This document provides an introduction to a research paper analyzing how magazines portray the male gender. The paper will examine portrayals of men in both fashion and health magazines, and whether these portrayals appeal sexually to the target audience. It will use theories like the male gaze and hegemonic masculinity as a framework. The document outlines the literature review, including research on how magazines label masculinity and sexuality. It discusses how social factors like religion have influenced views of homosexuality. The introduction establishes the topic, theoretical framework, methods of analysis, and relevant literature to provide context for the full research paper.

1. Ruszkowski 1
How do Magazines Portray the Male Gender?
Introduction
Throughout space and time individuals across the world seek to identify gender, mainly
between the men and women. Gender is an idea that puts a label on a specific set of
characteristics in which societies define on their own terms. However, gender characteristics and
its social construction vary depending on where the individual is brought up along with what
specific social factors influence the individuals understanding of it. I would like to look further
into what sorts of magazines provide ideas of what it looks like to be a masculine individual
within society. Gender identity is not affiliated with a person’s biological “attributes” however
they are linked to that person’s own perception of themselves (Peck 1984: 16).
In this paper I will be analyzing the content of magazines to determine how they portray
men and whether that appeals sexually to the target audience. I will be looking specifically at
whether the audience’s gender and lifestyle interests between fashion and health influences the
way men are represented. I will be analyzing how gender display varies between health
magazines and fashion. Since fashion is a lifestyle interest where appearance is the main focus
and is typically associated with the feminine, I would like to further understand how these
magazines interpret gender as compared to magazines more specifically focused on the
individual’s health. Health magazines could be associated with the masculine as they often focus
on weight lifting which is a predominately male domain, however health magazines are also
much more concerned about its readers overall well-being. In this sense, I am predicting that
fashion magazines will objectify the male body more so as well as the magazines geared towards
women in order to provide an appeal for the audience. As a framework for this paper I will use

2. Ruszkowski 2
certain theories such as the male gaze, masculinity theory, symbolic interaction, doing gender,
hegemonic masculinity, dramaturgy, and more to elaborate on the issues at hand.
Content analysis seems fairly common as it is used in a multitude of studies to find out
what the media portrays as reality. Since technology has provided us with new mediums of
entertainment there is likely a large sum of people who use these tools to gain insight into the
world based from what they see presented through the media. In my attempt to fully realize the
portrayal of men in both men and woman’s lifestyle magazines, I will gather data through a
comparative process in which I will look for specific indicators that coincide with masculinity
such as the feminine touch, ritualization of subordination, licensed withdrawal, infantilization,
and relative size all of which are based off of Goffman’s work in Gender Advertisements
between the magazines being analyzed. Mainly, I will concentrate solely on the images within
the different magazines which display a male body.
As a theoretical framework of this research study, I will be utilizing Laura Mulvey’s
analysis of cinema which she concluded is manipulated by a patriarchal male gaze which the
camera depicts women as an object rather than a subject (Sassatelli 2011: 124). She found
evidence through observing the works of Alfred Hitchcock which generally depended on the
image of the castrated woman where the female actor served as a way to emphasize the male
hero actor in a way where she was only just seen or shown (Sassatelli 2011: 124). In this sense,
the female actor is there only to evoke certain emotions or eroticism for a male audience despite
the films inviting both men and women to view the display of gender identities through a
hierarchal configuration (Sassatelli 2011: 124). More recently, Mulvey’s thoughts on how film is
manipulated describe how the dynamics of the male look can be reversed by showing men as
objects as well (Sassatelli 2011: 141). From this line of thinking, I would like to apply the male

3. Ruszkowski 3
gaze to the way male actors in magazines coincide with the fluidity of gender identity in modern
day culture. Ultimately, based from this theoretical frame work, both genders have a certain idea
of what is viewed as erotic through the dialogue produced by a camera, actors, and spectators
regardless of gender.
The ways that men are displayed in magazines are a part of a symbolic interaction.
Through certain expressions, a man engages in a sort of conversation with the audience
communicating his identity, social role, mood, intent, and expectations with other actors in the
portrait as well as the person’s perspective of that image (Goffman 1979: 1).The purpose of
photos in magazines is to express a sort of natural element to the scenario in which displays these
actors in reflection to our idealized beliefs about gender. Erving Goffman argues that gender
display is a way to characterize sex-class members and that gender expressions are so deeply
rooted in the way our society is organized that there is a considerable amount of content which
which engages in the staging of gender portrayal (Goffman 1979: 8).
As stated above, I will be utilizing certain themes that were presented from Erving
Goffman’s Gender Advertisements in relation to how gender is portrayed in media images. One
way that power, authority, rank, office, and renown is reinforced in social situations is relative
size which basically shows one person as being taller or larger overall (Goffman 1979: 28). The
feminine touch is a way that displays a hand as barely touching or caressing a surface which
contrasts a sort of utilitarian form of grasping or manipulating the surroundings which are more
generally associated with males (Goffman 1979: 29). To infantilize a person is to portray them as
unserious, childlike, playful, or clowning which is generally represented along with wearing a
certain kind of costume (Goffman 1979: 51). Along with this, the ritualization of subordination
diminishes the status of an individual through the idea that lowering oneself physically is an act

