The document discusses the ecological fallacy in relation to theories of national culture that depict cultures as uniform value dimensions. It argues that inferring characteristics of individuals or subgroups from aggregate national data is illogical and can lead to false results, as what is true at the national level is not necessarily true at lower levels within countries due to intra-country diversity. The document provides examples to illustrate the ecological fallacy and argues that claims of national culture determinism are implausible given causal complexity and varieties of culture, values, and individual psychology within countries. Overall, the document critically examines the common reliance on the ecological fallacy in theories of national culture.
This document discusses the ecological fallacy that occurs when characteristics observed at an aggregate level, such as the national level, are incorrectly assumed to apply to lower levels of analysis, such as individuals, groups, or organizations within that same nation. The document argues that depictions of "national culture" based on aggregate data, such as Hofstede's and GLOBE's cultural dimensions, cannot be validly applied to sub-national levels due to the ecological fallacy. While aggregate data may reveal national-level trends, very little variance in individual-level attributes is actually explained by nationality alone. Relying on the ecological fallacy can thus lead to false characterizations and invalid generalizations across levels of analysis.
Numerous experimental researchers prove prejudice is an unfavorable and preoccupied judgment directed towards a specific group or individual. Initial research that was carried out in the occurrence in 1920s proves that there exists hierarchical supremacy. The theorist made the discovery that prejudice originates from authoritarian individuals segmenting the society in the basis of hierarchical as well as abnormal judgment. In his 1979 analysis, Thomas clearly defined negative attributes on the experience of the global out-group.
- See more at: http://www.customwritingservice.org/blog/the-psychology-of-prejudice-stereotyping-and-discrimination/
This document discusses the concept of intersectionality, which refers to how social factors like gender, ethnicity, religion, etc. interact and affect inequalities. It provides examples of issues at the intersection of various factors, like certain forms of gender-based violence. It also discusses why intersectionality is sometimes ignored, such as because addressing minority issues could lead to assumptions that problems only affect minorities. Finally, it outlines six dilemmas in studying intersections, such as balancing structural influences with individual agency, and addressing intersecting issues without reducing their complex nature.
This document discusses microaggressions in educational institutions. It defines racial, gender, sexual orientation, and disability microaggressions as subtle verbal, nonverbal, and environmental slights that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative messages to marginalized groups. Examples are provided. The psychological dilemmas of microaggressions for both perpetrators and targets are examined, noting the invisible and unintentional nature of microaggressions can make them difficult to prove but that they negatively impact mental health and create an invalidating environment.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Bias can influence studies and psychologists in several ways. Bias refers to a partial perspective that lacks consideration of alternative viewpoints. It can come in many forms, including teacher bias and bias against women in STEM fields. Various types of bias include cultural, racial, gender, and economic biases. Psychologists must be aware of biases like experimenter bias, attribution bias, and response bias that can influence studies and interpretations. Addressing bias is important to produce objective research and equitable treatment of all people.
This document discusses racial microaggressions and their implications for clinical practice. It defines racial microaggressions as brief everyday verbal, nonverbal, and environmental slights that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative messages to people of color. The document presents a taxonomy of three types of racial microaggressions: microassaults, microinsults, and microinvalidations. It argues that because white therapists are also influenced by societal racism, they may unintentionally commit microaggressions against clients of color, impairing the therapeutic alliance. It calls for education and training to increase therapists' awareness of how racism can influence the therapy process and their delivery of services to clients of color.
