographic signal integrity
By Example:
• Thus window smashing is a first order threat, cutting
alarm wire, a third-order threat
• Easy to get stuck arguing about orders
• Are both stronger glass & alarms 1st order
mitigations? (Who cares?!)
• Focus on the concept of interplay between
mitigations & further attacks
How to Approach Software
• Depth first
– The most fun and “instinctual”
– Keep following threats to see where they go
– Can be useful skill development, promoting “flow”
• Breadth first
– The most conservative use of time
• Best when time is limited
– Most likely to result in good coverage
Tracking Threats and Assumptions
• There are an infinite number of ways to
structure this
• Use the one that works reliably for you
• (Hope doesn’t work reliably)
Example Threat Tracking Tables
Diagram Element Threat Type Threat Bug ID
Data flow #4, web
server to business
logic
Tampering Add orders without
payment checks
4553 “Need
integrity controls on
channel”
Info disclosure Payment
instruments sent in
clear
4554 “need crypto”
#PCI
Threat Type Diagram Element(s) Threat Bug ID
Tampering Web browser Attacker modifies
our JavaScript order
checking
4556 “Add order-
checking logic to
server”
Data flow #2 from
browser to server
Failure to
authenticate
4557 “Add enforce
HTTPS everywhere”
Both are fine, help you iterate over diagrams in different ways
Example Assumption Tracking
Assumption Impact if it’s
wrong
Who to talk
to
Who’s
following up
Follow-up
by date
Bug #
It’s ok to
ignore
denial of
service
within the
data center
Availability
will be
below spec
Alice Bob April 15 4555
• Impact is sometimes so obvious it’s not worth filling out
• Who to talk to is not always obvious, it’s ok to start out blank
• Tracking assumptions in bugs helps you not lose track
• Treat the assumption as a bug – you need to resolve it
The Customer/Vendor Boundary
• There is always.
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ISOL 533 Project Part 1
Overview
Write paper in sections
Understand the company
Find similar situations
Research and apply possible solutions
Research and find other issues
Health network inc
You are an Information Technology (IT) intern
Health Network Inc.
Headquartered in Minneapolis, Minnesota
Two other locations
Portland Oregon
Arlington Virginia
Over 600 employees
$500 million USD annual revenue
Data centers
Each location is near a data center
Managed by a third-party vendor
Production centers located at the data centers
Health network’s Three products
HNetExchange
Handles secure electronic medical messages between
Large customers such as hospitals and
Small customers such as clinics
HNetPay
Web Portal to support secure payments
Accepts various payment methods
HNetConnect
Allows customers to find Doctors
Contains profiles of doctors, clinics and patients
Health networks IT network
Three corporate data centers
Over 1000 data severs
650 corporate laptops
Other mobile devices
Management request
Current risk assessment outdated
Your assignment is to create a new one
Additional threats may be found during re-evaluation
No budget has been set on the project
Threats identified
Loss of company data due to hardware being removed from production systems
Loss of company information on lost or stolen company-owned assets, such as mobile devices and laptops
Loss of customers due to production outages caused by various events, such as natural disasters, change management, unstable software, and so on
Internet threats due to company products being accessible on the Internet
Insider threats
Changes in regulatory landscape that may impact operations
Part 1 project assignment
Conduct a risk assessment based on the information from this presentation
Write a 5-page paper properly APA formatted
Your paper should include
The Scope of the risk assessment i.e. assets, people, processes, and technologies
Tools used to conduct the risk assessment
Risk assessment findings
Business Impact Analysis
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Is the United States of America a democracy?
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Define and discuss the criteria for democracy.
What does a country need to be democratic?
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Clearly state whether or not you think America is a democracy. Briefly preview the three pieces of evidence you are going to use. Your thesis statement is your argument. It must be clear and strongly stated so I know what you are arguing.
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Supporting Evidence 2 (1-3 Paragraphs)
Choose a news article and explain the event covered in the article and how it
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Supporting Evidence 3 (1-3 Paragraphs)
Choose another news article
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Summarize your supporting evidence and how it supports your overall argument. This should include a brief discussion about how the other argument could be right
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4-5 papers
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Islamic Profession of Faith (There is no God but God and Muhammad is.docxbagotjesusa
Islamic Profession of Faith (There is no God but God and Muhammad is his prophet.)
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3. [compare] How do the beliefs and values of these cultures compare to your own?
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IS-365 Writing Rubric Last updated January 15, 2018 .docxbagotjesusa
IS-365 Writing Rubric
Last updated: January 15, 2018
Student:
Score (out of 50):
General Comments:
Other comments are embedded in the document.
Criterion <- Higher - Quality - Lower ->
Persuasiveness The reader is
compelled by solid
critical reasoning,
appropriate usage of
sources, and
consideration of
alternative
viewpoints.
The document is
logical and coherent
enough that the
reader can accept its
points and
conclusions
Gaps in logic and
uncritical review of
sources cause the
reader to have some
doubts about the
points made by the
document, or
whether they’re
relevant to the
question asked.
The reader is unsure
of what the document
is trying to
communicate, or is
wholly unconvinced
by its arguments
Not
applicable
Evidence and support Exceptional use of
authoritative and
relevant sources,
properly cited,
providing strong
support of the
document’s points
Sufficient relevant
and authoritative
sources give
confidence that the
document is based
on adequate
research
Sources are
insufficient in
number, not
authoritative, not
relevant, or
improperly cited
No sources are used,
undermining the
document’s
foundations
Not
applicable
Writing Word choices, flow
of logic, and
sentence and
paragraph structure
engage the reader,
making for a
pleasurable
experience
Writing is clear and
adequately fulfills
the document’s
purpose
Some issues with
word choice and
sentence and
paragraph structure
interfere with the
conveyance of the
document’s ideas
Frequent questionable
choices in writing
make it difficult to
read and understand
Not
applicable
Language Essentially free of
language errors
Minor errors in
grammar,
punctuation, or
spelling
Noticeable language
errors that detract
from the readability
of the document
Significant language
errors that call the
credibility of the
document into
question
Not
applicable
Formatting (heading
styles, fonts, margins,
white space, tables
and graphics)
Professional and
consistent formatting
that enhances
readability.
Appropriate use of
tables and graphics.
Generally acceptable
formatting choices.
Some missed
opportunities for
displaying data via
tables or graphics.
Inconsistent or
questionable
formatting choices
that detract from the
document’s
readability
Critical formatting
issues that make the
document
unprofessional-
looking
Not
applicable
Page 1
Page 1
Page 2
(Name deleted)
IS-365
Art Fifer
2/17/2017
Technical Documents for Varying Audiences
In this paper, I’ll be exploring the differences in presenting technical communications to audiences of varying knowledge. The topic of these two general summaries will be the manner in which computers connect to each other, including summaries of several communication protocols, how information traverses the network, and how it arrives at its destination and is read by th.
ISAS 600 – Database Project Phase III RubricAs the final ste.docxbagotjesusa
ISAS 600 – Database Project Phase III Rubric
As the final step to your proposed database, you submitted your Project Plan. This document should communicate how you intend to complete the project. Include timelines and resources required.
Area
Does not meet expectations
Meets expectations
Exceeds expectations
A. Analysis - how will you determine the needs of the database
Did not identify appropriate plan for analysis phase
Identified appropriate plan for analysis phase
Identified appropriate plan for analysis phase and included additional content
Design - what process will you use to design the database (tables, forms, queries, reports)
Did not sufficiently identify detail on the appropriate process for design phase
Identified appropriate process for design phase
Identified appropriate process for design phase and included additional detail
Prototype/End user feedback - Will you show users a prototype before building the system?
Did not sufficiently identify method for feedback and prototypes during building of the system
Identified method for feedback and prototypes during building of the system
Identified method for feedback and prototypes during building of the system and provided additional detail
Coding - what process will you use to build the database?
Did not sufficiently identify appropriate process for coding the database
Identified appropriate process for coding the database
Identified appropriate process for coding the database and provided additional detail.
Testing - How will you test it?
to build the database?
Did not sufficiently identify appropriate process for testing the database
Identified appropriate process for testing the database
Identified appropriate process for testing the database and provided additional detail.
User Acceptance - describe the final step of determining if you met the user's needs?
Did not sufficiently identify an appropriate process for User Acceptance phase - How to determine if the database meets user’s needs.
Identified appropriate process for User Acceptance phase - How to determine if the database meets user’s needs.
Identified appropriate process for User Acceptance phase - How to determine if the database meets user’s needs. Answer provided additional detail
Training - what is the plan for training end users?
Did not identify appropriate detail for training plan
Identified appropriate detail for training plan
Identified appropriate detail for a training plan and provided additional detail.
Project close out - what steps will you take to finalize the project?
Did not sufficiently identify appropriate steps for closing out the project
Identified appropriate steps for closing out the project
Identified appropriate steps for closing out the project and provided additional detail.
Entity Relationship Diagram1
ERD:
Normalization:
1NF:
For the 1st NF we will have to check the tables’ attributes, like there must not be any multivalued attribute, if there is any multivalued at.
Is teenage pregnancy a social problem How does this topic reflect.docxbagotjesusa
Is teenage pregnancy a social problem? How does this topic reflect the social construction of problems? How does social location impact if you view this as a social problem?
Explain why media representation of social problems is an important issue using the example of teenage pregnancy. What is an example of a problematic representation? Does this vary across race, ethnicity, religion, socioeconomic status and gender?
.
Is Texas so conservative- (at least for the time being)- as many pun.docxbagotjesusa
Is Texas so conservative- (at least for the time being)- as many pundits and observers claim? Or is that just an opinion not supported by analysis and facts? Not only does Texas vote Republican in many elections but has done so for many years. It is also the birthplace of the so-called Tea Party movement and of Ron Paul's campaigns for president. Texas also appears to espouse conservative approaches to government and to issues. You will need to define in a concrete and operational way what conservative means as conservative is more than voting behavior or party affiliation.
Texas is the 2nd largest state in population compared to California and.like California made up of many differing migrant and immigrant groups. Texas like California was also part of Northern Mexico. but Texas is very, very different from California in voting behavior and positions on social issues. Why? Texas and California are good comparisons or are they? Provide explanations of the differences and similarities in this ideological context
Texas was once "Democratic" but even that was not really the case in terms of either past or current Democratic ideals and goals but a historic reaction to the consequences of the civil war and the fact that Texas was on the losing side in that war and of the attempt to defend agrarian interests in the form of slavery.. Being Democratic from post civil war to the middle of the 20th century in part meant for decades being in favor of inequality for minorities and defenders in spirit, if not in fact, of slavery.net
So Texas was never "Democratic" and never a more liberal interpretation of reality but a reflection of conservative thought and a particular view of individualistic man.
Is Texas conservative and why? ( you will need a social, cultural, historical and economic analysis here
with supporting evidence)?
? Need much more than opinions here.
.
Irreplaceable Personal Objects and Cultural IdentityThink of .docxbagotjesusa
Irreplaceable: Personal Objects and Cultural Identity
Think of a
personal object
that is
irreplaceable
to you.
Please answer the following:
1. Describe the item and tell a brief story, memory, or ritual related to the item.
2. How does this possession influence your identity?
3. How does this item represent your cultural identity?
4. How is your selection of this item influenced by your identity and culture?
Instructions:
please answer all 4 questions accordingly. Each answer should have the question re-typed following the answer. A minimum of 500 words in all excluding the re-typed questions. No reference is needed.
.
IRB is an important step in research. State the required components .docxbagotjesusa
IRB is an important step in research. State the required components one should look for in a project to determine if IRB submission is needed. Discuss an example of a research study found in one of your literature review articles that needed IRB approval. Specifically, describe why IRB approval was needed in this instance.
.
irem.org/jpm | jpm® | 47
AND
REWARD
RISK
>>
BY KRISTIN GUNDERSON HUNT
THE FIGHT TO FILL VACANT COMMERCIAL REAL ESTATE SPACE IN RECENT YEARS
HAS FORCED REAL ESTATE OWNERS AND MANAGERS TO CONSIDER NEW USES
FOR THEIR PROPERTIES—EVEN IF THEY REQUIRE TAKING ADDITIONAL RISKS.
especially vacancies,” said Janice
Ochenkowski, managing director
for Jones Lang LaSalle and the com-
mercial real estate firm’s director of
global risk management in Chicago.
“But property owners and manag-
ers have been very creative in how
to use their existing facilities.”
Traditional retail stores have been
transformed into everything from
medical office space and churches
to fitness centers and breweries. In
addition, special events and pop-
up stores are more commonplace;
traditional office spaces have been
converted to daycare centers; in-
dustrial warehouses are being used
as practice facilities for youth base-
ball teams; and the list goes on.
“From a risk management per-
spective, these new uses can bring
new challenges,” Ochenkowski said.
“However, it is the primary goal
of the risk manager to support the
business, which means we need to
be more creative in the way we deal
with these risks.”
DOESN’T MEAN YOU HAVE TO WALK AWAY.”–JANICE OCHENKOWSKI, JONES
LANG LASAL
LE
DO THE ASSESSMENT HONESTLY. JUST BECAUSE THERE IS A HI
GHER RISK
“DON’T BE AFRAID TO THINK ABOUT WHAT THE RISKS ARE.
the tough economy has resulted in a lot of challenges—“
DUE DILIGENCE
The risks associated with new-use tenants are as varied as the tenants them-
selves.
First and foremost, certain tenants could present additional life safety
risks, said Jeffrey Shearman, a Pittsburgh-based senior risk engineering con-
sultant and real estate industry practice leader for commercial insurance
provider, Zurich.
