How Land Laws Are Currently Affecting Food Security for Smallholder Farmers in Cambodia, and with the onset of Climate Change, Will Land Laws Undermine their Food Security by 2050?
My policy term paper for Transformation through Sustained Agricultural and Rural Development: Policies and Institutions, which focused on Cambodia, smallholder farmers, rice, climate change, aid dependence, governance, and land laws
Climate Change and Human Insecurity in South AsiaNaeem Akram
The document discusses how climate change threatens human security in South Asia, particularly food security and health security. It notes that Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Pakistan are among the most vulnerable countries to climate change impacts. Rising temperatures and shifts in precipitation patterns from climate change negatively impact agricultural production and increase risks from heat waves, flooding, drought and spread of diseases. While some effects like increased CO2 could boost crop yields, climate change is expected to significantly reduce food availability and accessibility in South Asia. The document calls for urgent global action to control climate change and protect human security in the region.
Iniciativa para el Monitoreo de la Agricultura GlobalEduardo Rollero
This document proposes the "G20 Global Agricultural Monitoring" initiative to improve sustainable data collection for worldwide food security and commodity market transparency. Currently, instability in global food supply and demand leads to price volatility and market uncertainty. The three pillars of agricultural monitoring - satellite imagery, meteorological data, and regional agricultural knowledge - can help reduce this uncertainty by providing timely information on crop status, yield forecasts, and supply predictions. Existing public and private monitoring systems provide early crop estimates and forecasts, but an international coordination of efforts could generate more comprehensive and transparent global agricultural data for policymaking and market stability.
The attempt of local government in achieving food self sufficiencyAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the local government's attempts to achieve food self-sufficiency in the district of Malinau, East Kalimantan. It discusses the agricultural potential and policies in Malinau, how the policies have implications for establishing food self-sufficiency, and proposes a developmental model to better support this goal. Key points analyzed include decentralization of agricultural development, empowering local farmers, diversifying food crops beyond just rice, and increasing households' ability to purchase sufficient nutritious food. The study concludes that changes are needed to agricultural policies and programs to better achieve social goals, improve target systems and outputs, and increase farmer productivity through technology.
The Impact of Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP) Community Assets on Yield ...essp2
International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and Ethiopian Development Research Institute (EDRI). Conference on "Towards what works in Rural Development in Ethiopia: Evidence on the Impact of Investments and Policies". December 13, 2013. Hilton Hotel, Addis Ababa.
Status of Agricultural Food Sector: Basis for A Proposed Continuity PlanIJAEMSJORNAL
This study described the status of agriculture in the province of Nueva Ecija. It determined the current situation of the farming business in Nueva Ecija in terms of agricultural land use, its statistical profile on agriculture, crops grown by cities and municipalities and the presence of support agencies in maintaining the continuous development of farming and other forms of agriculture therein. Based on its agriculture profile, land, mostly irrigated shares the biggest portion in terms of its usage for food production. Rice, corn, onion and tomatoes are the major crops being grown in cities and municipalities. Findings revealed that rice and corn share the biggest in domestic consumption. For support agencies, bank and business agencies are found in support for farmers while the government mostly provides seminars. It was also revealed that other seeds for crops are introduced as a farmer’s option and lesser in choosing for an investment in their income. As their contingency plan, farmers opt to sell and engage in driving rather than farming during lean months. Pest attacks constitute the main problem encountered by farmers, while seeding management is a priority. The above findings point to certain sustainability that requires improvement and a continuity plan to match up with the continuous supply of goods from the farms to the demands of an increasing population for its consumption.
as part of the IFPRI-Egypt Seminar Series- funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) project called “Evaluating Impact and Building Capacity” (EIBC) that is implemented by IFPRI.
Water, Energy and Food Nexus in Ethiopia- Nexus Country ProfilesMohammad Al-Saidi
By Mohammad Al-Saidi, Tatjana Schellenberg and Emma Roach. This 8-page country profile looks at water, energy and land and lists the specific trade-offs between these sectors for Ethiopia. The profile includes a short nexus assessment of the situation and a suggestion of possible solutions.
The major reasons for food, water and energy insecurity in Ethiopia do not relate to a lack of resources but are mainly governance born (Infrastruc-ture development, insecurity and conflict, poverty, fall in world prices of cash crops). Despite the liberalisation of Ethiopia’s market for international invest-ment, the state still is the most dominant actor. But through government enforcement international investment and thus financial resources are increasing. If this continues, increased investments could accelerate the progress in Ethiopia’s many WEF security issues.
TH Cologne - University of Applied Sciences has developed a new fact sheet format with nexus information for African countries of the Eastern Nile region. The Nexus Country Profiles represent a policy-oriented assessment tool using sheets of key indicators on resource uses on a country level. They depict the profiles of each sector and capture the interlinks to other sectors considering development factors and resource use trends in the respective country.
The Nexus Country Profiles include a Nexus Rapid Assessment of water, energy and food securities in each country, allowing for inter-country comparison.
Different resource endowments and use patterns in the region indicate common challenges and opportunities for transboundary cooperation on issues like resource protection, technological intensification in agriculture, hydropower development and energy trade.
"The nexus debate is often quite technical and abstract," says Dr Mohammad AlSaidi, research assistant professor at the Center for Sustainable Development at the University of Qatar, who has been leading the drafting of the Nexus Profiles, "with our short county profiles we illustrate concrete trends and interlinks."
Two more Country profiles for Vietnam and Nepal are under preparation.
The Nexus Country Profiles have been developed by the Nexus Research Focus of the TH Köln – University of Applied Sciences under the leadership of the Institute for Technology in the Tropics (ITT).
Climate Change and Human Insecurity in South AsiaNaeem Akram
The document discusses how climate change threatens human security in South Asia, particularly food security and health security. It notes that Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Pakistan are among the most vulnerable countries to climate change impacts. Rising temperatures and shifts in precipitation patterns from climate change negatively impact agricultural production and increase risks from heat waves, flooding, drought and spread of diseases. While some effects like increased CO2 could boost crop yields, climate change is expected to significantly reduce food availability and accessibility in South Asia. The document calls for urgent global action to control climate change and protect human security in the region.
Iniciativa para el Monitoreo de la Agricultura GlobalEduardo Rollero
This document proposes the "G20 Global Agricultural Monitoring" initiative to improve sustainable data collection for worldwide food security and commodity market transparency. Currently, instability in global food supply and demand leads to price volatility and market uncertainty. The three pillars of agricultural monitoring - satellite imagery, meteorological data, and regional agricultural knowledge - can help reduce this uncertainty by providing timely information on crop status, yield forecasts, and supply predictions. Existing public and private monitoring systems provide early crop estimates and forecasts, but an international coordination of efforts could generate more comprehensive and transparent global agricultural data for policymaking and market stability.