48-110 (Foundations of Social Life) - Lesson Objectives:
1. Identify the main theoretical approaches used in Sociology and Criminology;
2. Relate the main premise, level of analysis, and key ideas of each theoretical approach;
3. Recognize aspects of theoretical approaches in popular culture examples;
4. Connect these theoretical approaches to subsequent courses in the program.
This document discusses the ecological fallacy that occurs when characteristics observed at an aggregate level, such as the national level, are incorrectly assumed to apply to lower levels of analysis, such as individuals, groups, or organizations within that same nation. The document argues that depictions of "national culture" based on aggregate data, such as Hofstede's and GLOBE's cultural dimensions, cannot be validly applied to sub-national levels due to the ecological fallacy. While aggregate data may reveal national-level trends, very little variance in individual-level attributes is actually explained by nationality alone. Relying on the ecological fallacy can thus lead to false characterizations and invalid generalizations across levels of analysis.
Numerous experimental researchers prove prejudice is an unfavorable and preoccupied judgment directed towards a specific group or individual. Initial research that was carried out in the occurrence in 1920s proves that there exists hierarchical supremacy. The theorist made the discovery that prejudice originates from authoritarian individuals segmenting the society in the basis of hierarchical as well as abnormal judgment. In his 1979 analysis, Thomas clearly defined negative attributes on the experience of the global out-group.
- See more at: http://www.customwritingservice.org/blog/the-psychology-of-prejudice-stereotyping-and-discrimination/
This document discusses the concept of intersectionality, which refers to how social factors like gender, ethnicity, religion, etc. interact and affect inequalities. It provides examples of issues at the intersection of various factors, like certain forms of gender-based violence. It also discusses why intersectionality is sometimes ignored, such as because addressing minority issues could lead to assumptions that problems only affect minorities. Finally, it outlines six dilemmas in studying intersections, such as balancing structural influences with individual agency, and addressing intersecting issues without reducing their complex nature.
This document discusses microaggressions in educational institutions. It defines racial, gender, sexual orientation, and disability microaggressions as subtle verbal, nonverbal, and environmental slights that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative messages to marginalized groups. Examples are provided. The psychological dilemmas of microaggressions for both perpetrators and targets are examined, noting the invisible and unintentional nature of microaggressions can make them difficult to prove but that they negatively impact mental health and create an invalidating environment.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Bias can influence studies and psychologists in several ways. Bias refers to a partial perspective that lacks consideration of alternative viewpoints. It can come in many forms, including teacher bias and bias against women in STEM fields. Various types of bias include cultural, racial, gender, and economic biases. Psychologists must be aware of biases like experimenter bias, attribution bias, and response bias that can influence studies and interpretations. Addressing bias is important to produce objective research and equitable treatment of all people.
This document discusses racial microaggressions and their implications for clinical practice. It defines racial microaggressions as brief everyday verbal, nonverbal, and environmental slights that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative messages to people of color. The document presents a taxonomy of three types of racial microaggressions: microassaults, microinsults, and microinvalidations. It argues that because white therapists are also influenced by societal racism, they may unintentionally commit microaggressions against clients of color, impairing the therapeutic alliance. It calls for education and training to increase therapists' awareness of how racism can influence the therapy process and their delivery of services to clients of color.
48-110 (Foundations of Social Life) - Lesson Objectives:
1. Identify the main theoretical approaches used in Sociology and Criminology;
2. Relate the main premise, level of analysis, and key ideas of each theoretical approach;
3. Recognize aspects of theoretical approaches in popular culture examples;
4. Connect these theoretical approaches to subsequent courses in the program.
Putting Inequality in its Place: Rural Consciousness and the Power of Persp...JJ Widener
This article examines the concept of "rural consciousness" and how it structures how rural residents think about politics in Wisconsin. Through observations of conversations in rural communities, the author finds that rural residents see themselves as facing deprivation relative to urban areas due to decisions made by out-of-touch political elites. This perspective leads rural residents to favor limited government, even if that stance seems at odds with their economic self-interest. The study suggests moving beyond explanations that pit interests against values, and considering how group perspectives shape political understandings.