For example, restaurant tenants create increased exposure to fire; church
and/or educational institutions might spur egress concerns because they en-
courage large gatherings in spaces formerly used for different occupancy;
and hazardous waste can be a risk with some medical tenants.
“You have to recognize that certain types of work are going to create cer-
tain types of hazards,” Shearman said.
Beyond life safety risks, certain tenants might be more susceptible than
previous tenants to codes and regulations imposed by state or federal laws,
such as licensing regulations for daycares or American Disabilities Act re-
quirements for medical tenants, said Pat Pollan, CPM, principal at Pollan
Hausman Real Estate Services in Houston.
New-use tenant risks don’t stop there: financial risks also exist. Replac-
ing a unique tenant with a similar occupant after the lease expires can be
difficult—a particular concern if a lot of money was spent customizing the
space for an alternative use.
“It’s not just the risk of liability, it’s the risk of the tenant going out of busi-
ness and losing any money you put into the tenant, or its space, .
IoT References:
https://www.techrepublic.com/article/how-to-secure-your-iot-devices-from-botnets-and-other-threats/
https://www.peerbits.com/blog/biggest-iot-security-challenges.html
https://www.bankinfosecurity.asia/securing-iot-devices-challenges-a-11138
https://www.sumologic.com/blog/iot-security/
https://news.ihsmarkit.com/press-release/number-connected-iot-devices-will-surge-125-billion-2030-ihs-markit-says
https://cdn.ihs.com/www/pdf/IoT_ebook.pdf
https://go.armis.com/hubfs/Buyers%E2%80%99%20Guide%20to%20IoT%20Security%20-Final.pdf
https://www.techrepublic.com/article/smart-farming-how-iot-robotics-and-ai-are-tackling-one-of-the-biggest-problems-of-the-century/
Video Resources:What is the Internet of Things (IoT) and how can we secure it?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H_X6IP1-NDc
What is the problem with IoT security? - Gary explains
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D3yrk4TaIQQ
Classmate 1
The Rise of the Republican Party
The Republican Party was formed due to a split in the Whig Party. The anti-slavery
“Conscience Whigs” split from the pro-slavery “Cotton Whigs”. Some anti-slavery Whigs joined
the American “Know-Nothing” Party, while the remainder joined with independent Democrats
and Free-Soilers to form a new party, the Republicans. The initial members stood for one
principle: the exclusion of slavery from the western territories (Shi, p. 462). Knowing the
Republicans ideology, we will look at how the events leading up to the Kansas-Nebraska Act led
to greater political division that eventually caused the formation of the Republican Party and it’s
rise to the presidency in 1860.
In the 1850’s, America was becoming increasingly divided between those for and against
slavery. The Compromise of 1850 had temporarily appeased both sides by admitting California
as a free state, allowing no slavery restrictions in New Mexico and Utah, paying Texas,
abolishing slave trade but no slavery in the District of Columbia, establishing the Fugitive Slave
Act, and denying congress authority to interfere with interstate slave trade (Shi, p. 457). This
Fugitive Slave Act was highly contested, although very few slaves were returned to the south
under this Act. In fact, it ended up uniting anti-slavery people, more than aiding the South. It was
during this time that Uncle Tom’s Cabin was written, selling more than a million copies
worldwide and detailing the harsh brutality of slavery (Shi, p. 460-461).
In the mid-1850’s, the Kansas-Nebraska Act was passed. The main reason for it was to the
settle the vast territory west of Missouri and Iowa, and to create a transcontinental railroad to
capitalize on Asian markets and goods. New territories brought up questions of whether slavery
would be allowed, with many supporting “popular sovereignty” where voters chose whether they
would have slavery or not. The issue here was that the 1820 Missouri Compromise had said there
would be no new slaver.
In two paragraphs, respond to the prompt below. Journal entries .docxbagotjesusa
In two paragraphs, respond to the prompt below. Journal entries must contain proper grammar, spelling and capitalization.
Consider the communication pattern within your family of origin. How does your family's conversation orientation (how open your family is to discuss a range of topics) and conformity orientation (how strongly your family reinforces the uniformity of attitudes, values and beliefs) affect your interactions with your partner? If you don't think there is any effect, explain your reasoning.
.
Investigative Statement AnalysisInitial statement given by Ted K.docxbagotjesusa
Investigative Statement Analysis
Initial statement given by Ted Kennedy in reference to the accident that occurred on July 18, 1969 in Chappaquiddick, Massachusetts.
Date:
October 30, 2007
Analyst Comments:
Narrative Balance: The Prologue begins with sentence #1 and ends with sentence #3. The Central Issue begins with sentence #4 and ends with sentence #9. The Epilogue begins with sentence #10 and ends with sentence #14. Thus the breakdown is:
Prologue = 3 sentences
Central Issue = 6 sentences
Epilogue = 5 sentences
The narrative is somewhat unbalanced due to the short Prologue and thus can be considered to be possibly deceptive on its face. It is not unbalanced enough to say this conclusively.
Mean Length of Unit:
The narrative has 14 sentences and 237 words, thus giving a MLU of 16.9 rounded to 17. Thus any sentences 23 words or longer and any sentences 11 words or less can be considered deceptive on their face.
Structure of Analysis:
The actual sentences from the narrative are in bold italicized type. After each sentence are the number of words in the sentence, whether or not it is deceptive on its face, and the analyst’s comments. All of these will be in normal type.
1.
On July 18th, 1969, at approximately 11:15 P.M. in Chappaquiddick, Martha’s Vineyard, Massachusetts, I was driving my car on Main Street on my way to get the ferry back to Edgartown.
30 words – Deceptive on its face. There is no mention of the passenger in this sentence. All of the pronouns are singular. It is “my car” “on my way”, etc. When the passenger is mentioned later, it is almost an afterthought. The deception in this sentence may be the last part of the sentence where he relates why he was driving the car. He very well may have been driving for some reason other than to get the ferry. This would be an area to be further explored in an interview.
2.
I was unfamiliar with the road and turned right onto Dike Road, instead of bearing hard left on Main Street.
20 words. “I was unfamiliar with the road” is an explanatory phrase telling us why he ended up on Dike Road. The phrase “instead of bearing hard left on Main Street” is a strange way of phrasing. Most people would say something like “instead of staying on Main Street.”
3.
After proceeding for approximately one-half mile on Dike Road I descended a hill and came upon a narrow bridge.
20 words. There is nothing particularly deceptive about this sentence. The phrasing of the sentence is very formal. The phrasing is almost like a police type report or a legal/lawyer way of phrasing. It also appears that the phrase “came upon a narrow bridge” is almost a passive way of phrasing that indicates he was taken by surprise and had no control over what he was doing.
4.
The car went off the side of the bridge.
9 words – This sentence is deceptive on its face. This is the very first sentence of the Central Issue. It is interesting to note that four of the six s.
Investigating Happiness at College SNAPSHOT T.docxbagotjesusa
Investigating Happiness at College
SNAPSHOT:
TOPIC Either a specific group related to college or a factor within
college life that possibly affects a specified group of college
students or students in general.
PITCH Present your topic and your research question to the class—
shark tank! Sound too scary? How about guppy tank ?).
Tentative due date: 2/5 & 2/7
ESSAY 1 The prospectus and the annotated bibliography.
Tentative due date: 2/21
ESSAY 2 Change in your topic or conducting your own study
Tentative due date: 3/16
ESSAY 3 Argument about a specific controversy within your topic
Tentative due date: 4/6
ESSAY 4 Answers and argues your refined research question about the
importance of your topic.
Tentative due date: 4/24
♥ Rough drafts with reflections about what is working and not working and
WHY will be required for the prospectus and essays 2 and 3. The work
on the rough draft and the reflections will count toward your essay grade.
♥ Final reflections submitted the class period after you submit your final
draft for essays 2-4 will also count as part of your essay grade.
♥ You will upload your drafts on Moodle. You will be asked to identify the
portions of the sources you used and submit hard copies of your sources
in a folder or files of your sources online.
Investigating Happiness at College:
Some questions that will help you form your own research
questions:
● Is happiness a necessity or a perk in college life?
● What do the expectations of happiness and the pursuit of
happiness reveal about a specific college group, college
students in general, or another college-related group?
● Considering both on-campus factors and off-campus factors
(at least at first), what most influences your group’s
happiness (or unhappiness)?
● Is there one major factor (on campus or off campus) you
would want to investigate that affects students’ happiness?
● How do the expectations about happiness that society has in
general or a certain specific segment of society (for
instance, parents) has, relate to college or college students?
● How much do preconceived notions and expectations about
college life affect student happiness?
● Hard work is hard to enjoy. So how do students balance that
hard work with the .
Investigate Development Case Death with Dignity Physician-Assiste.docxbagotjesusa
Investigate Development Case: Death with Dignity / Physician-Assisted Suicide
MAKE A DECISION: Is Ben's decision making being affected by his depression?
Yes
No
Why? Give reasons for why you chose the way you did. Consider the following factors in your reasons:
The effects of depression on decision making
Other stresses in Ben's life contributing to his state of mind
Ben's current quality of life
The family's values and beliefs
Your own values and beliefs
Please see attachment
.
🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥
إضغ بين إيديكم من أقوى الملازم التي صممتها
ملزمة تشريح الجهاز الهيكلي (نظري 3)
💀💀💀💀💀💀💀💀💀💀
تتميز هذهِ الملزمة بعِدة مُميزات :
1- مُترجمة ترجمة تُناسب جميع المستويات
2- تحتوي على 78 رسم توضيحي لكل كلمة موجودة بالملزمة (لكل كلمة !!!!)
#فهم_ماكو_درخ
3- دقة الكتابة والصور عالية جداً جداً جداً
4- هُنالك بعض المعلومات تم توضيحها بشكل تفصيلي جداً (تُعتبر لدى الطالب أو الطالبة بإنها معلومات مُبهمة ومع ذلك تم توضيح هذهِ المعلومات المُبهمة بشكل تفصيلي جداً
5- الملزمة تشرح نفسها ب نفسها بس تكلك تعال اقراني
6- تحتوي الملزمة في اول سلايد على خارطة تتضمن جميع تفرُعات معلومات الجهاز الهيكلي المذكورة في هذهِ الملزمة
واخيراً هذهِ الملزمة حلالٌ عليكم وإتمنى منكم إن تدعولي بالخير والصحة والعافية فقط
كل التوفيق زملائي وزميلاتي ، زميلكم محمد الذهبي 💊💊
🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥
A Visual Guide to 1 Samuel | A Tale of Two HeartsSteve Thomason
These slides walk through the story of 1 Samuel. Samuel is the last judge of Israel. The people reject God and want a king. Saul is anointed as the first king, but he is not a good king. David, the shepherd boy is anointed and Saul is envious of him. David shows honor while Saul continues to self destruct.
How Barcodes Can Be Leveraged Within Odoo 17Celine George
In this presentation, we will explore how barcodes can be leveraged within Odoo 17 to streamline our manufacturing processes. We will cover the configuration steps, how to utilize barcodes in different manufacturing scenarios, and the overall benefits of implementing this technology.
Andreas Schleicher presents PISA 2022 Volume III - Creative Thinking - 18 Jun...EduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher, Director of Education and Skills at the OECD presents at the launch of PISA 2022 Volume III - Creative Minds, Creative Schools on 18 June 2024.
How to Manage Reception Report in Odoo 17Celine George
A business may deal with both sales and purchases occasionally. They buy things from vendors and then sell them to their customers. Such dealings can be confusing at times. Because multiple clients may inquire about the same product at the same time, after purchasing those products, customers must be assigned to them. Odoo has a tool called Reception Report that can be used to complete this assignment. By enabling this, a reception report comes automatically after confirming a receipt, from which we can assign products to orders.
This presentation was provided by Rebecca Benner, Ph.D., of the American Society of Anesthesiologists, for the second session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session Two: 'Expanding Pathways to Publishing Careers,' was held June 13, 2024.
CHUYÊN ĐỀ ÔN TẬP VÀ PHÁT TRIỂN CÂU HỎI TRONG ĐỀ MINH HỌA THI TỐT NGHIỆP THPT ...