The attempt of local government in achieving food self sufficiencyAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the local government's attempts to achieve food self-sufficiency in the district of Malinau, East Kalimantan. It discusses the agricultural potential and policies in Malinau, how the policies have implications for establishing food self-sufficiency, and proposes a developmental model to better support this goal. Key points analyzed include decentralization of agricultural development, empowering local farmers, diversifying food crops beyond just rice, and increasing households' ability to purchase sufficient nutritious food. The study concludes that changes are needed to agricultural policies and programs to better achieve social goals, improve target systems and outputs, and increase farmer productivity through technology.
The Impact of Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP) Community Assets on Yield ...essp2
International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and Ethiopian Development Research Institute (EDRI). Conference on "Towards what works in Rural Development in Ethiopia: Evidence on the Impact of Investments and Policies". December 13, 2013. Hilton Hotel, Addis Ababa.
Status of Agricultural Food Sector: Basis for A Proposed Continuity PlanIJAEMSJORNAL
This study described the status of agriculture in the province of Nueva Ecija. It determined the current situation of the farming business in Nueva Ecija in terms of agricultural land use, its statistical profile on agriculture, crops grown by cities and municipalities and the presence of support agencies in maintaining the continuous development of farming and other forms of agriculture therein. Based on its agriculture profile, land, mostly irrigated shares the biggest portion in terms of its usage for food production. Rice, corn, onion and tomatoes are the major crops being grown in cities and municipalities. Findings revealed that rice and corn share the biggest in domestic consumption. For support agencies, bank and business agencies are found in support for farmers while the government mostly provides seminars. It was also revealed that other seeds for crops are introduced as a farmer’s option and lesser in choosing for an investment in their income. As their contingency plan, farmers opt to sell and engage in driving rather than farming during lean months. Pest attacks constitute the main problem encountered by farmers, while seeding management is a priority. The above findings point to certain sustainability that requires improvement and a continuity plan to match up with the continuous supply of goods from the farms to the demands of an increasing population for its consumption.
as part of the IFPRI-Egypt Seminar Series- funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) project called “Evaluating Impact and Building Capacity” (EIBC) that is implemented by IFPRI.
Water, Energy and Food Nexus in Ethiopia- Nexus Country ProfilesMohammad Al-Saidi
By Mohammad Al-Saidi, Tatjana Schellenberg and Emma Roach. This 8-page country profile looks at water, energy and land and lists the specific trade-offs between these sectors for Ethiopia. The profile includes a short nexus assessment of the situation and a suggestion of possible solutions.
The major reasons for food, water and energy insecurity in Ethiopia do not relate to a lack of resources but are mainly governance born (Infrastruc-ture development, insecurity and conflict, poverty, fall in world prices of cash crops). Despite the liberalisation of Ethiopia’s market for international invest-ment, the state still is the most dominant actor. But through government enforcement international investment and thus financial resources are increasing. If this continues, increased investments could accelerate the progress in Ethiopia’s many WEF security issues.
TH Cologne - University of Applied Sciences has developed a new fact sheet format with nexus information for African countries of the Eastern Nile region. The Nexus Country Profiles represent a policy-oriented assessment tool using sheets of key indicators on resource uses on a country level. They depict the profiles of each sector and capture the interlinks to other sectors considering development factors and resource use trends in the respective country.
The Nexus Country Profiles include a Nexus Rapid Assessment of water, energy and food securities in each country, allowing for inter-country comparison.
Different resource endowments and use patterns in the region indicate common challenges and opportunities for transboundary cooperation on issues like resource protection, technological intensification in agriculture, hydropower development and energy trade.
"The nexus debate is often quite technical and abstract," says Dr Mohammad AlSaidi, research assistant professor at the Center for Sustainable Development at the University of Qatar, who has been leading the drafting of the Nexus Profiles, "with our short county profiles we illustrate concrete trends and interlinks."
Two more Country profiles for Vietnam and Nepal are under preparation.
The Nexus Country Profiles have been developed by the Nexus Research Focus of the TH Köln – University of Applied Sciences under the leadership of the Institute for Technology in the Tropics (ITT).
This document provides a literature review on sustainable agriculture, food security, food systems, and climate change in Laos. It discusses how agriculture is important for Laos' economic development but is threatened by climate change and other factors. It outlines the geography and agro-ecological zones of Laos and analyzes aspects of food security like availability, accessibility, stability and utilization. The role of biochar and its potential to help with food security and climate change mitigation is also examined. The chapter concludes by emphasizing the need for climate-smart agricultural approaches to boost economic growth while ensuring environmental protection and food security.
11.determinants of food insecurity in addis ababa city, ethiopiaAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that examined the determinants of food insecurity among households in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. The study used a survey of 140 households and a Tobit regression model to analyze the data. The regression found that 6 of the 11 independent variables had a significant impact on household food insecurity. Larger household size, lower household income, older household head age, lower education level of the head, not having a bank account, and less income from remittances/gifts were associated with greater food insecurity. The study aimed to identify the key factors influencing food insecurity in urban areas to help policymakers address the problem.
Determinants of food insecurity in addis ababa city, ethiopiaAlexander Decker
This study examined the determinants of food insecurity among households in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia using survey data from 140 households. The Tobit regression model identified several significant determinants of food insecurity. Household size, income, age and education level of the household head, income from remittances/gifts, and ownership of a bank account were found to increase or decrease the likelihood of food insecurity. Policy recommendations include addressing the challenges faced by larger households and improving income generation opportunities to reduce food insecurity.
Status and potential of improving crop subChimeg DB
The document discusses the status and potential of improving Mongolia's crop sub-sector. It finds that while crops currently make up a small portion of agricultural output, the crop sub-sector has potential to address food security and poverty reduction. It faces challenges such as land degradation, lack of technology, and poor infrastructure. A SWOT analysis identifies strengths like available agricultural land but also weaknesses such as low productivity and threats such as climatic hazards.
Factors Affecting Consumption Expenditure in Ethiopia: The Case of Amhara Nat...Dr. Amarjeet Singh
The document analyzes factors affecting household consumption expenditure in the Amhara National Regional State of Ethiopia using data from the 2015/16 Ethiopian Household Consumption Expenditure and Welfare Monitoring Surveys. A quantile regression model was used to examine the relationship between per capita consumption expenditure and various demographic and socioeconomic variables. The results show that households headed by educated persons, those that own their home, and those with income-generating household heads had higher consumption expenditures across quantiles. Rural households also had higher expenditures than urban households.