Presentation Masculinities in Hiv Jerker 11 11 08 (V2)IDS
The document discusses research on masculinities and how it can be applied to issues of HIV, sex, and health. It outlines key findings from masculinity research, including that there are multiple masculinities that exist, how masculinities are socially constructed and learned over time, and that they are complex and dynamic. It then discusses how early HIV prevention approaches relied on simplistic gender binaries and narratives that did not engage men effectively. It argues for moving beyond binary understandings of gender and vulnerability to recognize complexities.
The document discusses microaggressions, which are defined as brief everyday verbal, nonverbal, or environmental slights that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative attitudes toward marginalized groups. It provides examples of different types of microaggressions, including microinsults, microassaults, and microinvalidations. The document also shares real examples of microaggressions that people encounter and discusses how to respond respectfully when witnessing microaggressions.
EPIP and Lupita Gonzalez Microaggressions WebinarEPIPNational
EPIP Webinar - Microaggressions' Effect on You: Set Your Healing and Self Care Toolbox
with Lupita Gonzalez, MS, CPC
January 20, 2016
How many microaggressions are you exposed to monthly? Weekly? Daily? If only we could avoid them all together! We live in an oppressive society that conditions our biases that perpetrate this behavior. Over time, we experience accumulated microaggressions as trauma. Most of us have been at the receiving end, and sometimes in the giving end. Learn how the brain receives microaggressions, and the effects they take on us. Identify your very own, new coping mechanisms that can heal and shield you.
The document discusses perceptions of women's leadership abilities compared to men. While leadership has traditionally been a male-dominated role, research shows women are increasingly represented in management and leadership positions. However, women still believe negative stereotypes about their leadership persist and can result in discrimination. Studies show qualities stereotypically associated with women, like femininity, are generally not qualities associated with successful leaders. Women exhibiting the same behaviors as men tend to be judged less favorably. As a result, stories in the media can perpetuate misperceptions of women leaders and create false notions that they are inferior to male leaders.
This document summarizes a presentation about racial microaggressions and their implications for clinical practice. It discusses how microaggressions, which can be unconscious slights or insults based on race, negatively impact people of color and represent barriers to effective counseling. The presentation explores how microaggressions manifest in therapy and provides recommendations for clinicians, including improving education and training around issues of race and actively working to reduce microaggressions in their practice.
Stereotypes are oversimplified ideas about groups that are usually wrong. Stereotypes form the basis of discrimination and help inequality grow, especially against minorities. Mass media helps spread and normalize stereotypes. In media, women are often portrayed as weak and in need of saving by men. Racial stereotypes commonly depict Black people as violent, Asians as martial artists or cheap labor, and Latin people as domestic workers. Ethnic stereotypes sometimes show Jewish people as rich and greedy or Arabs as terrorists. Overall, the document discusses how mass media frequently relies on and promotes harmful stereotypes.
The document discusses deliberative disabilities, which are inadequate capacities for participation in public deliberation. It defines political poverty as a failure of capacity to influence deliberative processes or have one's concerns taken up. There are four criteria for political poverty: collectiveness, effectiveness, autonomy, and uptake. It also discusses deliberative dys-abilities, which are truncated and ineffective uses of political rights and liberties. There are three types of deliberative dys-abilities: thematization, virtualization, and disintegration. Virtualization includes make-believe, ceremonials, redoings, and minorizing deliberative practices.
Presented by Markus Ihalainen, from the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), at the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) in Nairobi, Kenya, on August 29, 2017.
Dr. Myron Anderson, Metropolitan State University of Dever. Summer Seminar: Multicultural Education and Anti-Bullying Strategies, University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras
This document summarizes a presentation titled "Boys Love Beyoncé: Uncovering and Engaging Dialogue on Black Male Masculinity". The presentation explores societal stigmas of black masculinity, including hypersexuality. It discusses how peers, media, and society perpetuate ideas of what black masculinity should be. The presentation also examines how some groups reframe masculinity when their behaviors are seen as contrary to dominant views, using closeness and emotional expressiveness to showcase mature masculinity. It analyzes how expectations of masculinity can outline what men should not be as well as what they should be.
