Parameters of foot measurement, factors, and modern techniques.

1. FE-303: Footwear Design and Pattern Making
(Human Foot Measurement-Foot Anatomy)
Md. Mukter Alam
Lecturer
ILET, University of Dhaka
Mukter.a@du.ac.bd

2. The anatomy of the human foot
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3. The surface anatomy of the human foot
Medial malleolus
First metatarsal
Calcaneus
Tubercle of the Tendon of
navicular tibialis posterior
Tarsal sinus
Cuboid
Lateral
malleolus
Tubercle of
thefifth
metatarsal
Calcaneus
Tendons of
peroneus
longusand
brevis
Tendon
of
tibialis
anterior
Tendon of
extensor
hallucislongus
Tendons
ofextensor
digitorum
longus
(a
)
(b
)
Archilles
tendon
Medial malleolus Lateral
malleolus
Foot dorsum
Posterior aspect
Medial aspect
Lateral aspect
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4. Arches of the human foot
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Anthropometric measurements such as lengths, widths, heights, and girths are directly acquired by-
Foot anthropometric measurements
Figure: The Brannock device for measuring the foot
• Ruler
• Caliper
• Cloth tape
 Other special devices:
• Brannock device
• Indirectly measured from footprints
• Foot laser scans (generally in the form of 3D points
cloud)

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There are eighteen basic foot measurements obtained from
three methods:
(i) Traditional manual measures (MM) using simple
devices such as rulers, calipers, and cloth tapes
(ii) Commercial software-generated measures (CP) from
foot laser scans
(iii) Simulated measures (SM) obtained from their coded
algorithms.
Foot anthropometric measurements

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5 lengths
1. Foot length: The distance along the Brannock axis (X-
direction) from pternion to the tip of the longest toe.
2. Arch length: The distance along the Brannock axis from
pternion to the most medially prominent point on the 1st
metatarsal head.
3. Heel to medial malleolus: Length from pternion to the
most medially protruding point of the Medial Malleolus,
measured along the Brannock axis.
4. Heel to lateral malleolus: Length from pternion to the
most laterally protruding point of the Lateral Malleolus
measured along the Brannock axis.
5. Heel to 5th toe: The distance along the Brannock axis
from pternion to the anterior 5th toe tip.
Foot anthropometric measurements

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4 widths
6. Foot width: Maximum horizontal breadth (Y-direction),
across the foot perpendicular to the Brannock axis in the
region in front of the most laterally prominent point on the
5th metatarsal head.
7. Heel width: Breadth of the heel 40 mm forward of the
pternion.
8. Bimalleolar width: Distance between the most medially
protruding point on the medial malleolus and the most
laterally protruding point on the lateral malleolus measured
along a line perpendicular to the Brannock axis.
9. Mid-foot width: Maximum horizontal breadth, across the
foot perpendicular to the Brannock axis at 50% of foot length
from the pternion.
Foot anthropometric measurements

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3 heights
10. Medial malleolus height: Vertical (Z-direction)
distance from the floor to the most prominent point
on the medial malleolus.
11. Lateral malleolus height: Vertical (Z-direction)
distance from the floor to the most prominent point
on the lateral malleolus.
12. Height at 50%-foot length: Maximum height of
the vertical cross-section at 50% of foot length from
the pternion.
Foot anthropometric measurements

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6 girths
13. Ball girth: Circumference of foot, measured with a tape
touching the medial margin of the head of the 1st metatarsal bone,
top of the 1st metatarsal bone and the lateral margin of the head of
the 5th metatarsal bone.
14. Instep girth: Smallest girth over middle cuneiform
prominence.
15. Long heel girth: Girth from instep point around back heel
point.
16. Short heel girth: Minimum girth around back heel point and
dorsal foot surface.
17. Ankle girth: Horizontal girth at the foot and leg intersection
18. Waist girth: Circumference at the approximate center of the
metatarsal, measured in a vertical plane, perpendicular to the
Brannock axis.
Foot anthropometric measurements

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Subject factors such as
• Ethnicity
• Gender
• Growth environment
• Load-bearing condition
• Foot side
Variations in foot anthropometric measurements
The average length growth of South African schoolboys’
feet is 0.32 inches per year between the ages of
approximately 6 and 16, but after 16, the growth rate fell
off dramatically. Feet stops growing in length in 75% of
girls after 14 years, even if their statures are still
increasing. A survey of girls’ feet in New Zealand
confirmed earlier observations on foot length, at the
same time; it was found that joint girths continue to
increase for a further 18 months after cessation of foot
length growth.
• Age

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Different load-bearing conditions can significantly change the foot shape. Based on nine-foot measurements of
thirty Hong Kong Chinese under three different load-bearing conditions, it was found that the foot becomes
significantly longer, wider, and reduced in height while rotating to the medial side (everting) with increased
loading on the foot.
Load-bearing
Foot side
It has been reported that 15% of the population have differences in foot length of more than 5mm, other
considerable foot-side differences in foot width, ball girth, medial malleolus height, and lateral malleolus height
are also found. Hence, it is always good practice to check the fit of both shoes before purchasing footwear.
When the full bodyweight acts on each foot, the foot stretches by more than 3mm relative to its ‘unloaded’
condition. However, the dimensional changes (in percentage) are relatively small and within 3.0% for all
investigated measurements except two (the midfoot height and midfoot width) in the midfoot.