Migration, remittances and livelihood systems of farm households in enugu sta...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that examined the effects of remittances on the livelihoods of farm households in Enugu State, Nigeria. The study found that households whose heads were middle-aged and less educated were more likely to have family members migrate. Remittances were mostly received from male children through hand delivery or banks. Remittances ranged from 1,000-10,000 Naira and were used mostly for family consumption and agricultural production. Regression analysis showed that the age and education level of household heads, as well as household size, significantly influenced migration rates of family members.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
Assessment of Drought Occurrence in Kano State, Nigeriaijtsrd
Drought occurrence is caused by the breaking of water balance, which usually leads to negative impact on agriculture, as well as ecological and socio economic spheres. The main purpose of the current study is to conduct drought assessment over Kano State, Nigeria for 2018. We used two different drought indices including Standardized Precipitation Index SPI and the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index NDVI . Meteorological data on precipitation was used to compute the Standardized Precipitation Index, and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index was generated from MODIS NDVI data sets. The conventional SPI classification scheme which categorize drought under seven groups was used along with the NDVI values which ranges from 1 to 1. Results indicate a near normal condition in the study area. Ezekiel. O. Eguaroje | Thomas. U. Omali | Kebiru Umoru ""Assessment of Drought Occurrence in Kano State, Nigeria"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-4 | Issue-2 , February 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd29976.pdf
Paper Url : https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/enviormental-science/29976/assessment-of-drought-occurrence-in-kano-state-nigeria/ezekiel-o-eguaroje
1. Agriculture and Ethiopia's agri-food system are extremely important for employment in Ethiopia, accounting for over 80% of total employment. While the share of agriculture in employment is declining slowly, it remains much larger than agriculture's share of GDP.
2. On-farm productivity has been increasing over time but remains low. Larger, more commercial farms are becoming more important but make up only a small percentage of total agricultural area. Labor productivity is significantly higher on larger farms and in more connected areas. Agricultural labor markets differ by remoteness, with more monetized labor in less remote areas.
3. Ethiopia's food processing, trade, and transport sectors have been growing rapidly, providing increasing
India has experienced strong economic growth but has not developed fully as a nation. While India has the 10th largest industrial economy and 3rd largest GDP at purchasing power parity, it still faces high poverty, unemployment, regional disparities in development, and social and gender inequalities. For India to sustain high growth and become a developed nation, it needs inclusive growth that benefits all members of society and reduces poverty.
Attaining sustainable agricultural development in any economy indubitably points towards ensuring improved quality of life and enough food for both present and future generations. The need to understand the links between agricultural output and health outcomes necessitates an inquiry to ascertain the extent the changes in health outcomes can influence agricultural output. This study using the dynamic error correction built an econometric model such that mortality rate and life expectancy are proxies for health outcomes while agricultural output is the dependent variable; HIV/AIDS is the dummy. Results showed that HIV/AIDS has lethal effects on health outcomes and aggregate output. It revealed that health outcomes also have significant impact on agricultural output potentials; and there is a causal relationship between health outcomes and agricultural output in Nigeria. This implies that if the healthcare system in Nigeria can be taken as a policy priority, a tremendous increase in the agricultural sector is unarguably expected. A simultaneous front involving both the public and private sectors in extending the healthcare services is necessary to enable workers and prospective workers access to healthcare delivery; this will invariably boost the agricultural output.
Macroeconomics and health the way forward in the who african regionAlexander Decker
This document discusses the relationship between health outcomes and economic growth in African countries. It estimates regression equations showing relationships between per capita GNI and factors like life expectancy, mortality rates, and education. The results show significant correlations between higher GNI and greater life expectancy, lower child and adult mortality, and more education. The document concludes that improving health systems and increasing access to proven interventions could significantly reduce mortality in Africa and thereby boost economic prospects.
11.macroeconomics and health the way forward in the who african regionAlexander Decker
- The document analyzes the relationship between health outcomes (life expectancy, mortality rates) and economic outcomes (per capita gross national income) in countries in the WHO African Region.
- Four regression equations were estimated using data from 46 countries, with the dependent variable being the log of per capita GNI and independent variables including the log of life expectancy, under-5 mortality rate, adult mortality rate, and adult literacy rate.
- The results showed a statistically significant positive correlation between per capita GNI and life expectancy, and a statistically significant negative correlation between per capita GNI and under-5 mortality and adult mortality rates. This implies that improved health outcomes can positively impact economic prospects in African countries.
11. nonfarm income on household food security in eastern tigraiAlexander Decker
The document discusses a study that examines the effect of nonfarm income on household food security in Eastern Tigrai, Ethiopia. The study uses survey data from 151 households. A probit model is used to analyze factors influencing participation in nonfarm employment. The study finds that land size, age, family size, special skills, electricity access, credit access, distance to market, and irrigation access are key determinants. A Heckman selection model is then used to examine the impact of nonfarm employment on food security. The results indicate that nonfarm income enables households to spend more on basic needs like food, education, clothing, and healthcare, and thus nonfarm employment plays a significant role in maintaining household food security.
Nonfarm income on household food security in eastern tigraiAlexander Decker
This document discusses a study on the effect of nonfarm income on household food security in Eastern Tigrai, Ethiopia. It begins with an abstract that summarizes the study's objectives and methods.
The introduction provides context on Ethiopia's dependence on agriculture and food insecurity problems. It describes Eastern Tigrai zone as particularly food insecure due to environmental and agricultural challenges. The study aims to investigate if nonfarm employment can help address this issue.
The literature review discusses research showing nonfarm income contributes substantially to rural livelihoods and can reduce poverty and improve food security. However, participation is often constrained by lack of assets. The study will examine nonfarm income's role in household food security in Eastern T
The document summarizes elements of the WHO Regional Office for Europe's Health 2020 strategy. It discusses how the global health landscape has become more complex with populations living longer, migrating more, and noncommunicable diseases now dominating. Health 2020 aims to improve governance, invest in health through life courses, tackle major challenges like noncommunicable and communicable diseases, strengthen health systems and public health, and create supportive environments. It outlines priorities like working to reduce health divides and empowering people. The economic burden of chronic diseases in Europe is also summarized.
Uma Lele's ICID Presentation, World Irrigation Forum, 29 Sept-5 Oct, TurkeyGlobal Water Partnership
The document discusses challenges and developments in financing irrigation and drainage sectors globally. Key points include:
1) Agricultural intensification is critical but water is also critical for intensification and improving water use efficiency.
2) New paradigms are needed for financing irrigation and drainage given changes like globalization, technology advances, and climate impacts.
