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Introduction of carbohydrate
- 1. Introduction of Carbohydrate Chemist perspective
- 2. + Cm(H2O)n Energy Fixation Basics of Carbohydrate Chemistry : Energy Storage and utilization
- 3. Importance of Carbohydrate : Source of Energy (Living organism) 30,000 Glu Moles Animal Storage Plant Storage Insect
- 4. Importance of Carbohydrate : Structural Component Stability
- 5. Importance of Carbohydrate : Cell Surface The Bacterium Bacillus : TEM Repels --Ve Charge objects Glycocalyx helps to attach two cells Act as receptor for hormone : e.g. Insuline Enter into immune reaction e.g ABO blood group Identity marker allow sugar to interact with each other Tissue growth Application : Vaccination Immunotherapy blood transfusion development of antiviral
- 6. Basics of Carbohydrate Chemistry : Sialic Acid Hydroxylase Neu5Ac Neu5Gc chimps Simian immunodeficiency viruses , AIDS, cirrhosis, and other diseases N-Acetylneuraminic acid N-Glycolylneuraminic acid HIV virus, hepatitis B or C, or other viruses
- 7. Basics of Carbohydrate Chemistry : Glycogenome
- 11. Aldoses G E T R LA X ALL ALTROSES GLADLY MAKE GUM IN GALAN TANK R
- 13. Deoxy Sugars
- 14. Metabolically important Carbohydrate phosphate
- 15. Mutarotation
- 18. Basics of Carbohydrate Chemistry : Projection
- 19. Basics of Carbohydrate Chemistry Terminology
Editor's Notes
- Carbohydrates are one of the most abundant and widely distributed organic compounds found on the Earth. They are ubiquitous, being found as important constituents in plants, animals, and microorganisms. he process uses the energy of sunlight to combine carbon dioxide with water to form carbohydrate and molecular oxygen as abbreviated in the following reaction: 6 CO2+6 H2O→C6H12O6+6O2. Carbohydrates thus represent the conservation of the energy of the sun as chemical energy and serve as the major source of energy for nonphotosynthe- sizing organisms. Therefore, they must have been very early products in the evolution of life.
- Carbohydrates are produced during the process of photosynthesis, in which the energy from the sun is converted into chemical energy by combining carbon dioxide with water to form carbohydrates and molecular oxygen Current geochemical theory suggests that molecular oxygen was in very low concentration in the atmosphere of the ancient earth, and carbohydrates were broken down by the process of anaerobic glycolysis (reaction 1.2) to give energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a phosphorylated and purine substitutedcarbohydrate ribose derivative (see Fig. 1.7). This is discussed in more detail in Chapter II. Only a limited amount ofenergy was available for living organisms via anaerobic glycolysis (2 ATP perC6H,P6)' and life remained simple and primitive. As the concentration of atmospheric molecular oxygen increased due to microbial photosynthesis, mechanisms evolved for the complete oxidationofcarbohydrates by molecular oxygen to give CO2 +Hp (respiration, reaction 1.3), which gave much greateramounts ofenergy (38 ATP perC6HtP6)'This increase in available energy led to an explosion in the number and complexity oforganisms.
- Energy Storage in Biological Systems. Living organisms use two major types ofenergy storage. Energy-rich molecules such as glycogen and triglycerides storeenergy in the form of covalent chemical bonds. Cells synthesize such molecules and store them for later release of the energy. Monosaccharides are the major source of fuel for metabolism, being used both as an energy source (glucose being the most important in nature) and in biosynthesis. Organisms ranging from bacteria, yeast, fungi, insects, invertebrates, and lower and higher plants have enzymes that can make trehalose.[5] In nature, trehalose can be found in plants, and microorganisms. In animals, trehalose is prevalent in shrimp, and also in insects, including grasshoppers, locusts, butterflies, and bees, in which trehalose serves as blood-sugar. Trehalose is then broken down into glucose by the catabolic enzyme trehalase for use. Trehalose is also present in the nutrition exchange liquid of hornets and their larvae.[citation needed] Trehalose is the major carbohydrate energy storage molecule used by insects for flight. One possible reason for this is that the glycosidic linkage of trehalose, when acted upon by an insect trehalase, releases two molecules of glucose, which is required for the rapid energy requirements of flight. This is double the efficiency of glucose release from the storage polymer starch, for which cleavage of one glycosidic linkage releases only one glucose molecul
- Cellulose is an organic compound with the formula n, polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to many thousands of β(1→4) linked D-glucose units.[3][4] Cellulose is an important structural component of the primary cell wall of green plants, many forms of algae and the oomycetes. Some species of bacteria secrete it to form biofilms.[5] Cellulose is the most abundant organic polymer on Earth.[6] The cellulose content of cotton fiber is 90%, that of wood is 40–50%, and that of dried hemp is approximately 57% Chitin (C8H13O5N)n (/ˈkaɪtɪn/ KY-tin), a long-chain polymer of N-acetylglucosamine, is a derivative of glucose. It is a primary component of cell wallsin fungi, the exoskeletons of arthropods, such as crustaceans (e.g., crabs, lobsters and shrimps) and insects, the radulae of molluscs, cephalopod beaks, and the scales of fish and lissamphibians.[1] The structure of chitin is comparable to another polysaccharide - cellulose, forming crystalline nanofibrils or whiskers. In terms of function, it may be compared to the protein keratin. Chitin has proved useful for several medicinal, industrial and biotechnological purposes.