4. Ruszkowski 4
of inferiority which is typically represented by people siting or laying on floors, beds, and chairs
or in some cases such as lying on a bed could be interpreted as being sexually available
(Goffman 1979: 41). Lastly, licensed withdrawal displays the actor as being psychologically
absent from the scene which suggests that they are in need of someone who is prepared for any
sort of threat as their gaze is directed elsewhere (Goffman 1979: 57).
Our society is emerging into a new era of what it means to be masculine. Roughly thirty
years ago we were recovering from our embarrassing defeat in Vietnam as well as the emerging
feminist movements which reconstructed the concept of what a man is (Messner 2007: 464).
More recently, our culture has taken a new path in allowing the LGBTQI community that have
long been socially oppressed or considered to be not as masculine, or effeminate, to their straight
male counterparts to be allowed certain rights here in America, such as marriage. This is a result
of hegemonic masculinity which describes a dominant or ideal form of what a man should be
(Kosetzi and Polyzou 2010: 145). Gender identity is often studied since it is so stigmatized in
some cultures and even considered taboo in areas of the world such as Russia where aggressive
behavior is very common towards any person who blurs the line between what is considered
masculine and feminine.
Throughout time we have observed many attempts at redefining the male role. We can
observe this through the feminist and gay rights movements in the past, and now into the present.
Also, it wasn’t too long ago that men dominated the workforce entirely where women stayed
home to fulfill a traditional role as a housewife in order to please her husband. Women have
since fought for more freedom comparable to the amount that is given to men which leaves men
in an increasingly dynamic and changing social world.

5. Ruszkowski 5
Women Viewing Men
The widespread understanding of sexual objectification has to deal with men as subjects
and women as objects where men take on the role as the status quo. Men are stereotypically
sexual beings which is reinforced through the social construction of masculinity because the
more women you sleep with the more of a man you are. To treat someone as a sexual object or to
look at them as means to an end in the case of sexual gratification by simply identifying what
parts of their body can do what for you sexually, is a concept that women are more able to take
on as a result of these movements.
Along with what is being showed by popular media, sexual freedom and empowerment
among women is in large part a dominant theme associated with the third wave feminist
movement here in the U.S (Williams and Jovanovic 2015:158). This is especially apparent when
analyzing the personal narratives brought forth from third wave feminists themselves (Williams
and Jovanovic 2015:158). Third wave feminists acknowledge that women should not be
inhibited by what is considered to be the traditional norms of sexuality which results in
allowance for sexual agency among women as well as a rejection of the stigmatization associated
with it (Williams and Jovanovic 2015:158). With the new found freedom to experiment and
become familiar with their sexuality women are increasingly the ones who are using the
culturally identified weapons of oppression that have previously been used against them in the
past as identified by second wave feminists (Williams and Jovanovic 2015:159).

6. Ruszkowski 6
The way that women objectify men is very similar to the way men objectify women.
Women have learned what is considered sexy from the male gaze as pointed out above.
Objectification theory states that in Western culture women are trained to view other women and
themselves as objects through repeated exposure of objectifying experiences which is evaluated
from the male gaze (Goodin, Denburg, Murnen, and Smolak 2011:1). These experiences can
happen at any place at any time. We are consumers of the media which for the most part is easily
accessible to even the youngest of people and the messages they send are often the ones that we
internalize. After many years of oppression women are now more likely to self-objectify for the
patriarchal gaze however further research has been done which shows that women are more
likely to objectify other women compared to women objectifying men in this way. However, it
should be noted that the difference is not significant (Strelan and Hargreaves 2005:710). In this
sense we are seeing that women are in fact sexually objectifying men which was not common a
couple of decades ago.
Although this study will affect mostly men, I believe that it will also impact women as
well. Society often defines certain roles or behaviors for us depending on our sex. Identifying the
source of what influences individuals to think a certain way about themselves and others can be a
powerful thing which reflects the values of society.
Literature Review
In an increasingly materialistic world we find that society utilizes the media as a way to
communicate, entertain, and to inform its audience through a variety of mediums. Some of the
ways that the media seeks to reach out to the public may be either tangible or intangible. On any

7. Ruszkowski 7
given day, the average person is likely to come across some form of the media whether it is
through television, internet websites, radio broadcasts, and more. What I seek to elaborate on is
how the specific media form of lifestyle magazines may reinforce ideas about the male gender in
society. Through their advertisements they create a dialogue between the readers which reflect
certain gender values. Traditional roles of men and women are currently a bit more fluid as men
are expected to take on certain characteristics of the opposite sex like sensitivity while women
are now driven to be strong or independent. Hegemonic masculinity is one of the main
contributors to the long standing masculine identity. A large amount of literature delves deep
into the different ways men’s lifestyle magazines discuss the content in which this form of media
encourages what society has defined as a real man.
Labeling Masculinity as a Sexuality
Since the introduction of men’s lifestyle magazines such as GQ and Arena in the 1980’s
there has been a steady rise in the consumption of this particular media (Hall and Gough 2011:
68). This suggests that there is a large demand in which many people are reading the material
being conveyed. Based on Hall and Gough’s research, they had used an online magazine called
AskMen.com where they analyzed specific articles related to metrosexual activities such as
fashion or grooming (Hall and Gough 2011: 72). After analyzing the content of the articles they
then proceeded to observe the comments along with the individuals making them (Hall and
Gough 2011: 72). They also followed criteria based on the individual person’s ability to clarify
as well as the comments level of depth and length among other posts (Hall and Gough 2011: 72).
They found that within a specific article, which they chose for its popularity and number of
readers per month, that the population was diverse with those who identify as metrosexual,
rugged men, gay, or a woman (Hall and Gough 2011:72). Metrosexual men are typically