3) Modernizing surface irrigation systems is important but modernization alone is not a silver bullet and must be adapted to different country and regional contexts.
Even though Ethiopia had undertaken different policy measures since 1991 to boost agricultural production and increase the spillover effects of agriculture, there is no available study done to know the effects of such policies. This study aimed to fill this gap by analyzing the supply response of the commodity chosen haricot bean in Sidama Zone of Southern Ethiopia. The study applies the modified Nerlovian model and uses price data and non price data from 1991-2012.The result of the estimates of the time series data shows that acreage is positively and significantly influenced by change in its own price in the long run. Acreage and yield are highly influenced by price and non price factors both in the long run and short run. Generally farmers respond to price incentives by reallocating land and increase yield. The error correction term shows that deviation of acreage from the equilibrium corrected in the current period and it takes less than five years to come to the equilibrium. On the other hand any deviation of yield from the equilibrium corrected in the current period and takes less than two years to come to the equilibrium. The empirical results illustrate that there is still great potential to increase production through improvement of price and non price inputs. Hence the ongoing measures should be directed towards assuring appropriate remunerative prices and increase investment and supply of other non price factors like, increase investment in irrigation.
“Land Consolidation” As A Solution for Rural Infrastructure ProblemsPremier Publishers
This study was discussed land consolidation studies that play a key role in rural development in Turkey. Land consolidation can be narrowly defined as bringing together fragmented agricultural lands and rearranging ownership. However, it is not enough to strengthen the rural infrastructure alone, far-reaching projects are needed. Comprehensive land consolidation is to transform scattered, small, and irregularly shaped agricultural land belonging to a farm into fewer parcels that better geometric shape and larger. Also, it is a reorganization of the rural space, which includes all technical, economic, and social precautions to be taken to improve the working and living conditions of the farmer families, protect the soil and nature, ensuring sustainable agricultural development, and increasing agricultural productivity. Since land consolidation is based on the change of ancient land ownership, it is a sophisticated social work type. Therefore, in addition to information technologies and technical personnel who help to evaluate a large number of data comparatively, professionals who are competent in law, sociology, and psychology should be involved in such studies. The most important thing is to implement projects in which the majority of them can be accepted with the participation of the landowners whose lands will be consolidated.
As part of the IFPRI Egypt Seminar in partnership with the FAO: “Food Policies and their Implications on Overweight and Obesity Trends in Selected Countries in MENA Region”
Effect of socio economic factors on access to improved water sources and basi...KoechHC
This study examined the relationship between socioeconomic factors and access to improved water sources and basic sanitation in Bomet Municipality, Kenya. The researchers found that households' characteristics such as the occupation and education level of the household head significantly influenced the type of water source used. Additionally, the type of toilet facility used by a household was significantly impacted by the marital status of the household head. Improving access to water and sanitation is important for socioeconomic development, poverty reduction, health, and achieving environmental sustainability goals.
This document provides a literature review on sustainable agriculture, food security, food systems, and climate change in Laos. It discusses how agriculture is important for Laos' economic development but is threatened by climate change and other factors. It outlines the geography and agro-ecological zones of Laos and analyzes aspects of food security like availability, accessibility, stability and utilization. The role of biochar and its potential to help with food security and climate change mitigation is also examined. The chapter concludes by emphasizing the need for climate-smart agricultural approaches to boost economic growth while ensuring environmental protection and food security.
11.determinants of food insecurity in addis ababa city, ethiopiaAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that examined the determinants of food insecurity among households in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. The study used a survey of 140 households and a Tobit regression model to analyze the data. The regression found that 6 of the 11 independent variables had a significant impact on household food insecurity. Larger household size, lower household income, older household head age, lower education level of the head, not having a bank account, and less income from remittances/gifts were associated with greater food insecurity. The study aimed to identify the key factors influencing food insecurity in urban areas to help policymakers address the problem.
Determinants of food insecurity in addis ababa city, ethiopiaAlexander Decker
This study examined the determinants of food insecurity among households in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia using survey data from 140 households. The Tobit regression model identified several significant determinants of food insecurity. Household size, income, age and education level of the household head, income from remittances/gifts, and ownership of a bank account were found to increase or decrease the likelihood of food insecurity. Policy recommendations include addressing the challenges faced by larger households and improving income generation opportunities to reduce food insecurity.
Status and potential of improving crop subChimeg DB
The document discusses the status and potential of improving Mongolia's crop sub-sector. It finds that while crops currently make up a small portion of agricultural output, the crop sub-sector has potential to address food security and poverty reduction. It faces challenges such as land degradation, lack of technology, and poor infrastructure. A SWOT analysis identifies strengths like available agricultural land but also weaknesses such as low productivity and threats such as climatic hazards.
Factors Affecting Consumption Expenditure in Ethiopia: The Case of Amhara Nat...Dr. Amarjeet Singh
The document analyzes factors affecting household consumption expenditure in the Amhara National Regional State of Ethiopia using data from the 2015/16 Ethiopian Household Consumption Expenditure and Welfare Monitoring Surveys. A quantile regression model was used to examine the relationship between per capita consumption expenditure and various demographic and socioeconomic variables. The results show that households headed by educated persons, those that own their home, and those with income-generating household heads had higher consumption expenditures across quantiles. Rural households also had higher expenditures than urban households.
Migration, remittances and livelihood systems of farm households in enugu sta...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that examined the effects of remittances on the livelihoods of farm households in Enugu State, Nigeria. The study found that households whose heads were middle-aged and less educated were more likely to have family members migrate. Remittances were mostly received from male children through hand delivery or banks. Remittances ranged from 1,000-10,000 Naira and were used mostly for family consumption and agricultural production. Regression analysis showed that the age and education level of household heads, as well as household size, significantly influenced migration rates of family members.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
Assessment of Drought Occurrence in Kano State, Nigeriaijtsrd
Drought occurrence is caused by the breaking of water balance, which usually leads to negative impact on agriculture, as well as ecological and socio economic spheres. The main purpose of the current study is to conduct drought assessment over Kano State, Nigeria for 2018. We used two different drought indices including Standardized Precipitation Index SPI and the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index NDVI . Meteorological data on precipitation was used to compute the Standardized Precipitation Index, and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index was generated from MODIS NDVI data sets. The conventional SPI classification scheme which categorize drought under seven groups was used along with the NDVI values which ranges from 1 to 1. Results indicate a near normal condition in the study area. Ezekiel. O. Eguaroje | Thomas. U. Omali | Kebiru Umoru ""Assessment of Drought Occurrence in Kano State, Nigeria"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-4 | Issue-2 , February 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd29976.pdf
Paper Url : https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/enviormental-science/29976/assessment-of-drought-occurrence-in-kano-state-nigeria/ezekiel-o-eguaroje
1. Agriculture and Ethiopia's agri-food system are extremely important for employment in Ethiopia, accounting for over 80% of total employment. While the share of agriculture in employment is declining slowly, it remains much larger than agriculture's share of GDP.