Introduction to Business EthicsJames FieserUniversity of.docx
1. Introduction to Business Ethics
James Fieser
University of Tennessee at Martin
Alexander Moseley
fie66722_00_fm_i-xx.indd 1 3/2/12 9:32 AM
James Fieser
Alexander Moseley
Introduction to Business Ethics
AVP, Editor-in-Chief: Erik Evans
Editorial Director and Sponsoring Editor: Steve Wainwright
Director of Editorial Technology: Peter Galuardi
Development Editor: Shannon Lemay Finn
Assistant Editor: Nick Devine
Editorial Assistant: Laura Wilson
Media Editor: Kim Purcell
Printing Services: Bordeaux
4. Brief Contents
fie66722_00_fm_i-xx.indd 3 3/2/12 9:32 AM
About the Author xv
Acknowledgments xvii
Preface xix
chapter 1
Ethical Principles and Business Decisions 1
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Where Moral Values Come From 3
Moral Objectivism and Moral Relativism 4
Religion and Morality 5
1.3 Ethics and Psychology 7
Egoism and Altruism 7
Gender and Morality 8
1.4 Moral Standards 9
Virtues 10
Duties 11
Utilitarianism 13
1.5 Morality and Government 15
The Social Contract 15
Human Rights 17
Principles of Governmental Coercion 19
1.6 Conclusion 21
5. Summary 22
Discussion Questions 23
Key Terms 24
Contents
fie66722_00_fm_i-xx.indd 5 3/2/12 9:32 AM
CONTENTS
chapter 2
Capitalism 27
2.1 Introduction 28
2.2 Capitalism and Socialism Defined 29
Capitalism 29
Socialism 31
2.3 Adam Smith’s Capitalism 33
Selfish Desire for Luxury Goods 33
The Invisible Hand 34
Limited Role of Government 36
2.4 Karl Marx’s Socialism 37
Alienated Labor 37
Class Struggle 39
Revolution 40
2.5 Assessment of Capitalism and Socialism 41
Criticisms of Capitalism 42
Criticisms of Socialism 42
Moderate Versions 43
6. 2.6 Anticompetitive Practices 44
Monopolies and Oligopolies 44
Price Fixing, Bid Rigging, and Price Gouging 46
2.7 Regulating the Free Market 47
Reasons for Government Regulation 47
Mechanisms for Government Regulation 49
Antitrust Acts 49
The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) 49
2.8 Conclusion 50
Summary 51
Discussion Questions 52
Key Terms 52
chapter 3
Corporations 55
3.1 Introduction 56
3.2 The Nature of Corporations 57
Corporate Structure 57
Four Features of Corporations 58
Creation by Statute 58
fie66722_00_fm_i-xx.indd 6 3/2/12 9:32 AM
CONTENTS
Perpetual Existence 59
7. Recognition as Legal Persons 59
Limited Liability 60
Shell Corporations 60
Moral Agency of Corporations 61
Position 1: Corporations Can Be Genuine Moral Agents 62
Position 2: Corporations Cannot Be Moral Agents 62
Issues at Stake 62
3.3 Punishing Corporations 63
Six Types of Corporate Punishment 63
Fines 64
Equity Fines 65
Corporate Incapacitation 65
Corporate Death Penalty 65
Corporate Shaming 66
Community-Service Order 66
Federal Sentencing Guidelines 67
Consumer Retaliation 67
3.4 Ethical Corporate Culture 69
Stakeholders and Corporate Social Responsibility 69
Mission Statements and Codes of Ethics 71
3.5 Threats to Ethical Corporate Culture 74
The Profit Motive 74
Strategic Misrepresentation 76
Groupthink and Organizational Schizophrenia 77
Groupthink 77
Organizational Schizophrenia 78
3.6 Conclusion 79
8. Summary 79
Discussion Questions 80
Key Terms 81
chapter 4
Consumers 83
4.1 Introduction 84
4.2 Consumer Advocacy 85
History of Consumer Advocacy 85
Governmental Agencies Established 86
Responding to Business Conduct 87
Consumer Bill of Rights 87
Consumer Product Safety Commission 88
U.N. Guidelines for Consumer Protection 88
fie66722_00_fm_i-xx.indd 7 3/2/12 9:32 AM
CONTENTS
4.3 Product Safety 89
Safety and User Reviews 89
Unsafe Automobiles 91
Ralph Nader and the Chevrolet Corvair 92
The Ford Pinto 92
4.4 Deceptive Advertising 94
Deceptive Food Packaging 96
Deception Versus Puffery 97
Punishment for Deceptive Advertising 98
9. Unofficial Punishment 98
Official Punishment 99
Corrective Advertising 100
4.5 Targeting Vulnerable Groups 101
Child Advertising 102
4.6 Unfair Sales Tactics 104
Misuse of Legal Tactics 105
Sales Commissions 105
Direct-to-Consumer Advertising 105
Default Opt-In 106
4.7 Conclusion 107
Summary 108
Discussion Questions 109
Key Terms 109
chapter 5
Discrimination in the Workplace 111
5.1 Introduction 112
5.2 Discrimination 113
Features of Discrimination 113
Social Institutions and Discrimination 114
Types of Discrimination 114
Evidence of Discrimination 115
5.3 Affirmative Action 117
Features of Affirmative Action 118
Preferential Treatment 118
10. Compensation for Discrimination 119
Arguments for Affirmative Action 120
Helps Create Fairness 120
Helps Reduce Poverty 121
Helps Reduce Racism 121
fie66722_00_fm_i-xx.indd 8 3/2/12 9:32 AM
CONTENTS
Arguments Against Affirmative Action 121
Creates Reverse Discrimination 121
Creates Social Tension and Negative Attitudes About Minorities
122
Exceeds Sufficient Nondiscrimination Without Preferential
Treatment 123
5.4 Affirmative Action in U.S. Law 123
Two Laws and Two Governmental Agencies 124
Enforcing Title VII and Executive Order No. 11246 125
Protected Classes and Minorities 125
Compliance Guidelines and Plans 126
Supreme Court Cases 128
5.5 Conclusion 131
Summary 132
Discussion Questions 133
Key Terms 133
chapter 6
11. Employees 137
6.1 Introduction 138
6.2 Ethical Theories of Employment 139
The Capitalist View 139
The Socialist View 140
The Middle Ground: Virtue Ethics 140
Employment and Social Power Conflicts 141
The Case of Company Towns 142
6.3 Hiring and Firing 143
Interviews 144
Unstructured Versus Structured Interviews 145
Background Checks 146
Due Diligence 147
Negligent Hiring 148
Firing 148
Employment at Will 149
6.4 Wages 149
Fair Pay 150
Minimum Wage 150
Salary Caps 151
6.5 Working Conditions 152
Occupational Health and Safety 152
Understanding Hazards 153
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12. CONTENTS
6.6 Unions 154
History of Unions 154
Professional Unions 156
6.7 Whistleblowing 157
Types of Whistleblowing 157
Whistleblowing Guidelines 158
Whistleblowing Laws 159
The False Claims Act of 1863 159
The Whistleblower Protection Act of 1989 160
The No FEAR Act of 2002 160
6.8 Conclusion 160
Summary 161
Discussion Questions 161
Key Terms 162
chapter 7
Financial Ethics 165
7.1 Introduction 166
7.2 The Ethics of Accounting 167
Impartiality 168
Berle and Means Versus Henry Manne: Two Views of Corporate
Corruption 168
Berle and Means: We Need Regulation 169
Manne: The Marketplace Can Decide 169
Cooking the Books 170
Example of Cooking the Books: Computer Associates 171
13. Example of Cooking the Books: Enron 171
Transfer Pricing and Costing 172
The Ethics of Deception 173
U.S. Accounting and Reporting History 174
Early Reforms 175
Sarbox 175
7.3 Commercial Conflicts of Interest 175
The Buyer-Beware Principle 176
Complex Products 176
Should Customers Do Their Homework? 177
7.4 Insider Trading 178
Insider Trading Defined 178
Examples of Insider Trading 178
Example of Getting Away with Insider Trading: Vincent
Chiarella 178
Example of Insider Trading: Michael Milken and Ivan Boesky
179
Example of Insider Trading: Martha Stewart 179
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CONTENTS
The Free Market Perspective 180
An Issue of Fairness 181
Legal Theory of Misappropriation 181
7.5 Rogue Trading 182
Example of Rogue Trading: Nick Leeson 183
14. What Can Be Done? 184
7.6 Conclusion 184
Summary 185
Discussion Questions 185
Key Terms 186
chapter 8
International Business and Multinationals 187
8.1 Introduction 188
8.2 Tax and Environmental Issues 189
Multinationals and Tax Avoidance 189
Gift Giving and Bribery 190
Environmental Restrictions 191
8.3 Labor Issues 193
Child Labor 193
A Historical Perspective 193
Protecting Children 194
In Defense of Children’s Right to Work 195
Won’t Child Labor Just Disappear? 195
Sweatshops 196
A Historical Note 196
The Benefits of Sweatshops 197
Illegal-Immigrant Workers 198
8.4 Technology Issues 199
Intellectual Property Theft 199
Technological Transfers 200
15. 8.5 Ethically Evaluating Multinational Business Activities 201
Relativism: Western Cultural Norms Affecting Other Cultures
201
Ethical Imperialism 202
Pros and Cons of Multinational Businesses 203
Creating a Global Business Ethic 205
8.6 Conclusion 207
Summary 207
Discussion Questions 208
Key Terms 208
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CONTENTS
chapter 9
Environmental Issues 211
9.1 Introduction 212
9.2 Environmentalist Ethics 213
Economic Growth and Environmental Damage 213
Mastering the Planet 213
Destroying the Planet 214
Varieties of Environmentalist Positions 214
Free Market Response to Environmentalism 216
9.3 Pollution 217
The Right to Trade in Emissions 218
16. Emissions Regulations 218
Does Emissions Trading Work? 218
9.4 Habitat Destruction 219
The Environmentalist Critique 219
The Regulatory Response 221
The Organic Act of 1897 221
The National Forest Management Act of 1976 222
Privatizing Government Lands 222
9.5 Resource Depletion and Sustainability 224
Peak Oil 224
Should Consumers Change Their Behavior? 224
9.6 Global Warming/Climate Change 226
Problems with the Science 226
Environmentalist Claims 227
Free Market Response 227
Could Businesses Lead the Way? 227
Alternative Energy Sources 228
Nuclear Energy 228
9.7 Environmental Restriction Versus Economic Freedom 229
U.S. Laws Restricting Access 230
Private Trusts Restricting Access 230
The Problem of the Beautiful Valley 230
Cost-Benefit Analysis of Environmental Responsibility 231
Social and Private Costs 232
9.8 Conclusion 233
17. Summary 234
Discussion Questions 234
Key Terms 235
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CONTENTS
chapter 10
Investments 237
10.1 Introduction 238
10.2 Ethical Investing 239
Features of Ethical Investing 239
Sustainable Investing 240
Community-Development Financing 240
Impact Investing 241
Socially Responsible Investing Funds and Green Funds 242
10.3 Potentially Unethical Investments 243
Environmentally Damaging Products 243
Genetically Modified Foods 244
Pharmaceutical Products 245
Military Weapons 247
10.4 Investing Versus Spending 250
The Economic Harm of Hoarding 250
Does Investment Harm Recession Recovery? 251
10.5 Conclusion 252
Summary 252
Discussion Questions 253
18. Key Terms 253
Glossary 255
References 267
fie66722_00_fm_i-xx.indd 13 3/2/12 9:32 AM
Dr. James Fieser is Professor of Philosophy at the University of
Tennessee at Martin. He received
his BA from Berea College, and his MA and PhD in philosophy
from Purdue University. He is
author, co-author, or editor of ten textbooks, including Socrates
to Sartre and Beyond (9/e 2012),
Ethics: Discovering Right and Wrong (7/e 2012), Business
Ethics and the Bottom Line (2012), A
Historical Introduction to Philosophy (2003), and Moral
Philosophy through the Ages (2001). He
has edited and annotated the ten-volume Early Responses to
Hume (2/e 2005) and the five-vol-
ume Scottish Common Sense Philosophy (2000). He is founder
and general editor of the Internet
Encyclopedia of Philosophy website (www.iep.utm.edu). His
personal website can be accessed at
www.utm.edu/staff/jfieser.
Dr. Alexander Moseley earned his degrees in England, Ontario,
and Scotland and was an Assis-
tant Professor in Economics for the University of Evansville
before setting up a tutorial company
in the English Midlands. He is the author of several books,
including An A–Z of Philosophy, Intro-
duction to Political Philosophy, and A Philosophy of War. He
has published papers in the field of
19. military ethics and on the philosophy of John Locke and is an
active member of military ethics
societies in Europe. He is currently working on a third novel
and expanding his business so he can
one day open up an independent school.
About the Author
fie66722_00_fm_i-xx.indd 15 3/2/12 9:32 AM
www.iep.utm.edu
www.utm.edu/staff/jfieser
In the preparation of this book, we wish to thank Steve
Wainwright, Shannon LeMay-Finn, Daniel
Moneypenny, and the rest of the talented editorial staff at
Bridgepoint Education for their exper-
tise and good nature. Thanks also to the following Ashford
professors who made valuable sugges-
tions for improving the book manuscript: Carolyn Broner, Frank
Czarny, Anthony Biduck, Richard
Hassler, Stephen Carter, and Ronald Cubit.
Acknowledgments
fie66722_00_fm_i-xx.indd 17 3/2/12 9:32 AM
Businesses are among the most important institutions that we
have. They are responsible for
making our lives happy with products that we could never
acquire on our own. They give us jobs
that help define who we are as people. And, more generally,
they push society forward through
20. cultural advancement.
But there is a sinister side to the business world, where a
company might do anything in its power,
moral or immoral, to beat the competition and make profits. It is
the same insatiable drive for
money that fuels society’s progress yet at the same time
oppresses workers, misleads consum-
ers, destroys the environment, and cannibalizes the very
economy that gives it life. By ignoring its
good, we fail to give credit to the driving force that pulled
humans out of the Stone Age. But by
ignoring its bad, we unleash a conscienceless predator upon
society. This is a real life drama that
we all witness and participate in as workers, consumers, and
entrepreneurs. The task of business
ethics is to understand that drama and suggest ways to maximize
the good and minimize the bad.
Discussions of business ethics are exceptionally varied. Some
approaches are theoretical and
explore the nature of ethical obligation, human greed, and the
limits of economic freedom. Other
business ethics discussions are more concrete and, like a social
scientist, attempt to itemize and
describe the numerous types of questionable business practices
that have outraged society. There
are deceptive advertising, price fixing, and unsafe working
conditions, just to name a few. In many
ways, the heart of business ethics involves identifying and
describing the most common unethical
practices. By knowing concretely what these various areas of
concern are, we may be more alert
to abuses when we enter into those territories on the job.