Intersectionality: What does it mean and how can we better engage with it?CIFOR-ICRAF
The document discusses intersectionality and how considering multiple social factors provides a more nuanced understanding of vulnerability to climate change impacts than only looking at gender. It provides examples from various contexts of how gender intersects with other attributes like class, caste, ethnicity, age, and location to differently structure vulnerabilities for different groups of women. The document advocates applying an intersectional lens in research to more accurately diagnose problems and design effective solutions by collecting disaggregated data and critically examining how social power relations construct and manifest in various categories and institutions.
A presentation I made for my senior seminar at Whitman College. Design ideas are drawn from "Presentation Zen".
Some of the more interactive features are, unfortunately, unable to be experienced on SlideShare.
1) The document discusses the theory of rationalization and how it relates to modernization and globalization. It argues that rationalization, which prioritizes individualism and freethinking, will continue to increase as modernization and globalization progress globally.
2) It examines the history of modernization in America and how the U.S. constructed its national identity based on European characteristics of modernity. It also discusses how modernization manifested differently in various nations and regions.
3) The paper predicts that rationalization will continue to spread worldwide as younger, more educated populations embrace values like human dignity and respect across borders through increased communication and education on a global scale.
The document summarizes several theorists' perspectives on media representations of youth and how those representations relate to societal power structures and cultural norms. Some of the key points made include that media representations of youth often reflect adult anxieties rather than reality, can be used to reinforce dominant social values, and may influence societal perceptions over time through repeated portrayals that become normalized.
Essays On Holidays. ESSAY 001 My best holiday - ESL worksheet by ldthemagicmanLauren Davis
Essay on Holidays Holidays Essay for Students and Children in English .... Christmas Essay in English Simple essay on Christmas Beautiful Essay Christmas Day. Short essay on christmas holidays. write me a essay. 006 The Best Holiday Ever Essay Example Thatsnotus. Essay on holidays - writefiction581.web.fc2.com. ESSAY 001 My best holiday - ESL worksheet by ldthemagicman. Calaméo - Essay on Holidays: Constructive Ways to Spend Holidays. 10 Lines On My Holidays In English Essay On My Holidays Easy .... Write My Paper - essays on holiday trips - 2017/10/11. Narrative essay about summer vacation - opinionatorblogsnyts.web.fc2.com. Need Help Writing an Essay? - My best holiday essay - tuala.web.fc2.com. Breathtaking The Best Holiday Ever Essay Thatsnotus. Essay on Holiday for Students and Children PDF Download. My Best Holiday Celebration Free Essay Example. My Holiday - GCSE English - Marked by Teachers.com. Write an essay on Summer Holidays Essay on Summer Vacation English .... How was your holiday essay. Free Essay: My Dream Holiday. 2022-10-14. Write Esse: My christmas vacation short paragraph. Unforgettable holiday essay. Unforgettable Holiday Experience Free .... My best holiday essay - Convincing Essays with Professional Writing Help. Descriptive Essay About Christmas Holiday - Homework for you. My Best Holiday Essay Example - PHDessay.com. .: PT3 Descriptive Essay-How I spent my holidays. Write an essay on holiday Holiday essay in english - YouTube. Analytical Essay: Essay on a holiday. Essay About Christmas Break. School holidays Essay Example Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words. Write a essay on how i spend my winter holidays - My Plan for Summer .... Importance Of Holiday Essay Paragraph Of Holiday 10 Lines On .... My Favourite Holiday Essay Telegraph. Singular Describe Your Holiday Essays Thatsnotus. Essay On Holiday Holiday Essay In English Essay - YouTube Essays On Holidays Essays On Holidays. ESSAY 001 My best holiday - ESL worksheet by ldthemagicman
This document discusses cultural relativism and its implications for intercultural communication. It begins by defining cultural relativism as the belief that cultural practices should be assessed within their own context rather than by outside standards. While cultural relativism promotes cultural understanding, it is not without challenges. Some argue cultures are not static and influence each other through globalization. The document concludes that cultural relativism supports principles of mutual understanding and non-imposition in intercultural exchange. Specific cultural elements can be evaluated individually but one should not view entire cultures as superior or inferior to others.