2. On-farm productivity has been increasing over time but remains low. Larger, more commercial farms are becoming more important but make up only a small percentage of total agricultural area. Labor productivity is significantly higher on larger farms and in more connected areas. Agricultural labor markets differ by remoteness, with more monetized labor in less remote areas.
3. Ethiopia's food processing, trade, and transport sectors have been growing rapidly, providing increasing
India has experienced strong economic growth but has not developed fully as a nation. While India has the 10th largest industrial economy and 3rd largest GDP at purchasing power parity, it still faces high poverty, unemployment, regional disparities in development, and social and gender inequalities. For India to sustain high growth and become a developed nation, it needs inclusive growth that benefits all members of society and reduces poverty.
Attaining sustainable agricultural development in any economy indubitably points towards ensuring improved quality of life and enough food for both present and future generations. The need to understand the links between agricultural output and health outcomes necessitates an inquiry to ascertain the extent the changes in health outcomes can influence agricultural output. This study using the dynamic error correction built an econometric model such that mortality rate and life expectancy are proxies for health outcomes while agricultural output is the dependent variable; HIV/AIDS is the dummy. Results showed that HIV/AIDS has lethal effects on health outcomes and aggregate output. It revealed that health outcomes also have significant impact on agricultural output potentials; and there is a causal relationship between health outcomes and agricultural output in Nigeria. This implies that if the healthcare system in Nigeria can be taken as a policy priority, a tremendous increase in the agricultural sector is unarguably expected. A simultaneous front involving both the public and private sectors in extending the healthcare services is necessary to enable workers and prospective workers access to healthcare delivery; this will invariably boost the agricultural output.
Macroeconomics and health the way forward in the who african regionAlexander Decker
This document discusses the relationship between health outcomes and economic growth in African countries. It estimates regression equations showing relationships between per capita GNI and factors like life expectancy, mortality rates, and education. The results show significant correlations between higher GNI and greater life expectancy, lower child and adult mortality, and more education. The document concludes that improving health systems and increasing access to proven interventions could significantly reduce mortality in Africa and thereby boost economic prospects.
11.macroeconomics and health the way forward in the who african regionAlexander Decker
- The document analyzes the relationship between health outcomes (life expectancy, mortality rates) and economic outcomes (per capita gross national income) in countries in the WHO African Region.
- Four regression equations were estimated using data from 46 countries, with the dependent variable being the log of per capita GNI and independent variables including the log of life expectancy, under-5 mortality rate, adult mortality rate, and adult literacy rate.
- The results showed a statistically significant positive correlation between per capita GNI and life expectancy, and a statistically significant negative correlation between per capita GNI and under-5 mortality and adult mortality rates. This implies that improved health outcomes can positively impact economic prospects in African countries.
11. nonfarm income on household food security in eastern tigraiAlexander Decker
The document discusses a study that examines the effect of nonfarm income on household food security in Eastern Tigrai, Ethiopia. The study uses survey data from 151 households. A probit model is used to analyze factors influencing participation in nonfarm employment. The study finds that land size, age, family size, special skills, electricity access, credit access, distance to market, and irrigation access are key determinants. A Heckman selection model is then used to examine the impact of nonfarm employment on food security. The results indicate that nonfarm income enables households to spend more on basic needs like food, education, clothing, and healthcare, and thus nonfarm employment plays a significant role in maintaining household food security.
Nonfarm income on household food security in eastern tigraiAlexander Decker
This document discusses a study on the effect of nonfarm income on household food security in Eastern Tigrai, Ethiopia. It begins with an abstract that summarizes the study's objectives and methods.
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How Land Laws Are Currently Affecting Food Security for Smallholder Farmers in Cambodia, and with the onset of Climate Change, Will Land Laws Undermine their Food Security by 2050?
1. Emilene Sivagnanam
PUAF 6195 Final Paper
Submitted 04/28/2016
Revised 09/22/2016
1
How Land Laws Are Currently Affecting Food Security for Smallholder Farmers in
Cambodia, and with the onset of Climate Change, Will Land Laws Undermine their Food
Security by 2050?
Introduction
This three-part series discusses how Land Laws in Cambodia are affecting food security for
smallholder farmers, and how climate change will exacerbate the conditions by 2050. This third
essay focuses on:
1) The adverse effects of climate change on rice production, and thus food consumption;
2) The political economy of Cambodia that has resulted in increased food insecurity for
smallholder farmers;
3) Policy recommendations for achieving food security by 2050, despite the increasing
uncertainties caused by climate change; and
4) Monitoring and evaluation indicators to ensure good governance and food security.
History: Food Security and Land Laws in Cambodia
FOOD SECURITY
Rural Cambodians, and especially smallholders, are more at risk for food insecurity because they
face additional constraints in their efforts to produce edible food from crops (CARD 2008).
Refer to Paper 2 for Key Cambodia Facts, the Causal Factors that have Resulted in Food
Insecurity, and examples of constraints that make smallholders extremely vulnerable. Many
smallholders demand land as a source of livelihood, household reproduction, and identity (Beban
and Sovachana 2014), and current Land Law policies allow for land grabbing by agro-industrial
businesses from smallholder farmers, leaving smallholders landless and food insecure.
For the purpose of this paper, the Global Hunger Index (GHI),
will measure food security (IFPRI 2015). This indicator reflects
four dimensions: undernourishment, child wasting, child
stunting, and child mortality (IFPRI 2015). Although
Cambodia’s GHI has improved since 2005, it is still one of the
highest among its neighboring countries, and is considered a
‘serious’ level (IFPRI 2015). Furthermore, Beban and
Sovachana (2014) measured food insecurity as the number of
months per year participants lacked rice to eat, and found, on
average, both men and women lacked sufficient rice 3.25
months out of the year.
LAND LAWS
Cambodia’s tragic history with the Khmer Rouge (KR) in 1975 resulted in the destruction of all
records of private property rights. The second paper in this series describes the current land
grabbing situation and the evolution of Land Laws.