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• In general, the feet of the Scotch are large, flat, and bony, while the feet of the Irish are short and chubby.
• The English have broad feet at the instep and joints.
• The French have long and high-arched feet.
• The German have chubby and arched feet.
• Compared with Caucasoid and Australoid populations, Mongoloid populations, including Japanese, have wider feet
for a given foot length.
• East Asian populations have a smaller foot length for height compared to southeast Asian and Africans.
Ethnicity
Based on an unsubstantiated observation, feet can be grouped into three main groups:
: The Negroid foot is broad at the forefoot and narrow at the heel.
: The Oriental foot is short and broad in both the forefoot and the heel.
: The Caucasoid foot is broad with straight toes.
1. Negroid feet
2. Oriental feet
3. Caucasoid feet

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Gender
Even though the average female foot is shorter and more slender compared with the male foot (its length is approximately
91% of that of the male and its volume is around 81% of that of the male), the female foot is not just a scaled-down version
of the male foot. Different shape characteristics are found; for example, it has been reported that the female foot has larger
calf height, plantar arch height, ankle circumference, and calf circumference than the male foot after being normalized by
foot length.
Additionally, using the radiography technique, it is found that the African female group has a significantly higher calcaneal
angle than that of the male group. All this evidence indicates that, if possible, the shoe last should be designed separately
for each gender group.
Growth environment
While the extreme deforming and growth-inhibiting effects of ancient practices such as Chinese foot binding, other
environmental factors such as nutritional status, heat, and moisture can affect the size and shape of the foot. Even within
the same day, due to different thermal conditions at the end of the day when compared to early morning, foot volume can
differ by 5%.

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Anthropometry-based foot type classification
Directly based on some dimensions of the foot (simple ratio (R) of foot width to foot length) the foot shapes can be
classified into three types-
Based on the cluster analysis technique feet can be classified into three types-
• Slender type
• Standard type
• Broad type
• Voluminous feet
Very small ball width
Very small heel width
Short medial ball length
Small ball angle
• Flat and pointed feet
• Slender feet
Low instep length
Average ball width
Narrow heel
Long medial ball length
Large ball angle

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The length, shape and alignment of your toes largely dictates what type of feet you have. Research suggests there
are at least 10 different foot types.
2. Greek
4. Celtic
5. Germanic
7. Square
8. Stretched
9. Simian
10. Wide-set toes shape
Anthropometry-based foot type classification
1. Egyptian
3. Roman
6. Peasant

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Egyptian feet: This is where the big toe is the longest toe
and the lesser toes slant downward at a 45º angle. Egyptian
feet are often longer and narrower. A common condition of
the Egyptian foot is bunion. With this type of foot, the big
toe will deviate towards the other toes.
Greek feet: This foot type is characterized by a 2nd toe that is larger than the others
and has been known to be defined by Morton’s toe that juts out past the big toe for a
more pointed formation. Greek feet are also known as the Flame Foot or Fire Foot.
With a Greek foot, the second toe will determine the size of the shoe.

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Roman feet: Roman feet can be prone to painful hammer toes. Roman
feet are defined by the largest three toes being the same height and the
smaller two descending in length and all of lesser toes may curve
slightly inward and descending. Roman feet tend to have high arches.
Peasant feet: Peasant feet are similar to Roman feet in that the three biggest
toes are equally long or short with the lesser 2 toes descending. Peasant feet
often belong to people with all-around smaller feet. Structurally, peasant
feet are flat, which can lead to bad posture and back pain.

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Germanic feet/Warrior Toes: With this type of foot shape the big toe is longer than all the other toes forming
a straight line that steps down from the big toe, with the pinky often much smaller.
Celtic Feet: This foot type is a combination of Germanic toes, one big toe and all lesser
toes of the same length and a pronounced second digit like the Greeks, with descending
toe size from the third toe onwards.