Effective Essay. Cause and Effect Essay Examples YourDictionaryJessica Siewert
TIPS FOR EFFECTIVE ESSAY WRITING OF ESSAYS.pdf DocDroid. The Basics of Effective Essay Writing Last Seen. How To Write An Effective Essay - Effect Choices. 6 Tips on Writing an Effective Essay - Techicy. Cause and Effect Essay Examples YourDictionary. Effective essay. 7 Effective Application Essay Tips to Take Your .... 017 Cause And Effect Expository Essay Example Thatsnotus. 007 Argumentative Essays 8th Grade Printables Corner Pertaining To .... Essay Writing: Cause and Effect Essay. 8 Tips On Writing An Effective Essay, Writing Essay Tips - English .... Study skills: How to write effective essay exams in college and. Essay Tips: 10 Tips on Writing an Effective Essay. Sample Argumentative Essay.doc. 008 Cause And Effect Essay Examples For College Outline Example .... Buy cause and effect essay structure example global warming! Global .... 40 Best Topics for Cause and Effect Essay Physician Medical School. College Essay Format: Simple Steps to Be Followed. FREE 9 College Essay Examples in PDF Examples - How to write english .... Effective essay writing examples. 2 Easy Ways to Write a Good Essay .... How to Write an Effective Essay by. Cause and effect essay template. Cause and Effect Essay Outline. 2022 .... Essay Writing Tips: 7 Tips on Writing an Effective Essay - Modish Project. 2 Cause and Effect Essay Examples That Will Cause a Stir. 40 Cause and Effect Essay Topics for Students - writemyessay的部落格 - udn部落格. What is an effective essay. 5 Tips for Writing a Good Narrative Essay .... Simple Guide to Help You Write an Essay by BreeAndrea - Issuu. What are the types of essays and examples. Types of Essays. 2022-11-09. Infographics: Cause And Effect Essay Outline With images Cause and .... How to write an excellent essay. Tips on Writing an Excellent .... How to write cause and effect essays. Essay Tips: 5 Tips on Writing an Effective Essay Effective Essay Effective Essay. Cause and Effect Essay Examples YourDictionary
Argument In Support And Against Of Hofstede WorkTodd Turner
This document provides an overview of Hofstede's seminal work describing five cultural dimensions and discusses arguments both for and against his work. It summarizes Hofstede's study using data from 116,000 IBM employees in over 50 countries to identify four main cultural dimensions. It then reviews Hofstede's five dimensions in more detail and outlines some common criticisms of his work, including that surveys may not accurately measure cultural values, his assumptions of cultural homogeneity within countries ignores variations, and that cultures are not bounded by national borders.
Putting Inequality in its Place: Rural Consciousness and the Power of Persp...JJ Widener
This article examines the concept of "rural consciousness" and how it structures how rural residents think about politics in Wisconsin. Through observations of conversations in rural communities, the author finds that rural residents see themselves as facing deprivation relative to urban areas due to decisions made by out-of-touch political elites. This perspective leads rural residents to favor limited government, even if that stance seems at odds with their economic self-interest. The study suggests moving beyond explanations that pit interests against values, and considering how group perspectives shape political understandings.
Presentation Masculinities in Hiv Jerker 11 11 08 (V2)IDS
The document discusses research on masculinities and how it can be applied to issues of HIV, sex, and health. It outlines key findings from masculinity research, including that there are multiple masculinities that exist, how masculinities are socially constructed and learned over time, and that they are complex and dynamic. It then discusses how early HIV prevention approaches relied on simplistic gender binaries and narratives that did not engage men effectively. It argues for moving beyond binary understandings of gender and vulnerability to recognize complexities.