8. Ruszkowski 8
associated with having more feminine-like characteristics especially involving the way they care
about their appearance while rugged men are generally the ones associated with being tough or
having manly characteristics. By gaining perspective from both sides of the spectrum, this study
provides a variety of insight in how masculinity is socially constructed. This research is different
from others as it uses the internet as a way to observe how individuals think about a particular
topic such as metro sexuality. The researchers only used the AskMen.com website which could
have been expanded upon. The main point of the article was to convey a new masculine image of
David Beckham by labeling him with the term metrosexual, however, the individual avoids the
stereotype that men should not care about their appearance to the point that he does (Hall and
Gough 2011: 83). Ultimately the findings of this study is that most readers that identify as non-
metrosexual tend to label the term as unmanly and superficial (Hall and Gough 2011: 83).
One issue that people create is that we seek to connect different sexualities with a certain
set of characteristics. We live in an era where masculinity may be defined differently among
generations. Generally, older men are associated as being more traditional and younger men
being more open to new things. While this may seem like the case, it is much more complicated
than that. Within American culture there is conflicting ideas of masculinity. For instance, in a
qualitative study a young Cuban man discusses how Hispanic women are into more body hair
than women of American culture (Pompper 2010: 692). This coincides with the notion that
growing out body hair is the equivalent to not caring, which is often associated with masculinity.
An older black male describes feminine men as being muscular and having shirts fit to their
personal body physique using terms such as “muscular fag” (Pompper 2010: 692). These
metrosexual men that the older African American man describes as being “fags” are what are
being generated through Medias such as magazines. A pattern in today’s young men show that

9. Ruszkowski 9
they will do whatever they can to appeal to women which often is influenced by the images that
are portrayed in magazines (Pompper 2010: 692).
Being masculine is often identified as being heterosexual because often homosexuals are
associated as being feminine. This method of subordinating one’s identity to a lower level is part
of the concept where sexual power is related to different levels of social life (Kimmel and
Aronson 2008: 108). In other words, sexuality is part of our everyday social interaction which is
often seen as a way of displaying our social status in different areas in our life from work,
school, at home, or anywhere else in between. In this sense, throughout our daily activities men
are attempting to prove themselves as masculine in order to avoid ridicule. Furthermore, the term
fag is often seen as a failure at achieving the masculine status in which society deems as a threat
that constitutes the American adolescent masculinity (Kimmel and Aronson 2008: 109).
Since traditional culture will see someone as unacceptable for being homosexual they
will seek to maintain specific measures to control the way we act socially. This is influenced by
the way our peers treat us as well as certain policies enacted by our government which teaches us
what is acceptable. Simply put, being called a fag by someone means that you are not a man but
not necessarily a homosexual (Kimmel and Aronson 2008: 117). Despite the way friends or
bullies treat each other influencing the way one might act in order to avoid being stigmatized,
there are other influences that may be of greater impact to explain why kids see being gay as a
bad thing.
Social Factors
Here in America around the year 1973, the idea of homosexuality as an illness became a
dominant stance within certain Christian Right movements with collaboration from ex-gay

10. Ruszkowski 10
ministries attempting to heal through religious conversion (Robinson and Spivey 2007: 651)
They believed that homosexuality was a disorder that caused men to sin through the acts of sex
with another man. In their eyes, this needed to change so as a result they had created a multitude
of texts, programs, and organizations which attempted to create a society that was based upon
their beliefs (Robinson and Spivey 2007: 654). These groups consisted of Exodus International;
Focus on Family, as well as NARTH or otherwise known as the National Association for
Research and Therapy of Homosexuals (Robinson and Spivey 2007: 654). Through content
analysis of what kinds of texts these highly influential groups put out towards their audiences
researchers were able to identify their main arguments. A man named Irving Beiber who was one
of the head experts of these groups argued that through his clinical observations of 106
homosexual men that heterosexuality was a biological norm (Robinson and Spivey 2007: 656).
Overall, their main points were that the relationship that a homosexual had with his mother must
have been an overbearing one, gender ultimately determines sexuality, and their fathers were
under protective or uncaring (Robinson and Spivey 2007: 656).
The fear of homosexuals has allowed for a construction of heterosexuality to be
associated with masculinity. Repressing homosexuality is a result of many men refusing to
identify as homosexual because it seems abhorrent to the individual (Kimmel and Messner 1998:
11). Homophobia results from the idea that since there is no model central to our society then its
concept serves no purpose (Kimmel and Messner 1998: 11). Psychoanalysis suggests that at a
young age the emotional attachment to a father or friends can lead to passive feelings which are
ultimately sacrificed through the emerging danger of what we were taught is to be normal
(Kimmel and Messner 1998: 11). At a young age we are taught through the church, schools, and
media that a man should be with a woman so that a family can be created. To deviate from this