In 2012, the Prime Minister signed a moratorium on Economic Land Concessions (ELCs) as an
attempt to resolve land disputes. However, the number of Social Land Concessions (SLCs)
Global Hunger Index for SE Asia
2015 2005
Lao PDR 28.5 36.9
Myanmar 23.5 37.4
Cambodia 22.6 29.8
Indonesia 22.1 26.5
Philippines 20.1 22.1
Vietnam 14.7 24.6
Thailand 11.9 13.6
Malaysia 10.3 14.6
Source: IFPRI, 2015
2. Emilene Sivagnanam
PUAF 6195 Final Paper
Submitted 04/28/2016
Revised 09/22/2016
2
granted to government officials, military officers, and wealthy citizens have mysteriously
increased five-fold since then (Lipes 2014). In 2012 alone, the Royal Government of Cambodia
(RGC) granted 38 extra SLCs compared to 2011 (CCHR 2013). No complete list1
of reliable data
of ELCs or land deals exist, nor the bidding process, land investment, or decision-making criteria
because of the government’s lack of transparency (CCHR 2013). Many land disputes never make
it to the courts because smallholder farmers lack the knowledge or financial resources to further
their complaints (MoP 2007). Finally, the government can only intervene in land dispute cases
between individuals and companies, therefore protection of smallholder farmers is minimal and
ineffective (Lipes 2014).
Status of Land Grabbing: USAID reports that since the 1980s, the wealthy one percent of the
population has owned 20-30 percent of land (Calavan et al. 2004). Then in 2007, the Ministry of
Planning (MoP) suggested that the wealthier one fifth of Cambodians control up to 70% of
available land (MoP 2007). According to the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries
(MAFF), the government signed 114 contracts with agribusinesses in 1996-2012, totaling
1,215,867 hectares (MAFF 2013), which is 30.6%2
of the total arable land in Cambodia. Further,
in 2015, combined data from the Ministry of Environment (MoE) and MAFF indicated a total of
230 companies with grants for a total land area of 1,934,896 hectares (48.8% of arable land)
(Open Development 2015), even though the NGO, LICADHO, reports 2,157,744 hectares
(54.4% of arable land) of ELCs granted in August 2012. From 2012-2015 alone, the government
profited $80 million from previously leased ELCs (Open Development 2015). It seems that
reporting is somewhat convoluted, however the point remains that the government continues to
profit from ELCs despite the moratorium signed in 2012.
Climate Change Projections and Impacts
Climate change poses additional problems for the food security of smallholder farmers. Most
smallholder farmers rely on the monsoon season, May-October, to provide enough water to flood
seasonal lakes and streams in order to irrigate their crops. In 2004, 84.4% of harvested land used
traditional rain-fed farming practices of rice (Yu and Fan 2010). However, climate change
induced water scarcity caused by drought; extreme weather events, flooding, and land
degradation are affecting crop yields (MoE 2006) and the ability of smallholder farmers to have
any sort of income (CARD 2008).
PROJECTIONS
Temperature: Regional climate change projections over the Mekong River Basin suggest an
increasing trend in mean temperature for the period 1960-2099, and a rapid increase after 2030
(Thoeun 2015). In addition, Oxford University projects mean annual temperature increases by
0.7-2.7o
C by the 2060s and 1.4-4.3o
C by the 2090s (Thoeun 2015).
1
The 2012 ELC moratorium ended government records of land concession sales to companies. The records do not
account for the SLCs sold to wealthy Cambodians, and there are no government records of land disputes because the
elite technically, legally acquired the land.
2
Average arable land 1997-2013: 3,969,000 ha (FAOSTAT 2016)
3. Emilene Sivagnanam
PUAF 6195 Final Paper
Submitted 04/28/2016
Revised 09/22/2016
3
Precipitation: Regional models indicate an increasing trend in mean annual rainfall for the period
2010 to 2050, mostly occurring during the wet season, and slightly offset by a decrease in the dry
season rainfall, followed by a decreasing trend from 2070-2099 (Thoeun 2015).
Fig. 1: Projected temperature and precipitation variability 1960-2099.
Source: Thoeun, 2015
IMPACTS
Increased temperatures cause abiotic stress and enhanced respiratory rates, which reduces
duration of growth and grain filling time of rice crops (Wassmann et al. 2009). This results in
lower yield and lower quality rice grain (Wassmann et al. 2009). Furthermore, floods have
accounted for 70% of rice production losses between 1998 and 2002, and the occurrence of
drought and floods are one of the main contributors to poverty in Cambodia (MoE 2006). For
example, the severe floods from 2000-2002 resulted in 438 casualties and damages amounting to
$205 million (MoE 2006). Lower yielding or flood-damaged crops have implications on the
available food to consume. In a regional climate change study on food consumption, using
4. Emilene Sivagnanam
PUAF 6195 Final Paper
Submitted 04/28/2016
Revised 09/22/2016
4
caloric intake as a measure for food availability, SE Asia is projected to have a 4.3% decline in
kcals per day in 2050 (Nelson et al. 2009).
There are still uncertainties in forecasting High Impact Weather (HIW) events, and accurate
forecasts are not yet available in Cambodia for government use (MoE 2006). Currently, villagers
downstream rely on word of mouth from upstream areas to ready themselves for floods. The
information that does exists about water levels leaves farmers unsure of how to interpret the
information and is typically found in public areas, thus inaccessible to smallholders (MoE 2006).
Political Economy of Cambodia
Although there are numerous areas of weakness in Cambodia’s governance system that affect
achieving food security for smallholder farmers, this paper will focus primarily on aid
dependence and corruption.
Between the periods of 1993-2003, two problems with foreign aid emerged. First, the scale of aid
was roughly $600 million each year, which wildly distorted the economy (Ear 2007). In an audit
of the 2003 budget, the government spent $761.1 million (Kimsong and Wasson 2005), mostly
sourced from donors’ aid. Organizations took over funding for education, health care, social
welfare, and rural development, meanwhile the government was financially in control of defense
and security (Ear 2007). Since donor agencies took over most of the government’s
responsibilities for basic services, this left the government with minimal responsibilities towards
its citizens (Ear 2007). Second, most Cambodian scholars began working for foreign
organizations, which weakened state capacity. These problems inhibit a lack of political
willpower and poor leadership from the government, and an urgent need to redistribute aid to
improve governance (Ear 2007).
Additionally, aid dependence in Cambodia worsens bureaucratic quality and the rule of law, and
increases corruption (Ear 2007). An estimated $120-500 million per year went towards corrupt
actions (Ear 2007). According to USAID/Cambodia’s assessment on corruption (2004),
numerous diversions of financial resources occur from small facilitation payments. To name a
few: to speed up illegal grants of logging concessions or secure service delivery; police and other
officials demanding small bribes, students paying unofficial daily fees to supplement teachers or
administrators’ salaries, and/or additional fees to access public health services (Calavan et al.