Still other discussions of business ethics emphasize specific
21. cases in which businesses have notori-
ously gone astray, such as the Union Carbide chemical plant
explosion in India, the Exxon Valdez oil
spill in Alaska, and the Enron financial collapse. We learn by
example, and when we see dramatic
instances of corporate moral failure, the stories stick with us.
Finally, there are business ethics discussions that offer practical
advice for avoiding unethical busi-
ness decisions. For example, we might learn that apathy toward
society promotes governmental
intervention, or that heavy pressure from top management to
meet performance goals sets a
climate for illegal action. The practice of drawing a moral
conclusion at the close of a business
ethics discussion is itself a skill that everyone in business can
and should learn. Here is an area of
corporate abuse: What can we learn from it to help us avoid
going down that path?
Preface
fie66722_00_fm_i-xx.indd 19 3/2/12 9:32 AM
PREFACE
This book adopts all of these approaches. The first three
chapters are more theoretical, establish-
ing a broad framework of ethical and social concepts.
Specifically, they deal with ethical principles,
capitalism, and the corporation. The three next chapters focus
on business issues that affect peo-
ple individually: specifically, as consumers, as minorities who
might face discrimination, and as
22. workers. From here, the scope of the chapters broadens to
include internal practices of finance,
accounting, and investment. The scope widens further with
chapters on multinationals and the
environment.
Throughout this book, the discussions reflect an appreciation of
the free market system, what it
has done to advance both the personal lives of people and
civilization as a whole. At the same
time, though, it exposes how unethical business practices can
transform a beneficial social institu-
tion into one that can potentially cause great harm and human
suffering. As ethical people, we
must respect the rights and dignity of those around us, and this
is the fundamental moral lesson
that children learn from their parents right from the start. As
ethical business people, we must
continue that lesson regarding how we treat consumers,
coworkers, and society at large. That,
ultimately, is what it takes for a business to be ethical.
To be sure, many business ethics issues covered in this book are
hotly debated, such as the nature
of capitalism, corporate personhood, and worker’s rights.
However, these debates teach us that
some of our most important social and economic values may not
be as firmly established as we
might think, and we must show respect toward those on the
opposite side of the issue. We can-
not be good business colleagues—or good citizens for that
matter—if we are contentious on value
issues where reasonable people may disagree.
fie66722_00_fm_i-xx.indd 20 3/2/12 9:32 AM
23. Ethical Principles and Business
Decisions
Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
• Describe moral objectivism, moral relativism,
and divine command theory.
• Explain the theories of psychological egoism
and psychological altruism, and the relation
between gender
and morality.
• Explain how virtue theory, duty theory, and
utilitarianism provide standards of morality.
• Describe the relation between morality and
government in social contract theory, human-
rights theory,
and the four principles of governmental coercion.
Comstock
1
fie66722_01_c01_001-026.indd 1 3/2/12 9:40 AM
CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 Introduction
Chapter Outline
1.1 Introduction
24. 1.2 Where Moral Values Come From
Moral Objectivism and Moral Relativism
Religion and Morality
1.3 Ethics and Psychology
Egoism and Altruism
Gender and Morality
1.4 Moral Standards
Virtues
Duties
Utilitarianism
1.5 Morality and Government
The Social Contract
Human Rights
Principles of Governmental Coercion
1.6 Conclusion
1.1 Introduction
Some jobs have higher moral reputations than
others, and national surveys are routinely con-
ducted to reveal public attitudes about various
professions. One poll asked people to rate
the
honesty and ethical standards of people in
different fields (Jones, 2010). The results of
the survey
were as follows (the numbers indicated the percentage
of those surveyed who ranked the respec-
25. tive vocations very high in terms of honesty and
ethical standards):
Nurses: 81%
Military officers: 73%
Druggists, pharmacists: 71%
Grade school teachers: 67%
Medical doctors: 66%
Police officers: 57%
Clergy: 53%
Day care providers: 47%
Judges: 47%
Auto mechanics: 28%
Nursing home operators: 26%
Bankers: 23%
TV reporters: 23%
Newspaper reporters: 22%
Local officeholders: 20%
Lawyers: 17%
Business executives: 15%
26. Stateofficeholders: 12%
Advertising practitioners: 11%
Members of Congress: 9%
Lobbyists: 7%
Car salespeople: 7%
fie66722_01_c01_001-026.indd 2 3/2/12 9:40 AM
CHAPTER 1Section 1.2 Where Moral Values Come From
There is a clear pattern here. The highest ranking
professions involve helping people, and nurses,
who are at the very top, are clear examples. Among
the lowest ranking occupations are those
associatedwith the business world: bankers, business
executives, advertisers, and, at the very
bottom, car salespeople.
What is it that makes us have such low
opinions of the moral integrity of the
business world? Part
of it may be that, in contrast with nurses,
businesses have the reputation of caring only
for them-
selves and not for others. Part of it may also be
that the competitive nature of business pushes
even the most decent of people to put profits
27. above responsibility to the public. The concept
of
business ethics is by no means new; in fact,
someof the earliest written documents in
human
civilization wrestle with theseissues. The
Mesopotamian Codeof Hammurabi, from almost
4,000
years ago, had this to say about the
responsibility of building contractors:
If a builder builda house for someone, even
though he has not yet completed
it; if then the walls seemtoppling, the builder
must make the walls solid from his
own means.
. . .
If a shipbuilder builda boat for some one,
and do not make it tight, if during
that same year that boat is sent away and suffers
injury, the shipbuilder shall
take the boat apartand put it together tight at his
own expense. (trans. 1915 by
L. W. King, sections 233 and 235; see
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/
hamcode.asp#text)
This entire book is devoted to understanding the
ethical challenges that businesses face and
what
can be done to meet those challenges. In this
chapter, we will explore several basicand time-
tested principles of morality. Some of history’s
greatest minds have reflected on the nature of
28. morality and devised theories of where morality
comes from and how moral principles should
guide our conduct. Many of theseprinciples have
direct application to ethical issues within
busi-
ness, and we will explore that connection.
1.2 Where Moral Values Come From
A good definition of ethics is that it is an
organized analysis of values relating to human
conduct,
with respect to their rightness and wrongness. Ethics
is not the same as etiquette, which merely
involves customarycodes of polite behavior, such as
how we greetpeople and how we seat guests
at a table. The issuein ethics is not what is
polite, but what is obligatory. Ethics is
closely related
to morality, and although someethicists make subtle
distinctions between the two, they are more
oftenused interchangeably, as will be done throughout
this book.
One of the most basicethical issues involves an
understanding of where our moral values
come
from. Consider the moral mandates that we should
not kill, steal, or lie. Are theseuniversal and
unchanging truths that are somehow embedded in
the fabric of the universe, or are they change-
able guidelinesthat we humans have created ourselves to
suit our needs of the moment? The
question of where our moral values come
from often involves two issues: The first is a
29. debate
between objectivism and relativism, and the second
concerns the relation between morality and
religion. We will look at each of these.
fie66722_01_c01_001-026.indd 3 3/2/12 9:40 AM
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/hamcode.asp#text
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/hamcode.asp#text
CHAPTER 1Section 1.2 Where Moral Values Come From
Moral Objectivism and Moral Relativism
Some years ago, the Lockheed Corporation was
caught offering a quarter of a billion
dollars in
bribes overseas. A major U.S. defense contractor,
Lockheed fell on economic hard times. The U.S.
government commissioned the company to design a
hybrid aircraft, but after one crashed, the
government canceled orders. Because of this and
othermishaps, Lockheed believed that the solu-
tion to its financial woes was to expand its aircraft
sales into foreign countries. To get military
aircraft contracts with foreign governments, it made
a series of payoffs to middlemen who
had
political influence in West Germany, Japan, Saudi
Arabia, and several othercountries. The com-
pany was eventually caught and punished with a
heavy fine, and its chairman and president were
forced to resign. A consequence of this event
was the creation of the U.S. Foreign Corrupt Prac-
tices Act, which includes an anti-bribery provision
30. that involves stiff fines and prison terms
for
offenders. The message of the law was that, when in
Rome, you should not do as the Romans
do.
There are overarching standards of ethical conduct
that business are expected to follow, regard-
less of where they are in the world and what
the local business practices are there.
When Lockheed engaged in systematic bribery,
did it violate a universal standard of
morality that
is binding on all human societies, or did it
just violate a standard of morality that is
merely our
personal preference in the United States? On
the one side of this question is the theory of
moral
objectivism, which has threekey components:
1. Morality is objective: Moral standards are not
created by human beings or human societ-
ies. According to many objectivists, they exist in
a higher spirit realm that is completely
apartfrom the physical world around us.
2. Moral standards are unchanging: Moral standards
are eternal and do not change
throughout time or from location to location. No
matter where you are in the world or at
what pointin history, the same principles apply.
3. Moral standards are universal: There is a
31. uniform set of moral standards that is the
same for all people, regardless of human differences
like race, gender, wealth, and social
standing.
The classic champion of this view is the ancient
Greek philosopher Plato(424 BCE–347 BCE),
who
argued that moral truths exist in a higher
level of reality that is spiritual in nature.
According to
Plato, the universe as a whole is two-tiered.
There is the lower physical level that
consists of
rocks, trees, human bodies, and every other
material object that we see around us. All of
this is
constantlychanging, either decaying or morphing into
somethingelse. Within this level of the
universe, nothing is permanent.
On the otherhand, Platoargued, there is a
higher level of the universe, which is
nonphysical
and is the home of eternal truths. He called
this the realm of the forms, which are
perfect pat-
terns or blueprints for all things. Mathematical
principles are good examples. They are completely
unchanging and in no way dependent for their
existence on the changing physical world. Even if
the entire physical universe were destroyed, and
another emerged, the principles of mathematics
would remain the same, unchanged.
32. According to Plato, moral principles are just
like mathematical principles in that respect, and
they
also exist in the higher realm of the forms.
Just as the principle that 1 + 1 = 2 exists
perma-
nently in this realm, so too do moral
principles of goodness, justice, charity, and many
others. The
greatest appeal of Plato’s theory is that it
gives us a sense of moral stability.
When someone is
murdered, we oftenbelieve that an absolute and
unchanging moral principle has been violated
fie66722_01_c01_001-026.indd 4 3/2/12 9:40 AM
CHAPTER 1Section 1.2 Where Moral Values Come From
that goes well beyond the shifting preferences of
our
particular human community.
On the otherside of this dispute is the theory of
moral
relativism, which has threecontrasting key
features:
1. Morality is not objective: Moral standards are
purely human inventions, created by either
individual people or human societies.
2. Moral standards are not unchanging: Moral
standards change throughout time and from
33. society to society.
3. Moral standards are not universal: Moral
standards do not necessarily apply universally
to all people, and their application depends
on human preference.
Defenders of moral relativism are typically
skeptical
about the existence of any higher realm of
absolute
truth, such as Plato’s realm of the forms.
Although
notions of eternal moral truths are appealing,
the fact
is, says the moral relativist, we do not have any
direct
experience that such higher realms exist.
What we
know for sure is the physical world around
us, which
contains societies of human beings that are ever-
changing. The moral values that we see throughout
these societies are ones that are created by human
preference and change throughout history and
with
geographical location. Simply put, morality is a
human
creation, not an eternal truth.
Between moral objectivism and moral relativism,
which is right? Some philosophical
questions are
not likely to be answered any time soon, and
34. this is one of them. However, we can take
inspira-
tion from both sidesof the debate. With the Lockheed
bribery incident, the position of the U.S.
government was that thereis a standard of
integrity in business that applies worldwide,
not just
within U.S. borders. This is a concession to
moral objectivism. On the otherhand, some
business
practices are culturally dependent. In Japan, new
businesses typically have an opening ceremony
in which a Shinto priest blesses the
company building. U.S. companies operating in
Japan often
follow this practice, and this is a concession to
moral relativism.
Religion and Morality
An organization called the Center for Christian
Business Ethics Today offers a Christian
approach to
ethical issues in business. According to the
organization, God is the ultimate source of
moral val-
ues: “God’s standards as set forth in God’s Word,
the Bible, transcend while incorporating both
the
law and ethics” (Center for Christian Business Ethics
Today, n.d.). This view is by no means
unique,
and is in fact part of a long history of efforts
to ground morality in someaspect of
religion. Accord-
ing to the classic view of religious ethics, true
35. morality does not emerge from human thought
processes or human society alone. It begins
with God establishing moral truths, instilling
moral
Associated Press/Jim Mone
Many hospitals have password protected
medication cabinets to prevent drug theft.
But is stealing always wrong? Would your
answer change if you knew the person
stealing the drug needed it for her cancer
treatment? What if she were stealing it for
her child?
fie66722_01_c01_001-026.indd 5 3/2/12 9:40 AM
CHAPTER 1Section 1.2 Where Moral Values Come From
convictions within human nature, and reinforcing
those moral truths through scripture.
Religious
believers who follow God’s path will be motivated to
follow God’s established moral truths,
per-
haps more so than non-believers who view ethics as a
purely human invention. This classic view of
religious ethics raises two questions:
1. Is God the creator of moral values?
2. Do religious believers have better access to
moral truth than non-believers?
36. Regardingthe first question—whether God creates moral
values—a position called divine command
theory answers yes: Moral standards are created by
God’s will. God in essence creates them from
nothing, not even basing them on any prior standard of
reason or logic. God pronounces them into
existence through a pure act of will. There are
two challenges that divine-command theory
faces:
1. It presumes in the first place that God exists,
and that is an assumption that non-believers
would reject from the start.Many religious
believers themselves would hold that belief in
God is a matter of personal faith, not
absolute proof, and so we must be cautious
about
the kinds of activities that we ascribe to God,
such as creating absolute moral truths.