11. Ruszkowski 11
norm is to create castration anxiety which is the sense that one’s sexuality is in danger (Kimmel
and Messner: 11). From the start, the young boy is conditioned to the social hierarchy of
sexuality where the process is both conscious and unconscious (Kimmel and Messner 1998: 11).
Examples of this process taking place can be associated with the idea that girls have cooties and
the only thing as bad as being a girl is to be a wussy. Ultimately, the social construction of
homophobia is a way to maintain the masculine way that stems from the anxiety that men
experience from trying to cope with unsuccessful passive sexual desires (Kimmel and Messner
1998: 12).
Masculinity in Magazines
Shifting beliefs and values among our culture have made it difficult for individuals to
maintain a solid gender identity (Ricciardelli, Clow, and White 2010: 77). Men look to the media
to determine what sort of example they should follow to attract women. These images are often
extreme examples to help promote advertising that also receive a lot of praise from women for
caring about their appearance. With the male body becoming increasingly prevalent in
magazines, awareness emerges from within each individual that identifies as masculine to strive
for a muscular physique based off of the pressures from society (Ricciardelli, Clow, and white
2010:77). These images send messages to its audience that if you don’t look like this then you
are less than the desirable and you need to keep coming back to read our magazines so we can
share some tips on how to look like these celebrities.
Young teens feel pressure from certain media images to lift weights just to fit in or
achieve a higher status among their social group. Large muscles are symbolic in nature as

12. Ruszkowski 12
muscles represent masculinity as a whole. Gender role intensification theory states that during
adolescence, pressure to achieve certain gender roles is increased dramatically leading to
conformity, commitment, and investment into a specific gender direction (Smolak & Stein 2010:
739). In a longitudinal study a researcher found a correlation between investments in media
ideals of muscularity and investments in muscle building techniques (Smolak & Stein 2010:
744). This is problematic for young children as proper body building technique may not be
known at that age which could cause injury on top of there being no known health benefits for
weight lifting for those ages 11 and 12 (Smolak & Stein 2010: 738).
In contrast to traditional concepts of what a man should be arises a template of what has
been defined as the “new man” which has arrived as a result of feminist movements during the
1970’s (Prusank 2007: 165). During this time period a new conceptualization of how men should
be was displayed in a large amount of magazines where this new idea of what it means to be a
man involves showing sensitivity and other feminized qualities (Prusank 2007: 165). While these
images were abundant during the 1970’s these perceptions of men have decreased in quantity
over time (Prusank 2007: 165). One explanation for this decline is that hegemonic masculinity
has the ability to counteract the leveling of gender differences (Prusank 2007: 165).
Men’s lifestyle magazines promote production instead of consumption which is a
generalized concept in women’s magazines where they assumedly encourage women to shop
(Hall and Gough 2011: 68). Part of the reason they call them men’s magazines is to specify a
target audience in which case men are the target. Their goal is to produce material that caters to
possible manly interests such as fitness, sports, hunting, sex, and more. To include any other sort
of interest such as shopping would mean to challenge the masculine identity (Hall and Gough
2011: 68). In other words, some magazines portray a certain kind of hegemonic masculinity

13. Ruszkowski 13
which is to display the dominant form which is associated as normal (Kosetzi and Polyzou 2010:
145). Within a content analysis of a Greek magazine called Nitro the main stereotype of
hegemonic masculinity was drawn throughout by emphasizing that a man will do unmanly things
like getting married or ironing his clothes but only if there is a need for it (Kosetzi and Polyzou
2010: 165). The way this magazine is portraying masculinity is by strongly presenting the
hegemonic stereotype while misinterpreting other forms of masculinity with a larger
representation of the ideal form within its culture (Kosetzi and Polyzou 2010: 165). This notion
of how hegemonic masculinity perseveres within Nitro contradicts the current situation in Greece
where gender relations are increasingly becoming more balanced (Kosetzi and Polyzou 2010:
165). Despite the direction Greece is headed as a society the media still portrays hegemonic
masculinity.
As consumers we often invest our time into different types of media in order to satisfy
our specific interests. We may not completely think about the material we buy into, however at a
young age the ideas portrayed by media such as magazines influence our own behaviors in the
real world. These behaviors may impact our relationships with women, friends, and family in
ways that we may never have intended. We begin to take on these roles as men only because it’s
all we have ever known. As a result of conforming, men are continuing a cycle of oppression
against others who do not fit the masculine role.
Currently, we are only at the half way point between the shifting cultural ideals of what it
means to be masculine. Masculinity has reached a high point in its fluidity as portrayals of well-
groomed men with big muscles in magazines are scrutinized by older more traditional men as
being gay which is associated with being less masculine. On the other hand, these same

14. Ruszkowski 14
portrayals are influencing younger men to look more like them. In the end masculinity varies
between space, time, and culture.
Since the rise of feminism and the reconstruction of the traditional gender concepts that
men seek to fulfill in society there has been a disconnection within the brotherhood of man as
they are unable to differentiate between the “new man” and the traditional notion. What men are
ultimately searching for in today’s society is a way to reconnect with their fellow members of
manhood and to be accepted (Tragos 2009: 547). With men constantly seeking approval of other
men there may be some desire to go back to the traditional dominance which men have grown to
love because of the received privilege. Knowing this, perhaps magazines could truly strive for a
well-balanced representation for men as currently there is quite a bit of variety among how men
are represented in magazines in particular.
Methods
As a researcher I conducted a study on the relationship between the target audience of a
gendered specific magazine and its content across the realms of fashion and health. I looked over
what is provided in different sorts of magazines such as health magazines and fashion magazines
which vary depending on the audience the publishers are trying to reach. Since I did not utilize a
random sampling method the results will not be able to be generalized to the larger portion of
magazines out there in the public.
First, I would like to define what sort of traditional masculinity might be associated with
being a male. Defining what masculinity is to specific traits can be difficult as cultures vary in
the way they are socially constructed. So what is it that reinforces or determines how a man