- The glycocalyx, also known as the pericellular matrix, is a glycoprotein and glycolipid covering that surrounds the cell membranes of some bacteria, epithelia, and other cells. Carbohydrate on cell surface act as receptor for harmone, such as insulin which activate internal enzyme, Some carbohydrate enter into immune reaction, Glycoprotein plays key role : Such as ABO blood group determine by number of sugar attached to spingolipids Different cells has different markers, carbohydrate chain play imp role to recognize self and cell to cell interaction. Cell to recognize other cell of same type join together to form tissue. Two Embryonic cells such as nerve cell and muscle cell if mixed, will sort them selvs in nerve cell and muscle cell aggregates Carbohydrate cell surface marker involve in tissue growth, which limit cell to certain destination, that’s why cell do not trespass boundaries of neighboring tissue, that’s why they do not overgrow
- Simian immunodeficiency virusVirus classificationGroup:Group VI (ssRNA-RT)Order:UnassignedFamily:RetroviridaeSubfamily:OrthoretrovirinaeGenus:LentivirusSpecies:Simian immunodeficiency virusSimian immunodeficiency viruses (SIVs) are retroviruses that cause persistent infections in at least 45 species of African non-human primates In 2010, researchers reported that SIV had infected monkeys in Bioko for at least 32,000 years. Based on molecular clock analyses of sequences, it was previously thought by many that SIV infection in monkeys had happened over the past few hundred years.[16][unreliable source?] Scientists estimated that it would take a similar amount of time before humans would adapt naturally to HIV infection in the way monkeys in Africa have adapted to SIV and not suffer any harm from the infection
- The glycogenome represents the genes encoding the various glycosyltransferases, glycosidases, sugar, and nucleotide sugar metabolizing enzymes important in glycan biosynthesis, and nucleotide sugar transporters. The glycosyltransferases generated from the glycotranscriptome in schistosomes represent a large class of predicted enzymes, often requiring metal cofactors, such as manganese (Me2+), that synthesize glycans using donor nucleotide sugars to form glycosidic bonds to acceptors, here represented by a sugar-R, where R = sugar, protein, or lipid to which a sugar is linked. The products of the biosynthetic reactions have specific glycosidic linkages, e.g., β1,4 or α1,3, and the glycans produced are often acceptors for additional enzymes, thus generating the complex set of glycans representing the glycome of the organism. Examples are shown for two glycosyltransferase reactions that together can synthesize the LDN and LDNF antigen determinants. The key for several of the monosaccharides found in schistosome glycans are indicated—Glc (Glucose), Gal (Galactose), Man (Mannose), GlcNAc (N-acetylglucosamine), GalNAc (N-acetylgalactosamine), Fuc (Fucose), and Xyl (Xylose).
- Aldoses are more available in living organism, glucose is in top. For a sugar drawn in the Fischer projection with the most oxidized carbon at the top: if the OH on the bottom chiral centre points to the right, it is referred to as D- if the OH on the bottom chiral centre points to the left, it is referred to as L- . Keep in mind all D-sugar has last carbon
- Sedoheptulose or D-altro-heptulose is a ketoheptose—a monosaccharide with seven carbon atoms and a ketone functional group. It is one of the few heptoses found in nature. Sedoheptulose is found in various fruits and vegetables ranging from carrots, apricots, apples to tomatoes
- When the hydroxyl group is replaced by an amino group, we get an amino sugar the N-acetyl derivative, and substitution ofan amino orN-acetyl-aminogroup on C-2ofthe 6deoxy analogues ofn- orL-mannose and n- orL-galactose (giving n- orL-rhamnosamine and n- or L-fucosamine). These amino sugars are also frequently found as carbohydrate constituents ofglycoproteins
- Many of the simple trioses, tetroses, and pentoses do not occur naturally in the free state but are commonly found as phosphate-ester derivatives. The phosphoesters are important intermediates in the breakdown and synthesis of carbohydrates by living organisms. n-Glucose is converted into n-fructose-l,6-bisphosphate that is then cleaved in half to give n-glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate
- Mutarotation is the change in the optical rotation because of the change in the equilibrium between two anomers, when the corresponding stereocenters interconvert. Cyclic sugars show mutarotation as α and β anomeric forms interconvert
- The most stable or most favorable conformation usually is the one that places the majority ofthe bulky substituents (for most ofthe carbohydrates a bulky substituent is a hydroxyl group ora hydroxy methyl group) in an equatorial position, and, likewise, the leastfavored conformation is theone that places the majority of the bulky groups in an axial position. Theplacing ofthe bulky groups in the plane of the ring, or equatorial position, puts the bulky groups as far apart from each other as possible, creating a low-energy form with a minimum ofbulky group interactions. lacingthe bulky groups perpendicularto the ring, inanaxial position, puts the bulky groups as close together as possible, creating a higher energy form with a maximum ofinteraction. This can be illustrated for 13-o-g1ucopyranose in which all of the bulky groups are equatorial when the molecule in the 4C1 conformation. An intermediate in the transformation from CI to IC is a so-called boat conformation in which C-I has been moved up by rotation around the ring atoms