2. Citizenship and Human Rights
Origins of Citizen Ship
-Ancient Greece
-Ancient Rome
-Medieval Society
-Revolutionary France
Human Rights
-Grew from Citizenship and in practice, rely on citizenship
4. Arguments used against providing Citizenship
Low Skilled immigrants take Natives Jobs
High Skilled immigrants removed
incentives for Natives
Immigrants erode sense of community
No evidence
6. References
• Australian Government. (2014). Why should I become a Citizen?, Retrieved
on 7th May, 2014 from http://www.citizenship.gov.au/should_become/
• Freeman, H. P. (1998). The meaning of race in science‐‐considerations for
cancer research. Cancer, 82(1), 219-225.
• Grayling, A. C. (2010). Ideas that Matter: The Concepts that Shape the 21st
Century. Basic Books.
• Merriam-Webster (2014). Power. Retrieved 14th May, 2014, from <
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/power >.
• Portes, J. (2013). An Exercise in Scapegoating, retrieved 7th May 2014 from
http://www.lrb.co.uk/v35/n12/jonathan-portes/an-exercise-in-
scapegoating>
• Shafir, G., & Brysk, A. (2006). The globalization of rights: from citizenship to
human rights. Citizenship Studies, 10(3), 275-287.
Editor's Notes
During the course of the unit Power, Resistance and Politics we briefly investigated the issues of inequality that immigrants face in terms of achieving citizenship. These issues ultimately stem from racism or xenophobia, and are implemented in legislation and public discourse. Due to the interconnected relationship of Human Rights and Citizenship, this resistance thus causes a limitation or prevention of human rights.
Human Rights and Citizenship are connected. The concept of citizenship as far as scholarship can go, stems from Ancient Greece with the aim to provide protection for free men to engage in military affairs despite economic inequality pressures, and would also be tied to the right to vote and be represented. In the Roman Empire, citizenship spread amongst larger populations, and it could also become tied to state protection of individuals private property. During the Medieval era, citizenship allowed for rights for guild memberships and hence employment. The concept of Human Rights was codified with the “Declaration of Rights and Man” in 1778, however while in principle was for all of humanity, was restricted to French citizenship. Rights attributed to Citizenship are dependent upon the individuals locality and political character, whereas human rights while they belong to all humanity, depend upon recognition by states. (Shafir G Brysk A, 2006).
Resistance to immigration begins with an inbuilt xenophobia in humanity, which must be overcome. Race itself is a social construct created to differentiate one social group of humans from another. Race is no longer a scientific concept, since there is no more genetic diversity between populations of different skin colours than there is genetic diversity between individuals of populations of the same skin colour (Freeman, 1998). As a social construct it is easily blurred along with other constructs such as culture and ethnicity. Within the definition of racism as according to A.C Grayling, irrational fear, hatred or discrimination against any of these falls under racism. Often coupled with racism is Xenophobia, which out of ignorance is fear of strangers or foreigners. Xenophobia to some level is present through human nature, and its presence can be explained through evolutionary terms. Xenophobia may have originated as a helpful psychological tool to protect ones tribe or pack by being instinctively suspicious of individuals from other packs who may be seeking to displace ones genetic dominance. While no doubt xenophobia had its uses in primitive times, like with appendixes, it can only be a hindrance in modern society (Grayling 2010).
Two of the most common arguments in public discourse against immigration refer to fear of job losses, and fear of social community degradation (Portes, 2013). Regarding job losses the fears are that low-skilled immigrants will steal jobs that would normally have been provided to the low skilled natives, who are then forced to live on welfare, while the high-skilled immigrants will take up the more prestigious jobs which robs natives of incentive and opportunity to climb their socio-economic ladder. The second popular argument against immigration is that an increase of immigrants into society will lead to the destruction of the native’s sense of community. Both these fears are backed with no or little credible evidence, but continue in impact upon immigration policy thus the citizenship of immigrants.
The relationship of power in contemporary Australia can best be seen with via a quote from former Minister John Howard “We will decide who comes to stay”, which places the immigrants at position of the repressed, the natives in the position of the empowered, and the power coming both from the state and the persistence of racism and xenophobia.