2. The moral standards that God willfully creates
would be arbitrary if they were made
purely from scratch, without relying on any prior
standard of reason. What would pre-
vent God from willfully creating a random set of
moral values, which might include prin-
ciples like “lying is OK” or “stealing is OK”?
God could also willfully change his mind about
which moral principles he commands. Maybe he
could mandate that stealing is wrong on
Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, but that stealing is
OK during the rest of the week.
Many ethicists throughout history—even ones who
37. were devout religious believers—have rejected
divine command theory for this reason. To avoid
arbitrariness, it seems that morality would
need to
be grounded in somestable rational standard, such as
with Plato’s view of absolute moral truths. That is,
God
would merely endorse these absolute moral
truths
sincethey seemrationally compelling to him; and he
does not literally create them from nothing. If moral-
ity, then, is really grounded in preexisting truths,
then
we humans can discover them on our own, and do
not
need to depend on God for our moral knowledge.
Again, the second question raised by the classic
view
of religious ethics is whether believers have
better
access to moral truth than non-believers. The answer
to this throughout much of history was yes:
Religion is
an essential motivation for moral conduct. To
behave
properly, people need to believe that a divine
being is
watching them and will punish them in the afterlife
for
immoral conduct. The French moral philosopher
Vol-
taire (1694–1778) famously stated that “if God did
38. not
exist, it would be necessary to invent him,”
precisely
because moral behavior depends so much on
belief
in divine judgment (quoted in Gay 1988, pg.
265). In
more recent times, this position has fallen out of
favor,
and thereis wider acceptance of the view that
believ-
ers are not necessarily more moral than non-
believers.
Copyright Bettmann/Corbis/AP Images/Anonymous
Voltaire (1694–1778), the French philoso-
pher who famously stated that “if God
did not exist, it would be necessary to
invent him.”
fie66722_01_c01_001-026.indd 6 3/2/12 9:40 AM
CHAPTER 1Section 1.3 Ethics and Psychology
One reason for this change in attitude is that
our society as a whole has become much
more
secularized than Voltaire’s was, and, from our experience,
non-believers do not appear to be par-
ticularly bad citizens. Also, it appears that
believers fall into the same moral traps as
everyone else.
39. The upshot is that both components of classic
religious ethics are difficult to establish: It is
not
clear that God creates moral values, assuming that
God exists, and it is not clear that believers
have a special advantage in following moral rules.
It is undeniable that, for many believers,
religion
is an important source of moral inspiration,
and that fact should not be minimized.
Undoubtedly,
this is true for the members of the Center for
Christian Business Ethics Today. At the same
time,
though, thereare plenty of nonreligious motivations
to do the right thing, such as a fear of
going
to jail, a desire to be accepted by one’s
family and friends, or a sense of
personal integrity. In the
business world thereare additional motivations to be
moral, such as the desire to avoid
lawsuits,
costly fines, or tarnishing the company name.
1.3 Ethics and Psychology
An important set of ethical issues involves our
psychological makeup as human beings. There
is
no doubt that our personal expectations, desires,
and thought processes have an impact on what
motivates us to behave morally. In this section,
we will lookat two issues of moral
psychology;
one focuses on our psychological inclination to be
selfish, and the otheron how gender shapes
40. our moral outlook.
Egoism and Altruism
When the U.S. Gulf Coast was pummeledby
Hurricane Katrina, the home-improvement company
Lowe’s donated millions of dollars and coordinated
busloads of volunteers to help with the
cleanup.
Working alongside the nonprofit organization Habitat
for Humanity, they helped rebuild homes
for
people across the Gulf Coast region. Since
the time of Katrina, Lowe’s has continued the
practice
of partneringwith charitable organizations to help rebuild
disaster-stricken areas. Why do they do
this? Is it purely from a sense of goodwill
towards those in need, or do they expect
to get some
benefit out of it, such as free publicity? We can
ask this same kind of question about our conduct
as individuals: Are we capable of acting solely
for the benefit of others, or do we always
act in ways
that ultimately benefit ourselves? There are two
competing theories that address this question:
• Psychological egoism: Human conduct is
selfishly motivated and we cannot perform
actions from any othermotive.
• Psychological altruism: Human beings are at
least occasionally capable of acting selflessly.
41. Both of thesetheories are “psychological” in the
sense that they are making claims about
what
motivates human behavior.
Psychological egoism maintains that all of our actions,
without exception, are motivated by some
selfish drive. Even when I am doing
something, like donating to charity, that appears
to be purely
for the benefit of someone else, thereare hidden
selfish motives at work within me and I
am only
acting to benefit myself. Maybe through my
charitable action I secretly hope that I will
receive a
Citizen of the Year award. Maybe I desire to
hear the recipient of my charity thank me
with gush-
ing words of appreciation so that I can feel
good about myself. The English philosopher
Thomas
fie66722_01_c01_001-026.indd 7 3/2/12 9:40 AM
CHAPTER 1Section 1.3 Ethics and Psychology
Hobbes (1588–1679) argued that
all acts of charity could be reduced
to our private desire to exercise
control over other people’s lives.
For Hobbes, I am the one who
decides whether a poor person
will have enough food to eat today,
42. and I am on a private power trip if
I help that person out (1650/1811
Human Nature). A psychological
egoist would look at Lowe’s with
similar suspicion: Their public acts
of charity are greatpublic-relations
tools that associate their name and
products with social responsibility.
Through pressreleases and adver-
tisements, Lowe’s spreads the news
of its charitable workfar and wide.
The rival theory of psychological
altruism concedes that much of
our human conduct is indeed motivated by selfish
desire. But, according to the altruist, thereis
more going on with us psychologically than just
that. We have the capacity to break free of
the grip
that selfishness has on us and at least occasionally
act purely for the betterment of otherpeople.
Perhaps we have an instinct of human kindness
that exhibits itselfwhen we see people who
are
truly in need. Our hearts go out to them and
we want to help, regardless of whether thereis
any
benefit to ourselves. Maybe someof that is behind
Lowe’s charitable programs. Its corporate offi-
cers and managers are personally moved by
tragedies such as Katrina and recognize that Lowe’s
has unique resources to help. The public relations
benefit it gains from those acts is
43. secondary,
and the spark that ignites its charitable response is
genuine concern.
Like the dispute between objectivism and relativism,
this debate between psychological egoism
and altruism will not be resolved any time soon.
But even if psychological egoists are correct
that all of our actions are selfishly motivated,
the fact remains that human beings do
perform
acts of charity, and, morally speaking, it is good
for us to do so. What matters is that
Lowe’s
engages in charitable projects, regardless of whether
their main motivation is to bolster their
corporate image.
Gender and Morality
A recent study suggested that businesses led by
women place a higher value on social
responsibil-
ity than do those led by men. According to
the director of the study, “women are taking
the lead in
showing that profit and social responsibility can go
hand-in-hand” (Llanza, 2011). Women tend to
look for a balance between profits and non-
economic goals such as environmental sustainability,
charity, and community involvement. Do businessmen
and businesswomenreally have differing
attitudes about the role of ethics within their
companies?
Underlying this question is the issueof whether
44. men and women generally speaking have differ-
ent ways of thinking about morality. The long
standing assumption about morality has been
that
Associated Press/Shane Bevel
Do companies like Lowe’s, which donated supplies such as this
shipment of water to Hurricane Katrina victims, act charitably
out of a sense of goodwill towards those in need, or do they
expect to get some other benefit out of it?
fie66722_01_c01_001-026.indd 8 3/2/12 9:40 AM
CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Moral Standards
thereis only one way of thinking about it,
regardless of gender. There are moral rules
that guide
our conduct; we all need to learnthose rules and
follow them in our behavior. It is much
like any
othertask that we perform: If I am playing a
sport, performing on a musical instrument,
or operat-
ing a circular saw, thereare clear rules for how I
should proceed. If I do not follow those
rules, then
I will not be good at the task. So too with
morality: We all need to understand the rules of
ethics
and follow them in order to be morally good
people.
45. However, in recent years, this one-size-fits-all
assumption about morality has been called into
question based on a reexamination of the
different psychological tendencies of men and
women.
Consider the types of college majors that attract
men and women, respectively. Some are very
male
dominated, such as mathematics, physics, and
engineering. Others are dominated by women,
such
as psychology, social work, nursing, and
education. This suggests that men have a thought
process
that emphasizes rules and are thus attracted to those
disciplines that emphasize them. Women,
by contrast, place greater value
on nurturing and caring for others
and are thus attracted to those dis-
ciplines. It may well be that these
gender issues are operating on our
conceptions of morality: For men,
morality mainly involves following
rules, and for women, it mainly
involves caring for others.
A recent theory called care ethics
advances this view, maintaining
that women see morality as the
need to care for people who are
in situations of vulnerability and
dependency. They are not suggest-
ing that we should leave the task
of caring and nurturing to women,
while letting men adhere to their
rule-following inclinations. Rather,
46. the task of moral care falls upon all
of us, although we should expect
women to place greater emphasis
on this than men.
Within the business world, it may well be that
women are more predisposed to integrate social
concern with profit-driven business goals, as the
study mentioned before suggests. But again,
this
does not mean that socially responsible conduct
should be left to women. Rather, men may
just
need to try harder at integrating ethical values
into business planning.
1.4 Moral Standards
So far we have looked at where morality comes
from and how it is shaped by human
psychology.
Although thesetheories are important for telling us
about the nature of morality, they do not
nec-
essarily tell us how we should behave, and what
the moral standards are that we should follow.
Associated Press/Manuel Balce Ceneta
In this 2009 photo, first lady Michelle Obama stands at the
Capital Area Food Bank with Jill Biden (left) and Vicki Escarra
(right). Escarra was the chief marketing officer of Delta Air
Lines
before becoming the CEO of Feeding America, “the nation’s
leading domestic hunger-relief charity” (Feeding America,
47. n.d.).
Within the business world, are women are more predisposed
to integrate social concern with profit-driven business goals?
fie66722_01_c01_001-026.indd 9 3/2/12 9:40 AM
CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Moral Standards
We turn next to that issueand explore threeapproaches
to moral standards: virtue theory, duty
theory, and utilitarianism.
Virtues
One of the strangest business stories in recent
years is that of Bernard Madoff, who
scammed
investors out of $65 billion in a Ponzi
scheme. He started out as a small-time
investment manager,
but, courting wealthy investors from around the globe,
he eventually built his roster of clients up
to 4,800. Offering a steady return of about
10% per year, he covered thesepayouts with money
coming in from new investors. But when his clients
rushed to withdraw $7 billion during a
major
stock-market decline, he could not cover those
expenses and he confessed to the fraud.
The humiliation for Madoff’s whole family was so
greatthat he and his wife attempted suicide,
48. and shortly afterward their son did kill himself. When
we look at Madoff as a human being,
we
see that his immoral business conduct was a
consequence of his flawed character. His desire
for money, power, and a lavish lifestyle became
so excessive that it created a trap for him
from
which he could not break free. He
had what moral philosophers call
vices: bad habits of character that
result in a serious moral failing. He
was unjust, deceitful, intemper-
ate, overambitious, and immod-
est. What Madoff lacked were
virtues—the opposite of vices—
which are good habits of character
that result in morally proper behav-
ior. He did not have the virtues of
justice, truthfulness, temperance,
restraint, and modesty.
Virtue theory is the view that
morality is grounded in the virtu-
ous character traits that people
acquire. The ancient Greek phi-
losopher Aristotle (384 BCE–322
BCE) developed the most influen-
tial analysis of virtues, which even
today is considered the standard view of the
subject (trans. 2002 by J. Sachs). It all
begins with
our natural urges. For example, we all have natural
49. desires for pleasure, and we automatically
gravitate towards pleasurable activities such as
entertainment, romance, eating, and even social
drinking. With each of thesepleasurable activities, though,
thereare threedistinct habits that we
can develop. On the one hand, we might eat
too much, drink too much, and become
addicted
to all sorts of pleasurable activities. This is the
vice of overindulgence. At the opposite
extreme,
we might reject every form of pleasure that
comes our way, and live like monks locked in
their
monasterycells. This is the vice of insensibility,
insofar as we have become desensitized to the
happiness that pleasures can bring us. There is,
though, a third habitual response to pleasure
that
stands midway between thesetwo extremes: We can
enjoy a wide range of pleasures in
moderate
amounts, and this is the virtue of temperance.
Jeff Daly/Picture Group via AP Images
This 2011 photo shows rows of Bernie Madoff’s shoes, which
U.S. marshals put up for auction, along with many of his other
belongings, to help repay the victims of his crimes.
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CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Moral Standards
50. According to Aristotle, most virtues and vicesmatch
this scheme:
• There is a natural urge,
• there is a vice of excess,
• there is a vice of deficiency, and
• there is a virtue at the middle
position between the two extremes.
Take the virtue of courage, which is driven by
our natural fear of danger. If we go to an
excess, we
develop the vice of rashness, where we lose all
fear of danger and rush into hazardous situations
that might kill us. If we are deficient in
courage, we become timid and develop the
vice of coward-
liness. The virtuous middle ground of courage is
one in which we respect the dangers before
us
but, when the circumstances are right, we rise
above our fears.