15. Ruszkowski 15
should be in situations in regards to their relationships, line of work, and specific interests? One
theoretical approach to explain the construct of masculinity has to do with something called
“doing gender.” Doing gender explains that the behavior that specific gender identities which
they identify with will act upon the behaviors associated with that gender depending on society’s
idea of what that individual should be doing (Deutsch 2007: 108). For example, the idea that men
are the ones who should be in control such as the example of the feminine touch in Goffman’s
Gender Advertisements stems from the idea of doing gender. Traditionally, men were expected
to take on all of the heavy duty work while women would stay at home taking care of the house
and kids. As time has gone on we have seen a shift in the roles that contrast traditional beliefs.
Masculinity theory argues that the masculine identity has specific definitions to what is
making it more easily threatened and also valued higher in society making it more desirable to
maintain and recover (Willer, Rogalin, Conlon, and Wojnowicz 2013: 982). This theory further
describes hegemonic masculinity as the highest rank of masculinity based on a specific set of
traits across society’s definition of the purist masculine form (Willer, Rogalin, Conlon, and
Wojnowicz 2013: 983). The higher up in ranking an individual is the more respect he earns from
his fellow masculine brothers. Masculinity theorists further emphasize that these traits that are
defined as the most masculine are nearly impossible to attain which in turn generates more
insecurities for men (Willer, Rogalin, Conlon, and Wojnowicz 2013: 983). Ultimately,
masculinity theory demonstrates how important the masculine identity is with most males and
how they value and maintain an unrealistic identity for fear of being emasculated.
Identity control theory explains how an individual maintains and enacts control over his
identity through social interaction (Willer, Rogalin, Conlon, and Wojnowicz 2013: 985). This
theory balances a model where self-concept, behavior, and situational feedback are the relative

16. Ruszkowski 16
components that construct this theory (Willer, Rogalin, Conlon, and Wojnowicz 2013: 985). In
other words, an individual will base his behavior from what sort of feedback he receives from
someone else based on his own self-concept. Magazines typically have advertisements which
create a dialogue with the reader that may provide some form of feedback for the individual to
digest in relevance to his self-concept. In situations when an individual receives feedback that is
not in line with how he views himself he will then behave in a way that in general would be
considered extreme acts of that specific identity (Willer, Rogalin, Conlon, and Wojnowicz 2013:
985). For example a masculine man would not want to be caught with a magazine that displays
alcohol that is much fruitier than a magazine which advertises more expensive alcohol with
higher alcohol content in fear of being labeled a sissy. If he is caught in a situation such as this
the theory states that the man will feel the need to compensate in some way to prove he is in fact
not a sissy.
Masculinity is a projection of society which labeling theory suggests is defined by
institutions and individuals in power to decide what is deviant from the category (Ashforth and
Humphrey 1997: 46). The theory suggests that as we observe our environment we then give
meaning to what we are attempting to comprehend in order to control it (Ashforth and Humphrey
1997: 46). For instance an executive high up in the business of publishing magazines may have a
set of ideal traits which he favors over others. This person may have some motive to portray
these sets of characteristics in favor over others where he would seek out people and content that
praise these certain characteristics. For example, in a fashion magazine the publishers may
decide to have an ad for cologne that displays a man surrounded by four half-naked women
instead of having a picture of a rustic forest that caters to not just one specific group but for
everyone. Combined with the concept of hegemonic masculinity where men put value in a

17. Ruszkowski 17
hierarchy of characteristics that define their specific identity, the labeling theory would suggest
that those males would look for masculine characteristics in magazines. The idea here is that they
have respect for those sorts of qualities in other males which would lead to them focusing their
attention on it.
Variables and Hypotheses
Men are often thought of as being tough individuals with self-control and having
leadership qualities more so over women. Especially in men’s health magazines I would expect
to see men displaying more dominate male stereotypes to help promote a new kind of protein
shake or cologne. Along with this, in other magazines stereotypical men might be used to portray
an upcoming item that relates with masculine identities. Muscles display a sense of power which
many men strive for so that they can be dominant over others. When analyzing the women’s
magazines I expect to see men represented in a way that would appear to have more feminine
like qualities in order to appeal to their audience. Secondly, I expect to witness more femininely
portrayed men in the fashion magazines over the fitness magazines because in a general sense,
fashion is considered to be a more feminine domain.
Based on the concept that the masculine is the opposite of the feminine I used Erving
Goffman’s work as a way of analyzing gender representation. Goffman states there are a few
ways in which magazines reflect the codes of masculinity which include the way men use their
hands to touch, the relative size of the man to other actors, whether they pose in a submissive
way, licensed withdrawal, and infantilization. His theoretical framework should allow me to
navigate throughout the content analysis procedure.