2004). The public perceives corruption as the leading problem with governance (Ear 2007), and
rates it as the most severe cause of human insecurity (Beban and Sovachana 2014). Currently,
between 30 and 40% of the central government’s $4.3 billion budget (Meng 2015) depends on
donor aid (U.S. Dept. of State 2016).
Without the government’s financial or legal support, smallholder farmers must rely on
alternative measures to achieve food security. This entails a reliance on wage labor or migration
to urban areas for work (Beban and Sovachana 2014). The Cambodian Rural Urban Migration
Project (CRUMP) reported Phnom Penh’s population grew at an annual rate of 8% between 1998
and 2008, from 567,860 to 1,237,600 residents, and 87% of the surveyed sample indicated it was
for work-related reasons (MoP 2012).
5. Emilene Sivagnanam
PUAF 6195 Final Paper
Submitted 04/28/2016
Revised 09/22/2016
5
Source: MoP, 2012
My Position on Cambodia’s Situation
Cambodia missed the Asian Green Revolution (AGR) from 1965-1990 because of political
turmoil, but was able to increase paddy rice production through extensive farming since their
first rice exports in 1995 (IRRI 2015). Since 2011, Cambodia’s rice exports increased 215%,
which currently makes the country the world’s fastest growing rice exporter (Workman 2016).
22 22.7 23.6 22.5
15.7 16
33 32.1
25.3 24.5
29.9
26.3
32 32.4
38.4 39.5 40.9
44.8
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Percent
Years
Primary Sources of Income in Cambodia (in %)
Agriculture Non Agriculture Wage and Salary
Cambodia Rice Exports and Consumption (thousand metric tons)
Trade Year 2011/2012 2012/2013 2013/2014*
2014/2015 2015/2016*
Exports 900 1,075 1,000 1,150 900
Consumption &
Residual
3,400 3,550 3,650 3,600 3,600
*Decline in exports follow same trend as neighboring countries
Source: USDA, 2016
6. Emilene Sivagnanam
PUAF 6195 Final Paper
Submitted 04/28/2016
Revised 09/22/2016
6
By the year 2018, the RGC wants to transform the country into a demand-driven export market
and reach the status of an upper middle-income country (RGC 2014). Refer to Paper 1 to read
about the government’s National Strategic Development Plan (NSDP), Triangle Strategy, and its
inclusive achievements. During the period 1994-2006, Cambodia achieved macroeconomic
stability and considerable economic progress, with an annual average economic growth rate of
8.4% (RGC 2014). However, the country’s long history of political instability, an unstable
economy, and lack of political willpower resulted in the current state of corruption, which
hinders the country’s full potential to grow.
An example of an economic consequence of Cambodia’s corruption is the 2014 withdrawal of
the European Union (EU) importing sugar from Cambodia because of accusations against the
Phnom Penh Sugar plantation, owned by Senator Ly Yong Phat and his wife, Kim Heang
(Zsombor 2014). The sugar plantation is encroaching on farms and community forests of over
1,500 families (Zsombor 2014). After an investigation in 2012, EU cut imports from $42 million
in 2013 to $2 million in 2014 (-94.8%) (Crothers 2016).
Finally, the government is simply not investing enough money or resources into agriculture or
smallholders. During the AGR, on average, most countries spent 15.4% of their total budget on
agriculture, which resulted in small farms being more efficient producers than expansive farms
(Hazell 2009). In 2013, the RGC spent less than 1.0% of its national budget on agriculture
(Beban and Sovachana 2014).
Policy Recommendations
USE THE PRO-POOR MODEL
The pro-poor model includes a rural-orientated development strategy that raises
productivity and income for smallholders (Timmer 2015). This includes a
technology package that is easily adoptable for farms of all sizes, modern input and
credit systems that are affordable to smallholder farmers, public extension systems
Paddy Rice Production in Cambodia, 1993-2014
Source: FAOSTAT, 2015
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7
that prioritize farmers; and product markets and price support policies that ensure
stable, profitable prices (Hazell 2009).
The pro-poor model requires a price-policy approach with high price incentives to create
rural purchasing power (Timmer 2015). If implemented in conjunction with long term
investments (see section below), the model will lead to economic growth (Timmer 2015).
For example, Indonesia used the pro-poor model to reduce poverty substantially (Tsakok
2011). Their GNP per capita was $50 in 1967 and rose to $1,420 in 2006 because of the
government’s investment in rural areas (Tsakok 2011). Currently, the only pro-poor
based intervention outlined in the NSDP is for health financing (RGC 2014).
INCREASE GOVERNMENT TRANSPARENCY THROUGH INDEPENDENT
MONITORING MECHANISMS
The RGC needs to respond to independent assessments of corruption. The
government must monitor actions and commit to precise notification procedures,
have open discussions of food trade policies, and create knowledge platforms that
collect, analyze, and diffuse information across the value chain (World Bank 2012).
Allowing an independent governing body to assess and monitor the government will
increase transparency and reduce corruption (Hazell 2009). In 2004, USAID/Cambodia
realized that, “corruption has become a part of everyday life…it has reached ‘pandemic’
proportions,” (Calavan et al. 2004). The organization assessed the corruption and
provided recommendations, but the RGC did not respond.
The RGC can improve its governance by increasing accountability through supervision
and citizen participation (Soksreng 2007), as well as through predictability, by applying
rules and policies in a consistent format (Soksreng 2007). Many human rights NGOs are
writing open letters3
to international government officials to demand an end to human
rights violations related to land disputes. These letters put the government and their
corrupt actions in the international spotlight, and outreach uses public pressure to change
the government’s behavior. An example of a successful effort is the Clean Sugar
Campaign, which started in 2011. In 2012, after numerous letters to the EU, the European
Parliament passed an urgent resolution to investigate the human right abuses related to
ELCs, which then led to a reduction in sugar imports from Cambodia (Boycott Blood
Sugar, 2016).
GUARANTEE LAND TENURE SECURITY FOR SMALLHOLDERS
The government needs to re-define their Land Laws to provide rights to smallholder
farmers without ambiguous language that allows loopholes or exploitation of the
Laws. Completing a full cadastral and land measurement survey is necessary to
register the land for smallholder farmers and transfer land titles (Trzinski and
Upham 2014).