The document discusses microaggressions, which are defined as brief everyday verbal, nonverbal, or environmental slights that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative attitudes toward marginalized groups. It provides examples of different types of microaggressions, including microinsults, microassaults, and microinvalidations. The document also shares real examples of microaggressions that people encounter and discusses how to respond respectfully when witnessing microaggressions.
EPIP and Lupita Gonzalez Microaggressions WebinarEPIPNational
EPIP Webinar - Microaggressions' Effect on You: Set Your Healing and Self Care Toolbox
with Lupita Gonzalez, MS, CPC
January 20, 2016
How many microaggressions are you exposed to monthly? Weekly? Daily? If only we could avoid them all together! We live in an oppressive society that conditions our biases that perpetrate this behavior. Over time, we experience accumulated microaggressions as trauma. Most of us have been at the receiving end, and sometimes in the giving end. Learn how the brain receives microaggressions, and the effects they take on us. Identify your very own, new coping mechanisms that can heal and shield you.
The document discusses perceptions of women's leadership abilities compared to men. While leadership has traditionally been a male-dominated role, research shows women are increasingly represented in management and leadership positions. However, women still believe negative stereotypes about their leadership persist and can result in discrimination. Studies show qualities stereotypically associated with women, like femininity, are generally not qualities associated with successful leaders. Women exhibiting the same behaviors as men tend to be judged less favorably. As a result, stories in the media can perpetuate misperceptions of women leaders and create false notions that they are inferior to male leaders.
This document summarizes a presentation about racial microaggressions and their implications for clinical practice. It discusses how microaggressions, which can be unconscious slights or insults based on race, negatively impact people of color and represent barriers to effective counseling. The presentation explores how microaggressions manifest in therapy and provides recommendations for clinicians, including improving education and training around issues of race and actively working to reduce microaggressions in their practice.
Stereotypes are oversimplified ideas about groups that are usually wrong. Stereotypes form the basis of discrimination and help inequality grow, especially against minorities. Mass media helps spread and normalize stereotypes. In media, women are often portrayed as weak and in need of saving by men. Racial stereotypes commonly depict Black people as violent, Asians as martial artists or cheap labor, and Latin people as domestic workers. Ethnic stereotypes sometimes show Jewish people as rich and greedy or Arabs as terrorists. Overall, the document discusses how mass media frequently relies on and promotes harmful stereotypes.
The document discusses deliberative disabilities, which are inadequate capacities for participation in public deliberation. It defines political poverty as a failure of capacity to influence deliberative processes or have one's concerns taken up. There are four criteria for political poverty: collectiveness, effectiveness, autonomy, and uptake. It also discusses deliberative dys-abilities, which are truncated and ineffective uses of political rights and liberties. There are three types of deliberative dys-abilities: thematization, virtualization, and disintegration. Virtualization includes make-believe, ceremonials, redoings, and minorizing deliberative practices.
Presented by Markus Ihalainen, from the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), at the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) in Nairobi, Kenya, on August 29, 2017.
Dr. Myron Anderson, Metropolitan State University of Dever. Summer Seminar: Multicultural Education and Anti-Bullying Strategies, University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras
This document summarizes a presentation titled "Boys Love Beyoncé: Uncovering and Engaging Dialogue on Black Male Masculinity". The presentation explores societal stigmas of black masculinity, including hypersexuality. It discusses how peers, media, and society perpetuate ideas of what black masculinity should be. The presentation also examines how some groups reframe masculinity when their behaviors are seen as contrary to dominant views, using closeness and emotional expressiveness to showcase mature masculinity. It analyzes how expectations of masculinity can outline what men should not be as well as what they should be.