18. Ruszkowski 18
H1: I am predicting that in terms of gender, women’s magazines will be more likely to
sexually objectify men and the way they are displayed.
H2: I am also predicting that fashion magazines in comparison to health magazines will
be more likely to sexually objectify men in the way they are represented.
Sample
Since I do not have the time and money to travel to various businesses to attain a set of
magazines, the most convenient option was to use the local public library in Edwardsville,
Illinois as well as the public library in St. Louis, Missouri. My method of going about this was
purposive because the observations I made were based on what I thought would be most useful.
This is also appropriate since I compared two different kinds of publications such as men’s
health and fashion magazines. I looked at a total of 400 images all together with 100 images for
Health, Men’s Health, Vogue, and GQ respectively. All of the editions were within the year
2014. For GQ I used the editions from October, September, August, and July. From Men’s
Health I used editions from the months of July, June, May, April, March, and January. For the
magazine Health I used magazines for the months of November, October, September, July, June,
May, April, March, and January. Lastly, for the magazine Vogue I used editions from the months
of May, April, February, and January. The women’s magazines had fewer images displaying
males, especially in the case of the women’s health magazine which I utilized nearly the entire
years’ worth of magazines. As a result, I resorted to systematic random sampling. In order to get
equal representations from every dimension, skipping to every third image in the men’s
magazines allowed me to balance this especially since there was an abundance of images for that
audience.

19. Ruszkowski 19
Content Analysis
I chose content analysis as a method for collecting data because it allows for a more
objective way of evaluating the data which in this research will be magazine images. By
narrowing down specific themes and indicators I was able to isolate certain images for the rest
and collect it for the data set. In my attempt to collect about a year’s worth of GQ magazines I
was unable to find the adequate amount of this portion of the sample between Lovejoy library,
Edwardsville Public library, and Glenn Carbon Public library. Altogether, I was able to gather
the magazines from both the Edwardsville public library as well as the library in downtown St.
Louis with half being men’s health and fashion magazines and the others would be the same but
for women’s magazines. By analyzing 100 images for each of the four magazines I was able to
look at magazine editions within the year 2014. I conducted a content analysis where I counted
how many indicators for each magazine and how often they appeared overall. As I looked
through each magazine I kept a record of the type of magazine, issue date, and a description of
what I saw within the magazine.
This strategy was most convenient for me as well as less time consuming. By doing this I
did not spend any money towards magazines and was able to go through an entire edition with
ease. My main concern is that images of men were scarce in the women’s magazine Health. In
order to get a better representation of the time period overall, I resorted to systematic random
sampling for the men’s magazines where I used every third image that had an image of a male.
Generally speaking, the men’s magazines had an abundance of the images I was looking for in
comparison to the women’s.

20. Ruszkowski 20
Results
Table 1: Gender and Licensed Withdrawal Bivariate Contingency Results (Total N=200)
Licensed Withdrawal Male Female Total
Absent 63%
(126)
80%
(160)
71.5%
(286)
Present 37%
(74)
20%
(40)
28.5%
(114)
Total 100%
(200)
100%
(200)
100%
(400)
With a chi-square value of 14.182 and a p-value of .000 there appears to be a correlation between
the genders of the magazine along with the number of times licensed withdrawal appeared
throughout magazine images leading me to reject the null hypothesis. This correlation does not
match up with my original hypothesis which stated that women’s magazines would be more
likely to display the sexually objectifying themes.

21. Ruszkowski 21
Table 2A: Interest and Licensed Withdrawal Bivariate Contingency Results (Total N=200)
Licensed Withdrawal Fashion Health Total
Absent 64%
(128)
79%
(158)
71.5%
(286)
Present 36%
(72)
21%
(42)
28.5%
(114)
Total 100%
(200)
100%
(200)
100%
(400)
With a chi-square value of 11.042 and a p-value of .001 there does appear to be a correlation
between the lifestyle interest of the magazine with the number of times licensed withdrawal
appeared throughout the images within those magazines which led me to reject the null
hypothesis.

22. Ruszkowski 22
Table 2B: Interest and Subordination Bivariate Contingency Results (Total N=200)
Subordination Fashion Health Total
Absent 79%
(150)
88%
(176)
83.5%
(334)
Present 21%
(42)
12%
(24)
16.5%
(66)
Total 100%
(200)
100%
(200)
100%
(400)
With a chi-square of 5.879 and a p-value of .015 there does appear to be a correlation between
lifestyle interests with ritualization of subordination in the amount of times it appeared
throughout these magazines images which led me to reject the null hypothesis.

23. Ruszkowski 23
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to determine in large how gender is portrayed. Since we
live in a society where film has previously been identified as being manipulated by a patriarchal
male gaze I wanted to further understand how far we have come as a society in the effort to make
gender less isolated and oppressed based on feminist movements. Another objective of this study
was to examine how men are being sexually objectified in magazines by identifying the themes
brought forward from Erving Goffman’s Gender Advertisements. These themes dealt with the
subconscious ritualized understandings of what is dominate and what is subordinate in the realm
of gender. These included concepts such as infantilization where a person would be shown as
being unserious, playful, or their bodies contorted in some fashion while generally wearing some
sort of costume. Also, the ritualization of subordination displays a person as bashful typically
presented with a knee bend or lying down on a bed which could be interpreted as being sexually
available. Dominance is also displayed in the way men are using their hands in these images
whether they are grazing the surface of something or manipulating his surroundings with a firm
grip which is known as the feminine touch. The relative size of an individual to others is a basic
portrayal of who has power in a picture based on who is portrayed as larger or taller. Lastly,
licensed withdrawal displays a person as being psychologically absent where their attention is
turned away from the camera which demonstrates a lack of preparedness (Goffman 1979).
After analyzing the data collected through a bivariate analysis, it has been determined
that the men’s magazines appear to be more likely to sexually objectify the male body, however
the magazines only did so through licensed withdrawal. In this sense, there is some evidence
which shows that men are being sexually objectified to a certain extent, however with the
absence of most themes it would suggest that the male gaze is still in power. There does appear