The RGC needs to address the broken land ownership system that favors the wealthy
minority in Cambodia (Tsakok 2011). In 2002, the World Bank invested $33.9 million to
map and register land in the Land Management and Administration Project (Trzinski and
Upham 2014). However, critics of the program argue there were no provisions for
3
Four NGOs, FIDH, ADHOC, LICADHO, LDH teamed together and wrote an open letter to French President
Hollande on 10/23/15, and a letter to US Senator Kerry on 1/26/2016
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independent monitoring and a lack of transparency (Beban and Sovechana 2014); and
yet, a complete map still does not exist and there is a gap between measurement and
titling (Beban and Sovechana 2014). In addition, working groups need to detail target
groups who will benefit from land tenure, create a beneficiary selection process,
restitution, land acquisition mechanisms, and provide a plan to increase access to land for
smallholders and their land tenure security (Binswanger-Mkhize et al. 2010). It is
important for the government to be extremely clear in their goals so questions do not
arise later (Binswanger-Mkhize et al. 2010). Setting up technical working groups or
commissions to find facts, produce initial recommendations, and building consensus
throughout the country will achieve clear-cut goals and prevent conflict later
(Binswanger-Mkhize et al. 2010).
LONG TERM INVESTMENTS
Long-term investments in rural development through Village Development
Committees (VDCs) will educate farmers about new technologies, empower
smallholder farmers with roles and duties, and provide resources to improve
villages.
As smallholders settle into their new plots, long-term investments in education and
technology, such as irrigation and milling machinery, will allow farmers to increase
processing, storage, and trade (Hazell 2009). In addition, accessibility to lucrative
markets will need to be developed (Tsakok 2011). Furthermore, rural roads provide
farmers access to the markets, which increases a farmers’ cash income and ability to
purchase food (Christiaensen 2012). Finally, farmers need incentives to invest in their
land to use climate-resilient methods and sustainably, intensively farm. This will
eventually lead to the creation of new labor in non-agricultural sectors (Tsakok 2011).
Thus far, the VDCs have held 423 courses on development plans, restored canals,
donated livestock, and provided essential materials (RGC 2013), and the RGC plans to
increase training VDCs in order to: create village development plans, use scientific
knowledge appropriately, and adapt to climate change (RGC 2013). Money for these
trainings will come from public investments, such as ministries, institutions and agencies,
NGOs, development partners and more (RGC 2013).
INVEST IN CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION PROJECTS
The country needs more community-based initiatives to adapt to climate
variability. Developments for sustainable community irrigation systems (MoE
2006), an early warning system for floods, integrated soil and water management
(World Development 2006), and weather indexed insurance (World Bank 2012)
can protect smallholders from climate change.
The government must make significant investments in these high priority areas to
reduce the impacts of climate change on smallholder farmers now and into 2050.
These projects will cost roughly $65.5 million over the course of three years (MoE
2006), but the results will have considerable impacts on adapting to climate
variability. The RGC claims people are the focus of 2016, listing priority sectors as
the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport; The Ministry of Labor and Vocational
Training; and the Ministry of Health (Meng 2015). However, efforts to improve
livelihoods will not be valid if a climate change induced HIW events kill hundreds of
9. Emilene Sivagnanam
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9
people and destroys crops. The government needs to increase their budget4
for the
MoE, or NGOs need to personally fund and work with the Ministry to maximize
results, scale up projects, and reduce repetition of pilot projects. Moreover,
community-based, integrated soil and water management practices can double
productivity compared to rain-fed practices (World Development 2006) and empower
individuals. Finally, weather-indexed insurance can be useful for farmers if
precipitation falls below or above a set threshold that would lead to low yields (World
Bank 2012). This would provide a safety net for farmers that had a smaller yield.
Monitoring and Evaluation
Cambodia’s institutional environment needs to transform in order to reduce corrupt land
grabbing, increase land tenure, and improve food security for smallholders. In addition,
adaptation to climate change is necessary in order to sustain food security of farmers into the
year 2050. These changes will require a monitoring and evaluation procedure to ensure timely
policy responses to developments in order to inform policymakers of the most effective
measures.
Currently, the major actors involved in M&E are the office of the Prime Minister, Ministry of
Planning, Ministry of Economy and Finance, and other supporting actors (RGC 2013). This is an
issue in itself; the government needs to increase independent accountability institutions to
increase transparency (Soksreng 2007). Once civil society, the private sector, and the
marginalized are involved, the following indicators listed in the table below will evaluate my
policy recommendations.
4
In 2016, these ministries will receive roughly 5.2 percent of GDP (Meng 2015).
5
These numbers are my own rough estimation from scaling up small projects unless referenced otherwise
6
The International Center for Not-for-Profit Law, 2016
7
Less CSOs result in less excessive funding and repetitious projects, this gives organizations more advantage
against the government.
8
CCHR, 2013
9
CCHR, 2013
10
Touch and Neef, 2015
Indicators for Monitoring My Policy Recommendations
Recommendation
Category
Indicator 2013 2050 Goal5
Independent
Monitoring
Number of civil society
organizations that have leverage in
government decisions
1,3506
5007
Number of policies/procedures with
consistent application of rules
N/A (total possible)
Land Tenure Number of land titles 380,0008
700,000
Resolved land disputes cases 40 (2011)9
29310
(total possible as of
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Conclusion
Most smallholder farmers do not own land titles, and current Land Laws allow interested
investors the legal right to evict farmers from their homes. When smallholders are displaced
from their homes, their livelihoods are affected, and thus, their food insecurity. However, even
with guaranteed tenure, the onset of climate change will affect rice productivity, now, and into
the future. Although the RGC has accomplished many development achievements in the past 25
years, land insecurity sprouts a new era of conflict for Cambodians and the Royal Government.
The RGC needs to use the pro-poor model, invest in long-term rural developments and
adaptation projects, and revise the Land Laws to guarantee tenure. Bottom line, the government
must increase transparency and reduce corruption.
The next topical areas to assess are:
What organizations, institutions, or political powers have enough influence to demand
transparency from the RGC?
What strategy will effectively stop corruption in Cambodia?
How can climate change adaptation become a priority to the RGC?
How will the suggested improvements directly/indirectly benefit smallholder
farmers?
11
All values in this section are from RGC, 2013
12
IWMI and CGIAR, 2013
13
GEF, 2012
14
IFPRI, 2015
15
IFPRI, 2009 (2000 and 2050 value)
2014)
Long Term (next 35
years) Investments11
Rehabilitation of rural roads (km) 26,900 40,000 (total possible)
New roads (km) 125 15,000
Literacy rate (age 15-24) 91.5 100
Number of villages given training
for Village Development Plan
1,610 15,000
Number of household consumers
with electricity
1,125,679 8,000,000
Climate Change Number of hectares (ha) with access
to community irrigation systems
(wet + dry season)
1.12 million12
2 million
Number of trained employees who
can install, maintain, and operate
EWS
513
26
Food Security Global Hunger Index 22.6 (2015)14
5.0
Daily calorie per capita consumption
(kcal)15
2,696 (2000) 3,277
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Revised 09/22/2016
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