A largepart of our childhood involves cultivating
virtuous habits and avoiding vicious ones,
and
during our formative years our parents bear much
of the responsibility to shape us in
virtuous
directions. As I become older, though, the
responsibility becomes mine alone, and I must
think
carefully about exactly where that virtuous middle
ground is. How much habitual eating can I
do
before I become overindulgent? How much can I
51. habitually hide from danger before I become a
coward? Finding that perfect middle ground,
Aristotle says, is not easy,but it is something
that
the moral person must figure out nonetheless.
Madoff did not even come close. His desires
for
wealth, power, and fame were so all-consuming
that the virtue of temperance became out of
reach for him.
Duties
A small computer software company named Plurk
accused the software giantMicrosoft of com-
putercode theft. The product in question was
blogging software that Microsoft developed for its
market in China and which it hoped would
catch hold in that country the way Facebook
has in
the United States. Around 80% of the computer
code for Microsoft’s product was lifted directly
from blogging software created by Plurk. Microsoft
apologized for the episode and said that the
fault rested with an outside company it had hiredto
develop the blogging software. It was that
outside company that copied Plurk’s computer code
(Nystedt, 2009). The irony is that Microsoft
zealously guards against software piracy and code
theft of its own products, but here it did that
very thing, even if only indirectly. In this
situation, therewas no moral gray area: Theft is
wrong,
the evidence for code theft was incontestable, and
52. Microsoft had no choice but to immediately
admit to it and apologize.
This Microsoft case highlights the fact that thereare at
least someprinciples of morality that we all
clearly recognize and endorse. One moral theory in
particular emphasizes the obvious and intui-
tive nature of moral principles. Duty theory is
the position that moral standards are grounded in
instinctive obligations—or duties—that we have.
It is also called deontological theory, from
the
Greek word for duty.The idea behind duty theory is
that we are all born with basicmoral prin-
ciples or guidelinesembedded in us, and we use
theseto judge the morality of people’s actions.
There are two approaches to duty theory. First,
somemoral theorists hold that we have a long
catalog of instinctive obligations. The list of
the Ten Commandments is a classic
example. Among
those listed are obligations not to kill, steal,
bear false witness, or covet your neighbor’s
things.
These are all basicmoral principles that cultures
around the world have endorsed from the earliest
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CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Moral Standards
53. times. If you are thinking about stealing your
neighbor’s car, theseprinciples tell you that it
would
be wrong to do so. With enough principles like
these, we will have somestandard for judging a
wide range of human actions. Many moral
philosophers have developed and expanded the list of
our intuitive duties beyond the Ten Commandments
to include a few dozen of them.
The second approach is that thereis a single
instinctive principle of duty that we all should
fol-
low; the Golden Rule is the best example of this.
That is, I should do to others what I
would want
them to do to me. If I am thinking about
stealing someone’s car, I should consider
whether I
would want someone to steal my car. If I am
thinking about lyingto someone, I should
consider
whether I would want someone to lie to me. So
too with good actions: When considering
whether
I should donate to charity, I should
consider how I would feel if I were a
needy person dependent
on the charity of others. Like those in
the Ten Com-
mandments, the Golden Rule is a time-honored
moral
principle that we find in cultural traditions around
the
54. world, dating back thousands of years.
In more recent times, one of the most influential
theo-
ries of duty is that developed by the German
philoso-
pher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804). Inspired by
the
Golden Rule, Kant offered a single principle of
moral
duty,which he called the “categorical
imperative”—
a term which simply means “absolute
command”
(1785/1996). The categorical imperative, for Kant,
was this: Treat people as an end, and never
merely as
a means to an end. His pointwas that we should
treat
all people as beings that have value in and of
them-
selves, and not treat anyone as a mere instrument
for
our own advantage.
There are two parts to his point. The first
involves
treating people as ends that have value in
and of
themselves. We value many things in life,
such as our
cars, our homes, and a good job. Mostof the things
we value, though, have only instrumental value, that
is, value as a means for achieving something
else. Our
55. cars are instruments of transportation. Our homes
are
instruments of shelter. Our jobs are instruments of
obtaining money.
Other times, though, we appreciatethings because
they have intrinsic value: We value them for
the special qualities that they have in and of
themselves, and not because of any instrumental
value that they have. Human happiness has
intrinsic value, and so too do experiences of
beauty
and friendship. The first part of the categorical
imperative, then, says that we should treat all
people as beings with intrinsic value and regard
them as highly as we would our own
happiness.
If I steal someone’s car, I am not respecting
the owner the way I value my own
happiness. The
second part of the categorical imperative is
that we should not treat people as things
that have
mere instrumental value. People are not tools or
objects that we should manipulate for our
own
gratification. If steal a car, I am using the
owner for my own gain.
Copyright Bettmann/Corbis/AP Images
Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), the German
philosopher who developed the moral
56. principle of the categorical imperative, stat-
ing that we should treat people as an end,
and never merely as a means to an end.
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CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Moral Standards
Like the Golden Rule, the categorical imperative
provides a litmus test for determining
whether
any action is right or wrong. It not only detects
immoral actions such as lyingand stealing, but it
also tells us when actions are moral. When I
donate to charity, for example, I am
thinking of the
value of the needy people who will benefit
from my contribution; I am not merely
thinking of any
benefit that I may receive through my charity.
In the business world, there are occasionally
times when an action is so obviously wrong
that
thereis no pointin defending it. That was true of
Microsoft and also of Madoff, who immediately
admitted to his crime once his company became
insolvent. In cases like these, duty theory is
at its
best. In othercases, though, morality is a little
more blurry. Napster is a good example. Napster
was the first widely used peer-to-peer file-sharing
57. program, and it enabled usersto easily pirate
MP3 music files,directly violating the copyrights of
record companies. While this at first appears
to be a clear case of a software product that
intentionally enabled usersto steal, many
people
within the music industry itselfdefended Napster.
Record companies had become stuck in
their
old ways of selling records and CDs and had not
developed a good mechanism for consumers to
purchase MP3 files separately at a reasonable price.
Napster entered the music market as a
rogue
competitor, and forced record companies to be
more responsive to the needs of their
consumers.
In a sense, Napster was a positive forcewithin
the music industry. Duty theory may not be
well
suited for making moral pronouncements in
complex cases like Napster’s;othermoral
theories
discussed in this chapter may need to be drawn
upon.
Utilitarianism
Some years ago, a pesticide factory in Bhopal,
India, owned by Union Carbide, exploded,
killing
2,500 people and injuring an additional 300,000.
The active ingredient for the pesticide was stored
58. in 600-gal tanks. The size of the tanks
themselves was a problem. Larger tanks
are economically
efficient, sincethey hold more gas, but they pose greater
risks in case of a tank leak. For this rea-
son, regulations at a similar Union Carbide
factory in Germany required tank sizes to be
restricted
to 100 gal. Also, the tank that exploded in the
Indian plantwas supposed to be refrigerated to
0 °C.
Instead, the refrigeration unit was not working and
the tank was at roomtemperature. Although
the Indian factory had safety features to prevent
disasters, several of the safety systems were
not
functioning. The explosion started when someone
added water to a 600-gal tank of the
chemical,
perhaps an act of sabotage by a disgruntled
employee.The temperature in the tank rose in a
chain
reaction, and the tank blew up. A fog of the gas
drifted through the streets of Bhopal, killing
people
on the spotswhere they stood. Although Union
Carbide responded quickly and compassionately
to the disaster, the tragedy raised questions about
their views on safety in developing
countries.
All businesses make decisions based on a
cost-benefit analysis: They research both the costs
and
the benefits of a particular decision, then determine
59. whether the costsoutweigh the benefits or
vice versa. In Union Carbide’s case, they determined
that economic savings outweighed the eco-
nomic costsof stricter safety protocols. In
retrospect, it is clear that the company
miscalculated
and should have given greater weight to safety.
Cost-benefit analysis is the distinguishing feature of
the moral theory of utilitarianism: An action
is morally right if the consequences of that action
are more favorable than unfavorable to every-
one. When determining the morality of any given
action, we should list all of the good and
bad
consequences that would result, determine which
side is weightier, and judge the action to be
fie66722_01_c01_001-026.indd 13 3/2/12 9:40 AM
CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Moral Standards
right if the good outweighs the bad. There are three
components to this theory. First, it empha-
sizes consequences. One of the founders of
utilitarianism was the British philosopher Jeremy
Ben-
tham (1748–1832), who argued that by focusing on
consequences, we make our moral judgments
more scientific (1789/1907). To ground morality in
the will of God requires that we have a special
60. ability to know God’s thoughts. To ground
morality in conscience or instinctive duties
requires that
we have special mental faculties and know how to
use them properly. None of this is precise,
and
it all relies too much on hunches. According
to Ben-
tham, a more scientific approach to morality would
look only at the facts that everyone can plainly
see,
and consequences of actions are those facts. If
I steal a
car, thereare very clear consequences: I gain a vehicle,
but I cause financial harmand distress to the
victim
and put myself at risk of a long stay in prison.
We all
can see theseconsequences and assess their weights.
Bentham held that we can even give numerical values
to the various consequences and mathematically cal-
culate whether the good outweighs the bad, a prac-
tice that we now call the utilitarian calculus. Not all
utilitarians go this far, but it does highlight the
central
role that publicly observed consequences play in the
utilitarian conception of morality.
The second component of utilitarianism is that it
focuses on the consequences of happiness and unhap-
piness. While businesses assess costs and
benefits
61. in terms of financial gains and losses,
utilitarianism
focuses instead on how our actions affect human
hap-
piness. Some utilitarians, like Bentham, emphasize
pleasure and pain; others emphasize goodness
and
badness; and still others emphasize overall benefit
and disbenefit. What they have in common, though,
is
that moral conduct is in someway linked with
human
happiness and immoral conduct with unhappiness.
The third component of utilitarianism is that we
need to assess the beneficial consequences of
actions as everyone is affected. If I am
thinking about stealing a car, I need to
consider the conse-
quences of my conduct for myself, my family,
the victim, the victim’s family, and anyone
else who
might be affected by my action. This is
reflected in utilitarianism’s famous motto that
we should
seek the greatest good for the greatest number of
people.
Because businesspeople are so familiar with financial
cost-benefit analysis, utilitarianism is a natu-
ral way to make moral assessments with
business decisions. Take the Bhopal catastrophe as
an
example. In retrospect, we can see that the
62. company and its stockholders gained a certain
amount
of benefit through financial savings from lax safety
regulations. However, at the same time,we can
see that this was greatly outweighed by the
disbenefit from the deaths and injuries. It also
created
disbenefits for the company itselfin terms of
bad public relations, lawsuits, and decreased stock
value. At the time,of course, Union Carbide
could not have known with certainty that its
lax safety
standards would have resulted in a disaster of
such magnitude. However, an impartial risk assess-
ment of its facility would have revealed that there
were serious safety hazards, and that alone
would have tipped the utilitarian scale.
Associated Press/nmg
Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832), the Brit-
ish philosopher who developed the moral
principle, which we now call the utilitarian
calculus, that morality is determined by
numerically tallying the degree of pleasure
and pain that arises from our actions.
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CHAPTER 1Section 1.5 Morality and Government
1.5 Morality and Government
In this final section, we will examine somemoral
63. theories that pertain to governments and the
laws that they create. From the start,it is
important to look at the boundaries that
separate moral-
ity and the law that governments create. What
they have in common is that they both command
us to behave in certain ways, and oftentheir
edicts are the same. It is immoral to
steal, and it is
also illegal. It is immoral to assault someone,
and it is also illegal.
However, there are many instances where
morality and legality do not overlap. Adultery,
for
example, is immoral, but in the United States it
is not illegal in most states. So too with
cheating
on school exams. Similarly, thereare someactions
that are illegal but not immoral. Going 36 in
a
35-mph zone is illegal but not necessarily
immoral. Similarly, someinstances of mercy killing
may
be morally justifiable, even though they are
currently illegal.
Morality is an important source of inspiration
for the law, but it is not the last word on
the issue. In
business ethics, it is oftenimportant to consider
issues of morality and legality separately.
Perhaps
we will find someimmoral actions in business which
are not illegal but should be. Or we might
find
64. somemorally permissible actions that are illegal,
but should be made legal.
The threemain issues that we will focus on are
social-contract theory, human-rights theory, and
theories of governmental coercion. The driving
questions here are: What is the origin of
govern-
mental authority? What is the main purpose that
governments serve? What are the limits to
the
laws that governments can create?
The Social Contract
Business by its very nature is dog-eat-dog, where
one company tries to draw customers awayfrom
the competition, perhaps to the pointof putting
the competition out of business. Sometimes
efforts to succeed can go too far and involve
intentionally sabotaging the competition by
steal-
ing tradesecrets, publishing misleading attack
ads, or even vandalizing property. For example, an
owner of a pizza restaurant in Philadelphia
was charged with releasing mice into two competing
pizzerias. The owner went into the bathroom of one
competitor and placed a bag of mice in
the
drop ceiling. He then crossed the street, entered a
second one, and placed another bag of mice
into a garbage can. When caught and arrested, he
claimed that he was just getting even for his
competition doing the same thingto him (Kim,
65. 2011).
Even though business is inherently cutthroat, there
are still requirements for civil behavior and
limits on how far one can go in defeating the
competition. Without those requirements,
business
competition would descend into gang warfare and
ultimately destroy the economic playing field
that is required for businesses to even exist.