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Square feet: In this case all five toes are about the same
length, giving the foot a boxier appearance. Sometimes,
peasant feet and square feet are used interchangeably, but
there are subtle differences. Square feet often have a wide ball
and narrow heel, which can lead to painful inflammation of
the balls known as metatarsalgia.
Stretched feet: This is when an individual who has stretched toes has a
foot shape in which the big toe stays far away from the rest of the toes,
with a considerable gap in between all lesser toes. If the toes are
noticeably spaced out or fan-shaped, then this is stretched or splayed feet.
Widely spaced metatarsal bones are the main factor in stretched feet.

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Simian feet – This is a foot type where the big toes look as if they are
veering toward your little toes. Simian feet can also resemble an ape’s
digits or foot type. Bunions are an enemy of simian feet and are
particularly problematic for individuals who wear narrow or pointy shoes.
Wide-set toes shape: The wide-set toe pattern which is also referred to as
the traveler’s foot has in between the toes a lot of gap. The toes are
stretched quite far apart. Individuals with this toe shape are naturally hard
workers, who hate waiting around. They are constantly on the move, love
travelling and exciting adventures. They are happiest when they go out of
their environment.

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Motion in the ankle joint
Basically, a joint, as you already know, is a connection of two bones with each other through a system of
ligaments. The ankle joint is a complex structure consisting of many bones and soft tissues. The ankle joint is
divided into:
Plantarflexion
Ankles mortise
Ankles tarsus
Normal Dorsiflexion

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Posterior ankle joint
Ankles tarsus
Anterior ankle joint
Inversion Eversion

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 Neutral position
 Adduction
 Abduction
Anterior ankle joint

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Foot shape modeling
4D
2D
3D
Two-dimensional modeling

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Three-dimensional modeling
In general, the key techniques for laser-scanning-based 3D foot shape measurement systems include laser stripe
extraction, laser stripe coordinate transformation from a camera image coordinates system to a laser plane coordinates
system, laser stripe assembly of cameras, and elimination of image noise and disturbance. Three-dimensional foot
surface shapes can be captured by laser-scanning-based measurement systems quickly and accurately.

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For example, the YETITM laser foot scanner by Vorum Research Corporation can obtain completed surface data of the
human foot within 10 seconds, with an error of less than 1mm. When a YETI laser foot scanner is used, four lasers
shine a line of light on the foot surface; eight cameras then capture images of the reflected laser light as the light
advances along the scanned surface. The camera information is then used to create the 3D coordinates of 360 points in
each section, spaced at a certain interval (normally 1.0mm), along the length of the foot.
Considering the relatively high cost of laser-scanning-based 3D
foot shape measurement systems, a parameterized approach to
generate an individual 3D foot shape from a standard/average
foot, based on four-foot dimensions (foot length, foot width,
foot height, and foot curvature). The experimental results
showed that this approach can achieve a mean absolute
modeling error of less than 2.5 mm for both left and right feet.
Three-dimensional modeling

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Four-dimensional modeling
A 3D foot FE model is capable of generating 3D foot shape changes over time to create a four-dimensional foot model.
Due to foot FE modeling having the capability of modeling complex foot structures and simulating complicated
boundary and loading conditions between the foot and footwear, it is efficient for evaluating the effects of footwear
design modifications without the prerequisite of fabricated footwear and replicating experimental trials.
To build the FE model, the geometry of a human foot, including both the surface shape and the inner structure, should
be obtained first through magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or computed tomography (CT) scans. The 3D model of
bones can be reconstructed afterward by combining a series of computed 2D outlines of MRI/CT images. Then, the 3D
model of bones and the whole foot shape are converted into small elements, usually 3D-tetrahedral or hexahedral
elements.
MPa
+2.30e-01
+1.50e-01
+1.38e-01
+1.27e-01
+1.15e-01
+1.04e-01
+9.23e-02
+8.07e-02
+6.92e-02
+5.76e-02
+4.61e-02
+3.45e-02
+2.30e-02
+1.14e-02
+0.00e+00
Peak
0.23 MPa
Adding the biomechanical properties
of each tissue and bone, such as
Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio, a
foot FE model can be built. Once the
foot FE model has been successfully
built and its loading and boundary
conditions have been clearly specified,
it can be used to conduct many
biomechanical investigations.

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Limitations of Foot FE models
 Firstly, they lack external validity since most FE models are built based on MRI or CT scans of one participant’s
foot. Additionally, the parameters used to characterize the biomechanical properties of each tissue and bone of the
foot are usually estimated from the existing literature and these may not be similar to the foot being investigated.
 Secondly, foot FE models generally involve certain simplifications and assumptions such as simplified foot
shape/structure, assumptions of linear material properties, no friction and slip boundary conditions, etc.
 Thirdly, even though pressure measurements have been widely used to validate the developed foot FE models,
slight adjustments in the biomechanical parameters or boundary conditions of the FE model may generate similar
pressure patterns.

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Bespoke Footwear
Measuring Time: Evening

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Bespoke Footwear

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Foot Survey

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