This document provides an introduction to applied linguistics and outlines several subfields. It discusses micro linguistics including phonetics, phonology, syntax, morphology, semantics. It then covers macro linguistics such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, stylistics, anthropological linguistics, and philosophical linguistics. It provides definitions and examples of concepts within each subfield.

1. Compiled by Ayesha Malik – KINNAIRD COLLEGE FOR WOMEN
INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED
LINGUISTICS

2. Lecture 1
Scientific study of languages and vast scope of
understanding the development of humans in domains
of vocalization of
comm., history, sociology, anthropology, psychology, an
d other allied fields of study as subjects including neutral
cognitive sciences.
Micro linguistics Macro linguistics
Pragmatics Sociolinguistics
Semantics Psycholinguistics
Syntax stylistics
Phonetics computational linguistics
Phonology Anthropological Linguistics

3. MICRO LINGUISTICS

4. 1. PHONETICS
Study of speech sounds’ production, transmission and reception.
Vowels Consonants
These require no such Simple sounds that can be produced with lips
efforts. There are : and tongue.
•12 cardinal vowels i. PLOSIVES – Sounds produced with an
•8 diphthongs explosion e.g. |p|, |t|, |k|, |b|, |g|, |d|
ii. LABIAL –involves lips e.g. |f|, |v|, |p|, |m|
iii. ALVEOLAR – involves teeth and tongue e.g.
|t|
iv. FRICATIVES – Words that use friction e.g f,z,
theeta, daa, s, small z, sh, h, v
v. AFFRICATES – Sounds borrowed from 2
different groups and combine together e.g
ch, ja
vi. LATERAL – are articulated by means of
partial closure of mouth because of an
obstacle placed in the middle so that air
escapes at, on or both sides. E.g. l, r , j, w

5. 2. PHONOLOGY
 Studies manner & usage of sounds
 Is the arrangement of sounds
 Is the mental aspects of sounds
 Is the pattern of sound and sound types
 Is made up of phonemes – smallest unit
 Includes syllables – onset and rhyme
nucleus coda

6. 3. SYNTAX
 Study of grammar and structure of language
 Is the bread and butter of L
 Nourishes the L like a backbone

7. MORPHOLOGY – Study of morphemes – made
up of smallest unit – phonemes
BOND MORPHEME FREE MORPHEME
•Cant exist ion their own These don’t need help
•Cant live independently Give meaning alone
•Need to be associated with each other Have their own class
e.g. s, es, ed, ing, etc e.g. sunny,. Went, book etc
PREFIX – Impossible Text/ discourse
SUFFIX – Colorful Sentence
AFFIX – Words that get attached to Clause
other words to give a meaningful Phrase
word Word
Morpheme
phoneme
=> MORPHOLOGIST

8. 4. SEMANTICS
Scientific study of meaning
1. LITERAL MEANING – dictionary/ lexicon
2. GRAMMATICAL MEANING – whether it’s an
adjective or a verb?
3. PRAGMATIC & SOCIAL MEANING – to say
and mean something else
=> Semanticist

9. 5. PRAGMATICS
 Study of meaning of words, phrases and full
sentences.
 Study of use of language
e.g. kind of L used in a
situation, speaker, listener, tones, stress, into
nation, status of both etc.

10. MACRO LINGUISTICS

11. 1. STYLISTICS
Scientific study of style in spoken and written
text e.g. how we dress up for a particular
occasion say funeral, wedding , college etc.
It’s a recurrent and consistent pattern based on
special items. Acc to HALLIDAY, stylistics will
study the sound, form, structure, language
and meaning of a text.

12. It looks at:
1. TIME PERIOD within a certain text is written
e.g. A poem written in Shakespeare’s time or
modern century time frame.
2. GENRE – form and type of a text e.g.
novel, prose, poetry etc.
=> Literary(literature oriented) and non literary
(others) texts.

13. 3APPROACHES USED IN STYLISTICS:
 DESCRIPTIVE approach – when text is
described
 ANALYTICAL app – where text is analyzed in
detail
 INTERPRETATIVE app – trying to describe
ides/ philosophy behind something.

14. Acc to JACOBSON, parallelism is imp when
analyzing a certain text. E.g. the cat sat on
the mat. (rhyming)
FOREGROUNDING means ways of looking at a
view, also means highlighting area of a
certain pattern, also means writing a
statement / title or something eye catching.
HEMINGTON always talks about weather
known as Weather foregrounding e.g. a
newscaster reads title first foregrounding the
details.

15. 2. PSCHYOLINGUISTICS
Scientific study of language learning and human mind. It
looks at the role of human memory, the outer environ
and past experiences in learning a new L or a skill.
There are 3 schools of psycholinguistics:
1. BEHAVIORISM: verbal behavior
conditioned response
trial and error
drilling & imitation
reward & punishment

16. PSYCHOLINGUISTS
1. PABLOV
 Russian psychologist
 Studies how to condition responses e.g. you take your hand off
from fire
 Derived theory of classical conditioning
2. DR WATSON
Coined the word behaviorism
3. SKINNER
 American
 Considered L learning as conditioned response
 Gave formula SRRR – Stimulus Response Reward Reinforcement

17. 2. COGNITIVISM:
Innate learning ability
Gifted by nature
LAD – Language Acquisition Device –
programmed, and equipped.