This is precisely the rationale behind social contract
theory: To preserve our individual lives, we
agree to set asideour hostilities towards each other in
exchange for the peace that a civilized
society offers. The champion of this view is Thomas
Hobbes, who, as we saw earlier, defended the
theory of psychological egoism. Hobbes began by
having us thinkabout what the world would
be
like if therewere no governments and laws to keep
society peaceful. In his words, what would
the
state of nature be like, in which every person
was seeking to survive in competition with
everyone
else, without the protection of the government? His
answer was that it would be a condition of
war between every person, and two factors make
this so:
fie66722_01_c01_001-026.indd 15 3/2/12 9:40 AM
66. CHAPTER 1Section 1.5 Morality and Government
1. First, life’s necessities are scarce, and it
is a constant struggle for us to adequately
supply
our basicneeds like food, clothing, and shelter.
2. Second, we are not by nature generous, and
we will not be inclined to share what we
have with others.
As a psychological egoist, Hobbes held that we
will
always be interested in our own personal
interests
and that we are not capable of acting towards
others
with true altruism. If we were capable of acting
self-
lessly, then we would peacefully divide up
the scarce
resources that we all need. If I find an apple,
and then
see that you are hungry, I will naturally be
inclined to
split the apple with you. But, according to Hobbes,
our
natural inclination towards selfishness prevents us
from
doing this. The result, then, is that the state of
nature
is really a state of war, which he vividly
describes here:
In such condition there is no place for
industry, because the fruit thereof is
67. uncertain, and consequently, no culture
of the earth, no navigation, nor use of
the commodities that may be imported
by sea, no commodious building, no
instruments of moving and removing
such things as require much force, no
knowledge of the face of the earth, no
account of time, no arts, no letters, no
society, and which is worst of all, con-
tinual fear and danger of violent death,
and the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty,
brutish, and short. (Hobbes, 1651/1994)
Within the state of nature, thereis no pointin
my even trying to growa garden, builda
home, or
furnish it: Someone would just come along
and take it from me by force.
How, then, do we escape from the
horrible conditions of the state of nature?
The answer for
Hobbes was the social contract, which has three
steps:
1. First, I must recognize that seeking peace is
the best way for me to preserve my life. I
will
always be selfish, and that will never change.
However, I must see that I can better my
own situation by seeking peace with my competition.
2. Second, I must negotiate a peace settlement
with you: I will set asidemy hostilities
towards you if you set asideyour hostilities towards
me. If we mutually agree to be civil
68. to each other, then we will both have the hope of
living better lives.
3. Third, we must establish a governmental
authority that will punish us if we break
our
agreement. Talk is cheap, and I can verbally
agree to a peace treaty with you but
then
attack you when your guard is down. And
you can do exactly the same thingto me. But if
we create a policing power to watch over
us, then I will be strongly motivated to hold to
my agreementwith you, and so will you.
Copyright Bettmann/Corbis/AP Images/Anonymous
Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679), the English
philosopher who developed the concept
of the social contract, and famously stated
that in the state of nature, “the life of man
[is] solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.”
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CHAPTER 1Section 1.5 Morality and Government
In the business world, it is essentially a
social-contract agreementthat keeps us from
sabotaging
our competitors. Our natural selfish inclination
might be to destroy our competition by
69. any means
necessary, but doing so would lead to a
savage state of war where we would all be
losers. The
best business strategy, then, is a negotiated peace
settlementwhere all businesses play by a
set of
rules. To keep us from cheating on those rules,
thereare governing bodies such as governments
and professional business associations that can punish
us when we break them. Business is
still
motivated by self-interest, but it is now constrained
to be civil.
Human Rights
The U.S. CivilWar was in many ways the result of
a business-ethics dispute. The earliest Spanish
settlers of North America brought African slaves
with them to help cultivate the land and build
towns, and slavery quickly became integral to
business activities throughout the colonies. By
the
time of the American Revolution, slavery in the
North had declined, partly because of a
manufac-
turing economy where it cost more to own and
maintain slaves than the slaves could
economically
produce. However, in the agricultural economy of
the South, slavelaborwas still cost-effective.
As the antislavery movement tookhold, Southern
slaveholders asked who would compensate
them for their financial investment in their slaves if
the slaves were to be freed. There were no
70. clear answers to this question, and so the slaveholders
saw abolitionism as a direct threat to
their
economic rights. They saw the North as posturing to
steal their property and gut their capacity to
compete in the agricultural marketplace.
We now see slavery as one of the worst
chapters in American history, regardless of the
economic
argumentsof the slaveholders. And even today, we
are horrified to hear of slavery-like condi-
tions around the world, where laborers are
sometimes kidnapped or otherwise coerced
into
working in sweatshops or on farms with
grueling hours, horrible conditions, and meager
pay. We
see theseas rights violations that can never be
morally justified by any economic benefit to
the
business owner.
The central idea here is that of a right, which
is a justified claim against another
person’s behavior.
For example, I can rightfully claim that you cannot
steal from me, torture me, enslave me, or kill
me. I am making a claim about what you
can and cannot do. When asserting our various
rights, it
is important to distinguish between two types:
• Legal rights are those created by
governments. The government, for example, has
71. estab-
lished laws that grantme the right to drivewhen I
reach a certain age, or carrycertain
types of weapons, or visit publicly owned parks.
• Human rights—alsocalled natural rights—are not
created by governments but are rights
all people around the world have regardless of
the country in which they live. The rights
against slavery and torture are commonly listed
among these.
There are threedistinct features of human rights:
• They are natural in the sense that we
are born with them. They are not given to us
by the
government or any otherhuman institution, but
are part of our identity by our merely
being born as human beings.
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CHAPTER 1Section 1.5 Morality and Government
• They are universal in that all humans
worldwide
possess them. No matter who you are or where
you live, you have human rights.
• They are equal in the sense that we all
have the
same list of fundamental human rights, and no
72. one has more or fewer than another person.
The concept of human rights was first developed by
the English philosopher John Locke (1632–1704),
who
argued that by nature everyone has the basicrights
to life, health, liberty, and possessions. God gives
us
thesewhen we are born, and we retain them
through-
out life, so long as we do not violate the rights
of oth-
ers. For Locke, the right to acquire possessions
was
the source of our economic freedom and the ability
to conduct business transactions. Once I
rightfully
acquire possessions, I can keep them or sell them as
I
see fit. However, just as Hobbes warned, the world
is
a nasty place, and many out therewill want to
violate
my rights and take what I have. According to
Locke,
we establish governments specifically for the pur-
pose of protecting our fundamental rights: We sub-
contract to the government the job of keeping
the
peace. If the government adequately performs
its
task of protecting our rights, then we all benefit. If
73. the government fails in that task, however, we have a
right to overthrow the government and
replace it with a better one that can more
adequately do its job.
Thomas Jefferson, when penning the Declaration of
Independence, latched onto this exact part
of Locke’s theory:
We hold thesetruths to be self-evident, that all
men are created equal, that they
are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable
Rights, that among these
are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.
That, to secure theserights, Gov-
ernments are instituted among Men,deriving their just
Powers from the consent
of the governed. That, whenever any form of
Government becomes destructive
of theseends, it is the Right of the People
to alter or to abolish it, and to institute
new Government.
Through Jefferson, the concept of human rights
has become embedded into the American mind-
set, and it has inspired countries around the world
to similarly acknowledge human rights.
But the concept of human rights took its modern
form through a document called the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights, which was adopted
by the United Nations General Assembly in
1948.
The Universal Declaration reiterates the same core set of
human rights as Locke and Jefferson:
74. “Everyone has the right to life, liberty and
security of person” (1948, Article 3).
However, the docu-
ment continues by listing a range of very specific
rights, such as thesepertaining to businesses:
Copyright Bettmann/Corbis/AP Images/Anonymous
John Locke (1632–1704), the English phi-
losopher who developed the concept of
natural rights and the right of citizens to
overthrow governments that fail to protect
their rights.
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CHAPTER 1Section 1.5 Morality and Government
1. Everyone has the right to work,
to free choice of employment,
to just and favourable condi-
tions of work and to protection
against unemployment.
2. Everyone, without any discrimi-
nation, has the right to equal
pay for equal work.
3. Everyone who works has the
right to just and favourable
remuneration ensuring for him-
self and his family an existence
worthy of human dignity, and
supplemented, if necessary, by
75. othermeans of social protection.
4. Everyone has the right to form
and to join tradeunions for the
protection of his interests.
Everyone has the right to rest and leisure,
including reasonable limitation of work-
ing hours and periodic holidays with pay.
(Universal Declaration of Human Rights,
1948, Articles 23–24)
Although not all of the human rights listed in
the Uni-
versal Declaration have yet become a reality
around
the world, it is nevertheless the standard
towards
which all countries within the United Nations
have
pledged to work.
Principles of Governmental Coercion
To effectively compete in the marketplace,
businesses
are continually pushing the boundaries of tasteful
adver-
tising. Presenting shocking and even offensive images
in advertisements will attract attention, and may gen-
erate sales. A quick online image search
for “offensive
advertisement” will reveal a range of troubling
ads that
are sexually explicit, demeaning to women or
76. minority
groups, or offensive to religious groups. A case in
point
is an advertisement by the Italian clothing
company
Benetton that contained an altered image of the
Catho-
lic pope romantically kissing a Muslim imam. In
keeping with the company’s theme of
multicultural-
ism, a spokesperson said that “the meaning of this
campaign is exclusively to combat the culture
of
hatred in all its forms” (Rocca, 2011). When
the Vatican threatened to sue, Benetton
removed the ad.
What Would You Do?
Say you are a midlevel supervisor at
a sportswear company that special-
izes in athletic footwear. You have just
found out that someof your manu-
facturing facilities in Bangladesh hire
childworkers as young as age 10. They
work 14 hours a day, 7 days a week,
and receive wages as low as 20 cents
an hour. You know that this is a clear
human-rights violation.
1. Would you discuss your moral
concerns with your superiors in
the company?
2. Suppose you did discuss your con-
cerns with them and their response
77. was essentially that this was stan-
dard practice in Asian countries,
and what your company was doing
was no different from what any
othercompany does that has tex-
tile facilities in those countries.
Also, if your company set higher
standards, it would not be able
to compete in the marketplace.
Would this explanation satisfy you?
3. Suppose that the response of your
superiors was that they acknowl-
edged the problem and were
working on it, but that it would
take several years before this prac-
tice could be eliminated. Would
this explanation satisfy you?
4. Suppose that your company stated
in its advertising and packaging
that no childlaborwas used in
manufacturing its products. You
knew, though, that this was not
true. Would you bring this to the
attention of a government agency?
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CHAPTER 1Section 1.5 Morality and Government
While ads like Benetton’s may be offensive to
somepeople, they nevertheless may be perfectly
legal. That raises the question of how bad an
78. action needs to be before the government
stepsin
and makes it illegal. All governments are
coercive in the sense that they forceus to
conform to
laws under threat of punishment. PepsiCo would
not burn down Coca-Cola’s company headquar-
ters, even if it wanted to, because of how the
government would punish it. But governments
can-
not randomly single out someactions as criminal
and allow others to be legal. There
are reasons
why someactions are prohibitedand others are not.
There are four common justifications of gov-
ernmental coercion: the harmprinciple, the offense
principle, the principle of legal paternalism,
and the principle of legal moralism.
The first is the harm principle: Governments may restrict
our conduct when it harms otherpeople.
Burning down Coca-Cola’s headquarters could
injure and kill many people, and would
undoubt-
edly cause financial harmto the company. However,
for the government to step in and outlaw
harmful actions, the injury must be serious, not
trivial. For example, almost all fast-food
products
are harmful in comparison to organic food
alternatives. However, serving unhealthy food is
far less
serious than serving food tainted with salmonella,
which causes severe illness and even death.
Thus, the government cannot reasonably outlaw
79. fast food, whereas it justifiablycan do so
with
salmonella-tainted food.
Second is the offense principle: Governments may
keep us from offending others. We cannot
walk naked through the streets, be publicly
intoxicated, or shout obscenities in
playgrounds. As
with the harmprinciple, the offense principle also looks
at the degree to which a particular action
is objectionable: Is it outrageously offensive or
merely a nuisance? Benetton’s ad touches on
this
very issue. It was certainly offensive to specific
groups of Catholics and Muslims, but whether it
was deeply offensive to society at largeis another
matter. Again, Benetton’s ad was perfectly
legal,
which means that in our present cultural
climate, it was not offensive enough to be
illegal.
Third is the principle of legal paternalism, which
is a sister concept to the harmprinciple.
While
the harmprinciple focuses on the harmour actions
cause to otherpeople, legal paternalism looks
at the harmthat we cause ourselves through our
actions and maintains that the government can
restrict such conduct. I can hurt myself by
participating in a dangerous sportsuch as cliff
diving or
80. by working in a dangerous occupation such as
tree trimming. When the government mandates
that I wear a seat belt when driving, the concern
is principally with protecting me from my own
careless conduct. The term paternalism comes from
that Latin word for father, which implies
that
the government is overseeing my conduct in
the way that parents try to protect their
children. But
does the government have any business in doing
this? Yet again, the question is one of degree.
With our stupidest and most dangerous actions, we may
want the government to protect us from
ourselves. However, with an action that does not cause
serious harmto me, I may want the gov-
ernment to just leave me alone.
Finally, there is legal moralism: Governments may
restrict conduct that is especially sinful or
immoral. Prime examples of this are laws against
blasphemy and somesex acts, such as sodomy.
The question here is not whether a type of conduct
is harmful to others, publicly offensive, or
harmful to oneself. It is a matter of
whether an act, even when done privately, crosses
some
moral boundary that justifies the government’s
stepping in. Of all the principles of govern-
mental coercion, legal moralism is probably the
weakest. One reason is that many moral
and
religious standards vary widely, and by outlawing an
action solely on moral or religious
grounds,
81. the government may be unfairly adopting the
standards of one cultural group and applying
them to everyone.