24. Ruszkowski 24
to be a relationship between licensed withdrawal and the gender of the audience which the
magazines are geared toward. In the men’s magazines 37% of the images presented a male who
appeared to be psychologically absent while the women’s magazines only displayed them at a
rate of 20%. Ritualization of subordination did appear more often in men’s magazines as well but
the result shows no drastic difference with men’s magazines displaying this theme at a rate of
18% while women’s were at 15%. Overall, men’s magazines displayed more themes on the
whole with men’s magazines showing any themes at a rate of 54% versus 40% for women’s
magazines.
In relation to how men were portrayed within lifestyle interest magazines more themes
were present in the realm of fashion, however only licensed withdrawal and ritualization of
subordination appeared to have a correlation. Ritualization of subordination appeared more often
in the fashion magazines with a percentage of 21% to 12% for health. The fashion magazines
were also more likely to display men as being psychologically absent with 36% of the 200
fashion magazine images being present. In the health magazines only 21% of the 200 images
observed were shown appearing to be psychologically absent on the whole. Overall, more
themes were present in the fashion magazines with 55.5% of the images having at least one of
the themes, while the health magazines only showed themes 38.5% of the time.
As far as how often other themes appeared overall, feminine touch appeared the least
with a rate of only 1.5%. Infantilization showed up second to last in that it only appeared with a
total of 3.5%. Relative size was only seen 5.5% of the time. Ritualization of subordination
showed up at a rate of 16.5% while licensed withdrawal showed up the most with a rate of
28.5%. With these results we can infer that there is in general not much of a shift in the way that
men are being portrayed since Erving Goffman’s original work in Gender Advertisements.

25. Ruszkowski 25
Similar findings were reported in Umiker-Sebeok’s study using the same principles coined by
Erving Goffman in that there is little progress towards the display of power and gender. Men are
still shown as being less fluid in gender portrayal (Umiker-Sebeok 1996:402).
Conclusion
Ultimately I was led to reject my first hypothesis which originally stated that women’s
magazines would sexually objectify the male body more so over the men’s in an attempt to
appeal to the audience that women’s magazines are geared to. The reason for this result may be
that the men’s magazines are attempting to appeal to a homosexual audience as other studies
have stated before, such as in the film The Codes of Gender. On the other hand it could have
something to do with the way the actors are presented by directing their attention away from the
camera. By doing so this could initiate a kind of voyeuristic impulse in men that allows for the
reader to view the actor as sexual because nobody is looking. Whether those marketing GQ
towards a specific group of people are aware of their target audience is unclear. If this was the
case it would make sense that the men are displayed in this manner. More consideration of GQ’s
marketing strategies could determine a firmer understanding of this result.
In relation to why the women’s magazines are not sexually objectifying men could have
to do with how the living conditions in a patriarchal society simply do not allow for women to
take that sort of power in heterosexual relationships. The people in charge of determining the
images being shown in their magazines may very well be male, however this particular study is
limited in the data that could be collected in relation to which gender is in charge. This however
would make sense knowing that there is an active pursuit to keep the feminine from being
dominate in the way society is projected. Hegemonic masculinity is particularly prevalent in

26. Ruszkowski 26
today’s society which could offer some insight into why women’s magazines opt out of sexually
objectifying the male body.
To best explain why health magazines were less likely to sexually objectify males might
have to do with the purpose of the magazines themselves. Fashion magazines are concerned
primarily with appearance alone. While health magazines are inclined to inform readers on how
to get in shape, it does not necessarily have a main focus in appearance. Health itself goes
beyond the way you look to the condition you are in terms of your overall well-being. Fashion
has become increasingly more expressive in recent years with pop stars revealing more and more
of their bodies to audiences sexually.
Overall, there was a considerable amount of themes lacking a presence. The feminine
touch rarely showed up throughout my data collection. This reflects the ideology that men are to
be firm and strong with the way they interact with their environment. Career choices among men
are commonly associated with jobs such as construction or a mechanical work which deals a lot
with being very hands on. We might associate women with jobs that require a gentler physical
interaction involving jobs such as nursing or counseling. This reflects how doing gender is
incorporated in magazine images. Rarely did infantilization ever show up in the sample. This
correlates with society’s expectations for men in how they should be independent and career
oriented. Men are supposed to be serious and to take care of business which in no way matches
up with being playful or child-like. The absence of relative size mirrors the concept that men are
given authority because they are bigger. While we are born with a set of certain physical
characteristics the size of males has been socially constructed to be the dominant form of power
in social relationships. Ritualization of subordination was one of the themes that showed more of
a shift, however the lack of its presence still demonstrates how the posture that men take on