18. COGNITIVISTS
1. David Austen: Believes in problem solving
and learning by association
2. Noam Chomsky: believes in mental abilities
and mentalist. Humans say they have PLD –
Primary Linguistic data –fitted, received &
stored
3. Mc Laughlin: Acc to him, interesting
experiences help in deep reconstructing and
reorganization of learning items

19. 3. HUMANISM: Given by Carl Rogers.
Covers:
a. Personality types
b. LTM & STM
c. Schema – background knowledge
d. Emotional temperatures matter
e. Group and pair work prove effective
f. Margin for errors

20. SCHEMA:
 Plural of schemata
 Comes from learner’s previous knowledge
 It is the store house of images, events, languages, past
experiences, stores in human mind.
 It helps in the following ways:
1. Remembering & retaining things
2. Comprehending and understanding
3. Making guesses
4. Filling in the missed info
5. Coping with new situations
6. Understanding new vocabulary items/ situations
7. If schema gets shattered, the human memory is shattered, and
memory is affected and the learner needs to relearn everything
right from the beginning
E.g. emotional disaster, sad exp, discouraging attitude, slack of
demotivating attitude will shock the learner, slowing down the
schema.

21. LTM & STM – Personality types
•Retains for longer period •Laid back, lazy, slow
•Deep rooted •Quick, energetic, speedy
•Far reaching •IQ and motivational level matter
•Becomes mechanical – MAL There are 14 types, some say 16:
Mechanical Automatic 1. Business minded sharpness
Learning, Given by Mc Laughlin 2. Idealistic and artistic
3. Mathematical and logical
4. Philosophical and conceptual
5. Realist and factual
6. Innovative thinkers etc
LTM

22.  Humanism encourages creativity, free expression, free
talent, catharsis, friendly attitude and a sense of +ve
competition
 Encouragement and motivation is high
 Fluency and communication is more imp than grammar
and accuracy
 Independent learning is imp
 Level of confidence and comfort facilitates the learner
 Group dynamics promote tension free learning

23. 3. SOCIOLINGUISTICS
Scientific study of relationship between society and
language. It:
1. studies growth and evolution with time.
2. Studies regional differences that affect L
3. Studies individual diff that affect L
4. Studies personal and individual diff
5. Studies dialect and varieties of L

24.  IDIOLECT – personal variety of L
 DIALECT – regional variety of L
 REGISTER – Professional variety
 STANDARD Language – Official variety
 NATIONAL Language – common L for a
nation, country, state
 LINGUA FRANCA – global variety of a L

25. 4. ANTHROPOLOGICAL L
Studies the cultural dimensions, norms, values
and the language use.
Culture has 3 layers to itself:
i. The OUTER layer comprises of food,
movies, music, architecture etc
ii. The MIDDLE layer includes philosophy,
honesty, norms, values, ethics
iii. The INNER layer is the mixture of above
both

26. Acc to South Asian countries believe more in:
 high power distance HPD
 collectivism C
 short term planning STM.
Progressive countries believe in:
 Low power distance LPD
 Individualism I
 Long term planning LTP.

27. 5. PHILOSOPHICAL L
GRAMSHY CARTER worked on it.
This branch deals with the study of
ideas, philosophies
(social, political, economic), concepts, basic
recipe of a certain thing.

28. Strategies of testing the
syllogism, debating, arguing, analyzing, looki
ng at the SW of an idea/philosophy that’ll in
the wrong run direct:
i. Policy makers
ii. Social reformers
iii. Education planners
iv. Political administrators etc
e.g. study of God, where , how, how and when he came
from and further study.

29. 6. ELT
It studies English language
teaching, classroom situations and designing
new methodologies.
Focuses on the role of
teacher, principal, subject
coordinator, libraries, HRM, hiring and firing
of teachers, edu management, making
policies and edu plans.

30. 7. COMPUTATIONAL L
This branch gathers spoken and written computational data
that:
 Lists the main features
 Sifts the main similarities
 Prepares a resource pool of linguistic items
 Looks at grammatical and cultural differences in the
production and grammatical use

31. METHODS USED FOR TEACHING
 GMT – Grammar translation method that involves
grammar rules, written exercises, workbooks.
 Audio-visual lingual Method – teacher uses
recordings, drilling, repetition, practice.
 Suggestopaedia, a classroom environ is created through
sounds, lights, physical arrangement.
 Total Physical Response – it focuses on the physical
production eg teacher says ‘open the door’ and the
student opens it.
 Communicative Methodology – It borrows from
humanism, cognitivism and follows an elective approach
to teaching and learning of a certain language

32. DEFINITIONS
 Morpheme
 Compound Analysis
 Tree diagram
 Function words
 Compound sentences
 Declarative/ Exclamatory/ Interrogative
Sentences

33. PHRASES
 Noun phrase
 Verb phrase
 Adjective phrase
 Adverbial phrase
 Etc

34. Other concepts
 Semantics – Generative semantics + Formal
 Pragmatics
 Association
 Semiotics
 Opposites
 Synonyms
 Homophones

35. Lakoff’s idea
Conceptual/
logical context
Meanings of
a sentence in
shallow a situation
lexicon
surface

36. Semantics
 1. Generative: No principles distinction/
syntactic processes- 1970s
 2. Formal: Meaning of sentences are linked to
their true conditions – 1920s – 1930s
 E.g. snow is white
 Snow is green

37. Prototypes
 Classification: Furniture
 Table chair
Soft drinks Coke
Drinks: Tea
Beverages
Coffee

38. Grading
Some words can take / be graded
E.g. very hot, hottest
Dead / alive = some can’t be graded

39. SENSE RELATIONS
 Infer meanings
 Logical meanings
 Opposing sense
 Same sense
 Metaphorical meaning
 Symbolic meaning
 Vague meaning

40. Pragmatics – Socio use of a
language in a situation
Maxims:
1. Quantity
2. Quality
3. Relevance
4. Mannerism

41. Basic code of a language
 Phonetics & Phonology
 Syntax
 Semantics
 Pragmatics
 Stylistics
 Morphology

42. Figures of speech
 Onomatopoeia
 Alliteration
 Allusion
 Pun
 Simile
 Metaphor