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CHAPTER 1Section 1.6 Conclusion
Although legal moralism may be the weakest of
the
four principles, someof the others may also be
seri-
ously questionable. The British philosopher John
Stuart Mill argued that, in fact,only one principle of
governmental coercion is justifiable, namely the
harm
principle. The government has no right to restrict
our
conduct on the otherthreegrounds. In Mill’s words:
The only purpose for which power can
be rightfully exercised over any member
of a civilized community, against his will,
is to prevent harm to others. His own
good, either physical or moral, is not a
sufficient warrant (1859/1999).
The reason, according to Mill, is that a wide
sphere
of personal liberty is essential for a happy
society,
and that includes the possibility of offending others,
82. harming ourselves, or crossing sometraditional moral
boundary. Do we want to decide for ourselves what
makes us happy, or do we want the government
to do
so? From Mill’s perspective, I am a better
judge of my
own happiness than the government ever could be,
and society on the whole will be a happier
place when
we are each allowed that freedom.
All of theseprinciples of governmental coercion apply
to businesses just as they do to individual
people.
Again, with Benetton, although their ad was offensive
to somegroups, the offense was not serious or
widespread enough to justify its being
illegal. But
with many ad campaigns, merely being legal
may not be good enough. Public opinion can be
as
coercive as any government-imposed restriction. If
Microsoft, PepsiCo, or any otherFortune 500
company published an ad with the pope kissing a
Muslim, the backlash would likely be
financially
crippling. Catholics and Muslims worldwide might
boycott their products. Benetton is a much
smaller company, with a specialized market niche
and a history of using shocking ads to
get con-
sumers’ attention. Not so with Microsoft and PepsiCo,
which have much broader customer bases
83. worldwide. With them, consumer coercion is as
powerful as governmental coercion.
1.6 Conclusion
In this chapter we have looked at a wide
spectrum of classic moral theories and showed
how
they apply to an equally broad spectrum of
business ethics issues. These are moral
theories
that, 1,000 years from now, will be just as
important as they are today; in a sense,
they define
the moral thought process for humans. The
philosophers who proposed thesevarious theories
were not always in agreementwith each other; in
fact, they rejected many rival moral theories.
Bentham believed that all moral and social issues
should be decided solely using the
utilitarian
principle, not through theories about religion, virtue,
duty, social contracts, or human rights.
Copyright Bettmann/Corbis/AP Images/Anonymous
John Stuart Mill (1806–1873), a British
philosopher who defended personal lib-
erty and argued that government should
restrict our conduct only when we harm
others, not when we merely offend others,
harm ourselves, or behave immorally.
fie66722_01_c01_001-026.indd 21 3/2/12 9:40 AM
84. CHAPTER 1Summary
Similarly, Kant believed that the categorical
imperative was the single moral litmus test.
But
exclusive claims like theseare much like efforts at
brand loyalty in the business world.
Walmart
would like us to shop at only their stores. Coca-
Cola would like us to drink only their beverages.
Exxon would like us to buy only their gas. But in
the real world, our purchasing habits are
more
diverse and we are drawn to a range of
different stores and products.
So too with moral theories: In the real world,
when we reflect on moral issues, some
theories will
be more relevant or illuminating than others.
Bentham’s utilitarianism may be helpful with
some
types of moral evaluations, but not with others.
The same is true for the othertheories that we
have examined.We are trapped in a morally
complex world that demands that we make
moral
choices. One way or another we will do that, and
drawing on all of the various moral
theories can
help make the job easier.
In the following chapters of this book, all of
the issues covered can be analyzed using
theseclassic
85. moral theories. As authors, though, we have not
forced that approach. Issues such as pricefixing,
corporate punishment, consumer advocacy, insider trading,
and others are challenging enough in
their own right, without the added intricacies of
a utilitarian or duty-theory analysis. Neverthe-
less, classic moral theories are always lurking in
the background of most of thesediscussions.
Does
a particular government regulation serve the greatest
good for the greatest number of people? Do
affirmative action policies violate the rights of
majority groups? Do we have special moral
duties
to protect the environment? A full evaluation of
business-ethics issues may greatly benefit from
the contributions of classic moral theories.
Summary
We began this chapter looking at theories of
where morality comes from and the debate
between
moral objectivism and moral relativism. Moral
objectivists claim that moral standards are
not cre-
ated by human beings, are unchanging, and are
universal. Moral relativists hold the opposite view,
that moralstandards are created by human beings,
change from society to society, and are not
universal. Also relevant to the question of where
morality comes from is the connection
between
religion and ethics. Divine command theory is
the position that moral standards are created by
86. God’s will, but we saw somechallenges to this
view. Religious ethical theories also commonly
hold
that religious believers have a special moral ability;
we looked at challenges to this view as
well.
We next looked at ways in which our human
psychological makeup might affect how we
view
morality. One issueconcerns our ability to act
selflessly. Psychological egoists hold that human
conduct is selfishly motivated and we cannot
perform actions from any othermotive. By
contrast,
psychological altruists hold that people are at least
occasionally capable of acting selflessly. Also
of relevance is how gender shapes men’s and
women’s conceptions of morality. Care ethics is
the
theory that women see morality as the need to
care for people who are in situations of vulner-
ability and dependency.
One of the central concerns of ethical theory is
to present and explain the moral standards
that
guide our behavior. One such approach is virtue
theory, which is the view that morality is
grounded
in the virtuous character traitsthat people acquire.
According to Aristotle, virtues are good mental
habits that regulate our urges and stand at a
mean between vicesof deficiency and vicesof
87. excess.
Another approach is duty theory, which holds
that moral standards are grounded in instinctive
fie66722_01_c01_001-026.indd 22 3/2/12 9:40 AM
CHAPTER 1Summary
obligations. Some duty theories propose a list of
obligations, such as the Ten Commandments,
and
others propose a single principle, such as the
Golden Rule. Kant offered a single
principle that he
called the categorical imperative, which states
that we should treat people as an end and
never
as a means to an end. A third approach is
the theory of utilitarianism, which holds
that an action
is morally right if the consequences of that action
are more favorable than unfavorable to every-
one. Bentham developed the idea of the utilitarian
calculus, whereby numerical values could be
assigned to the positive and negative consequences of
actions.
The final component of this chapter explored the
relationship between morality and government.
One major theory on this is social contract
theory. Hobbes described a warring state of
nature gen-
erated by human selfishness and scarcity of
88. necessities. The solution is the social
contract, which
holds that, to preserve our individual lives, we
agree to set asideour hostilities towards each
other
in exchange for the peace that a civilized society
offers. A second important theory on the
relation-
ship between morality and government is the concept
of human rights. These are rights that
are
not created by government, but are held equally by
all people around the world regardless of
the
country in which they live. The theory was
developed by Locke, who held that by nature,
everyone
has the basicrights to life, health, liberty, and
possessions. People establish governments for
the
purpose of protecting those fundamental rights,
and governments can be overthrown when
they
fail to perform that task. A third theory on the
relation between morality and government
involves
four principles of governmental coercion. They are the
harmprinciple, whereby governments may
restrict our conduct when it harms otherpeople;
the offense principle, which restricts our behav-
ior that offends others; legal paternalism, which
restricts an individual’s actions that harmhim- or
herself; and legal moralism, which restricts especially
sinful or immoral conduct. Mill argued that
only the harmprinciple is justified, and the otherthree
89. are not.
Discussion Questions
1. There are several theories about where
moral values come from, including moral
objec-
tivism, moral relativism, and divine-command
theory. Which if any of thesetheories
works best when understanding the moral
obligations of businesses?
2. Assume that the theory of psychological egoism
is true, that all human actions are self-
ishly motivated. Is therea way that the decision-
making process within a largecorpora-
tion can overcome this fact of human selfishness?
Could the corporation, for example,
establish a charity program that was designed only to
benefit the needy, with no public
relations benefit to the company at all?
3. According to virtue theory, to be morally
good people we should develop virtuous habits
like courage, temperance, wisdom, and justice. Can
therebe such a thingas a “virtuous
corporation”? If so, what are the virtuous habits
that it would need to have?
4. According to duty theory, thereare fundamental
principles of moral obligation that we
all know instinctively, such as do not kill or
steal. Are thereany fundamental principles of
business ethics that everyone in business
automatically knows they should follow?
90. 5. According to Kant’s theory of the
categorical imperative, we should treat people
as an
end, and never merely as a means to an
end. Think of an example in business that
vio-
lates this principle and explain how it does that.
6. Consider the issueof childlabormentioned in
the “What Would You Do?”box. Use a
utilitarian analysis to determine whether use of such
laborwould be morally permissible
for your company.
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CHAPTER 1Summary
7. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights
lists several rights that pertain to businesses
(see that list in the chapter). Would you agree
that all of those are genuine human
rights? Explain.
8. There are four principles of governmental
coercion that explain why the government is
justified in restrictingour actions. It is clear how
the harmprinciple applies directly to
businesses: Businesses should not engage in
conduct that causes serious harmto others,
such as by manufacturing unsafe products, dumping
toxicwaste, or having unsafe work-
91. ing conditions for employees. Explain how the
otherthreeprinciples of governmental
coercion might apply to business conduct.
Key Terms
care ethics The theory that women see moral-
ity as the need to care for people who are in
situations of vulnerability and dependency.
categorical imperative The moral principle
proposed by Immanuel Kant that we should
treat people as an end, and never merely as a
means to an end.
cost benefit analysis The economic model-
ing of a project to check whether the
benefits
outweigh the costs.
divine-command theory The view that moral
standards are created by God’s will.
duty theory The view that moral standards
are grounded in instinctive obligations, that is,
duties.
ethics An organized analysis of values relating
to human conduct, with respect to their right-
ness and wrongness.
Foreign Corrupt Practices Act A U.S. Federal
law regulating the operation of U.S. companies
in foreign countries, which includes an anti-
bribery provision.
92. harm principle The view that governments
may restrict our conduct when it harms other
people.
human rights Rights that are not created by
government, but held by all people around
the world regardless of the country in which
they live.
legal moralism The view that governments
may restrict conduct that is especially sinful or
immoral.
legal paternalism The view that governments
can restrict the conduct of an individual who
harms him- or herself.
legal rights Rights that are created by
governments.
moral objectivism The theory that moral stan-
dards are not created by human beings, are
unchanging, and are universal.
moral relativism The theory that moral stan-
dards are created by human beings, change
from society to society, and are not universal.
offense principle The view that governments
may keep us from offending others.
psychological altruism The theory that human
beings are at least occasionally capable of act-
ing selflessly.
93. psychological egoism The theory that human
conduct is selfishly motivated and we cannot
perform actions from any othermotive.
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CHAPTER 1Summary
right A justified claim against another person’s
behavior.
social-contract theory The moral and political
theory that, to preserve our individual lives,
we agree to set asideour hostilities towards
each otherin exchange for the peace that a
civilized society offers.
utilitarianism The theory that an action is mor-
ally right if the consequences of that action are
more favorable than unfavorable to everyone.
virtue theory The view that morality is
grounded in the virtuous character traitsthat
people acquire.
virtues Good habits of character that result in
morally proper behavior.
fie66722_01_c01_001-026.indd 25 3/2/12 9:40 AM
Capitalism
94. Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
• Describe the main features of capitalismand
socialism.
• Explain the threemain aspects of Adam Smith’s
account of capitalismand Karl Marx’s account of
socialism.
• Assess the main criticisms of capitalismand
socialism.
• Explain how various anticompetitive practices
undermine capitalism.
• Describe the reasons and mechanisms for
government regulation of the marketplace.
eyetwist/kevin balluff
2
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CHAPTER 2Section 2.1 Introduction
Chapter Outline
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Capitalism and Socialism Defined
Capitalism
Socialism
2.3 Adam Smith’s Capitalism
95. Selfish Desire for Luxury Goods
The Invisible Hand
Limited Role of Government
2.4 Karl Marx’s Socialism
Alienated Labor
Class Struggle
Revolution
2.5 Assessment of Capitalism and Socialism
Criticismsof Capitalism
Criticismsof Socialism
Moderate Versions
2.6 Anticompetitive Practices
Monopolies and Oligopolies
PriceFixing, Bid Rigging, and PriceGouging
2.7 Regulating the Free Market
Reasons for Government Regulation
Mechanisms for Government Regulation
2.8 Conclusion
2.1 Introduction
In the spring of 2000, protestors took to the
streets in Bolivia, South America’spoorest
coun-
try. The reason? The Bolivian government had leased
the water rights of several regions in
the
96. drought-stricken nation to private companies.
One was the U.S. engineering company Bechtel,
which agreed to expand and bring efficiency to
the water resources of those regions. This
meant
that all of the area’s water resources fell within
its domain, even the gathering of rainwater.
Shortly after Bechtel took control, water prices in
one city tripled, sparking major protests. The
government declared martial law and police were
called in, killing at least six protesters
and
injuring over 170 others. The Bolivian government
subsequently canceled the water contract
with Bechtel.
Bechtel was not an inherently evil corporation that
intentionally entered Bolivia to extract money
from a poverty-stricken population. In their
defense, company executives said that the price
increases were initiated by the local government, not by
them. Bechtel was experienced in the
fie66722_02_c02_027-054.indd 28 3/2/12 9:40 AM
CHAPTER 2Section 2.2 Capitalism and Socialism Defined
managing of water resources and was simply thereto
do a job. Nevertheless, the company’s involvement
in
the privatization of water became a symbol
for capi-