27. Ruszkowski 27
means that they do not lower themselves to others and are the ones with power. Lastly, licensed
withdrawal showed up the most; however its presence was not abundant by any means which
shows that men are still displayed as being aware of any threats that might come their way.
The main purpose of this study was to bring awareness to the current state of gender
fluidity in popular media. After all is said and done I conclude that from this sample of 400
images that there is not a whole lot of change in the way men are being displayed despite the
prevalence of relevant social movements such as feminism. The codes which are used as ways to
oppress women through media images are not apparent in the treatment towards the male body.
This mirrors our understanding of what men should or should not be in society which places
limitations on the way that individuals can choose to live their lives. Even after a similar study
was published in 1996 by Umiker-Sebeok the results from this study still show that in general
men are displayed on the whole as showing dominant features that are considered to be male
characteristics. The only correlation between male gender display and sexual objectification has
to deal with a shift in the males being shown as either psychologically absent or as being
subordinate to a lesser degree. While some progress towards the shift in the way gender is
portrayed is better than none, we still have a long ways to go in terms of recognizing that we
label genders differently based on idealized concepts of what should be or not. This sample does
not however represent the larger variety of magazines out there and was limited to my time and
resources. Regardless, this sample does suggest that within the evidence provided in the sample
that there are still characteristics that reinforce the male stereotype. Our perceptions of each other
largely influences the way we treat one another and understand social relationships. This study
has pointed out that there exists an imbalance in the way gender is treated and ultimately brings

28. Ruszkowski 28
to light that what is considered natural may actually be a way to give privilege to a specific set of
people while keeping others down.
References
Pompper, D. (2010). Masculinities, the metrosexual and media images:across dimensions of age
and ethnicity. Springer science business media, doi: 10.1007/s11199-010-9870-7
Hall, M. H., & Gough, B. G. (2011). Magazine and reader constructions of metrosexuality and
masculinity: a membership categorisation analysis. Taylor and Francise, 20(1), 67-86.
doi: 10.1080/09589236.2011.542023
Kosetzi, K. K., & Polyzou, A. P. (2010). ‘the perfect man, the proper man’ construals of
masculinities in nitro, a greek men’s lifestyle magazine – an exploratory study. Equinox
Publishing, 3(2), 143-180. doi: 10.1558/genl.v3i2.143
Recciardelli, R. R., Clow, K. C., & White, P. W. (2010). Investigation hegemonic masculinity:
portrayals of masculinity in men's lifestyle magazines. Springer science business media,
63, 64-78. doi: 10.1007/s11199-010-9764-8
Prusank, D. P. (2007). Masculinities in teen magazines: the good, the bad, and the ugly. The
journal of men's studies, 15(2), 160-177. doi: 10.3149/jms.1502.160
Tragos, P. T. (2009). Monster masculinity: honey, i'll be in the garage reasserting my manhood.
Wiley Periodicals, Inc., 42(3),
Kimmel, M., & Aronson, A. (2008). The gendered society reader. (3rd ed.) New York: Oxford
University Press, Inc. Retrieved from http://www.oup.com
Deutsch, F.D. (2007). Undoing Gender. Sage, 21(1), 106-127. doi: 10.1177/0891243206293577

29. Ruszkowski 29
Willer, R.W, Rogalin, C.R, Conlon, B.C., & Wojnowicz, M.W. (2013). Overdoing gender: A test
of the masculine overcompensation thesis.American journal of sociology, 118(4), 980-
1022. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/668417
Ashforth, B.A., & Humphrey, R.H. (1997). The ubiquity and potency of labeling organizations.
INFORMS,8(1), 43-58. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2635227
Kimmel, M.K, & Barron, M. B. (2000) Sexual violence in three pornographic media:toward a
sociological explanation . Taylor & Francis, 37(2), 161-168. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3813601
Messner , M. M. (2007). The masculinity of the governator: Muscle and compassion in american
politics. Sage ,21(4), 461-480. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/27640987
Kimmel, M., & Messner, M. (1998). Men’s lives. (4th ed.). Needham Heights: Electronic
composition: Publisher’s design and production services, inc.
Pleck, J. (1984). The myth of masculinity. Cambridge: The Massachusetts Institute of
Technology.
Sassatelli, R. (2011). Interview with Laura Mulvey. Theory, Culture & Society, 28(5), 123-143.
doi:10.1177/0263276411398278
Goffman, E. (1979). Gender advertisements. New York: Harper & Row.
Umiker-Sebeok, J. (1996). Power and Construction of Gendered Spaces. International Review Of
Sociology, 6(3), 389-403.

30. Ruszkowski 30
Goodin, S., Denburg, A., Murnen, S., & Smolak, L. (2011). 'Putting on' Sexiness: A Content
Analysis of the Presence of Sexualizing Characteristics in Girls' Clothing. Sex Roles,
65(1/2), 1-12. doi:10.1007/s11199-011-9966-8
Strelan, P., & Hargreaves, D. (2005). Women Who Objectify Other Women: The Vicious Circle
of Objectification?. Sex Roles, 52(9/10), 707-712. doi:10.1007/s11199-005-3737-3
Williams, J., & Jovanovic, J. (2015). Third Wave Feminism and Emerging Adult Sexuality:
Friends with Benefits Relationships. Sexuality & Culture, 19(1), 157-171.
doi:10.1007/s12119-014-9252-3