Intersectionality: What does it mean and how can we better engage with it?CIFOR-ICRAF
The document discusses intersectionality and how considering multiple social factors provides a more nuanced understanding of vulnerability to climate change impacts than only looking at gender. It provides examples from various contexts of how gender intersects with other attributes like class, caste, ethnicity, age, and location to differently structure vulnerabilities for different groups of women. The document advocates applying an intersectional lens in research to more accurately diagnose problems and design effective solutions by collecting disaggregated data and critically examining how social power relations construct and manifest in various categories and institutions.
A presentation I made for my senior seminar at Whitman College. Design ideas are drawn from "Presentation Zen".
Some of the more interactive features are, unfortunately, unable to be experienced on SlideShare.
1) The document discusses the theory of rationalization and how it relates to modernization and globalization. It argues that rationalization, which prioritizes individualism and freethinking, will continue to increase as modernization and globalization progress globally.
2) It examines the history of modernization in America and how the U.S. constructed its national identity based on European characteristics of modernity. It also discusses how modernization manifested differently in various nations and regions.
3) The paper predicts that rationalization will continue to spread worldwide as younger, more educated populations embrace values like human dignity and respect across borders through increased communication and education on a global scale.
The document summarizes several theorists' perspectives on media representations of youth and how those representations relate to societal power structures and cultural norms. Some of the key points made include that media representations of youth often reflect adult anxieties rather than reality, can be used to reinforce dominant social values, and may influence societal perceptions over time through repeated portrayals that become normalized.
Essays On Holidays. ESSAY 001 My best holiday - ESL worksheet by ldthemagicmanLauren Davis
Essay on Holidays Holidays Essay for Students and Children in English .... Christmas Essay in English Simple essay on Christmas Beautiful Essay Christmas Day. Short essay on christmas holidays. write me a essay. 006 The Best Holiday Ever Essay Example Thatsnotus. Essay on holidays - writefiction581.web.fc2.com. ESSAY 001 My best holiday - ESL worksheet by ldthemagicman. Calaméo - Essay on Holidays: Constructive Ways to Spend Holidays. 10 Lines On My Holidays In English Essay On My Holidays Easy .... Write My Paper - essays on holiday trips - 2017/10/11. Narrative essay about summer vacation - opinionatorblogsnyts.web.fc2.com. Need Help Writing an Essay? - My best holiday essay - tuala.web.fc2.com. Breathtaking The Best Holiday Ever Essay Thatsnotus. Essay on Holiday for Students and Children PDF Download. My Best Holiday Celebration Free Essay Example. My Holiday - GCSE English - Marked by Teachers.com. Write an essay on Summer Holidays Essay on Summer Vacation English .... How was your holiday essay. Free Essay: My Dream Holiday. 2022-10-14. Write Esse: My christmas vacation short paragraph. Unforgettable holiday essay. Unforgettable Holiday Experience Free .... My best holiday essay - Convincing Essays with Professional Writing Help. Descriptive Essay About Christmas Holiday - Homework for you. My Best Holiday Essay Example - PHDessay.com. .: PT3 Descriptive Essay-How I spent my holidays. Write an essay on holiday Holiday essay in english - YouTube. Analytical Essay: Essay on a holiday. Essay About Christmas Break. School holidays Essay Example Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words. Write a essay on how i spend my winter holidays - My Plan for Summer .... Importance Of Holiday Essay Paragraph Of Holiday 10 Lines On .... My Favourite Holiday Essay Telegraph. Singular Describe Your Holiday Essays Thatsnotus. Essay On Holiday Holiday Essay In English Essay - YouTube Essays On Holidays Essays On Holidays. ESSAY 001 My best holiday - ESL worksheet by ldthemagicman
This document discusses cultural relativism and its implications for intercultural communication. It begins by defining cultural relativism as the belief that cultural practices should be assessed within their own context rather than by outside standards. While cultural relativism promotes cultural understanding, it is not without challenges. Some argue cultures are not static and influence each other through globalization. The document concludes that cultural relativism supports principles of mutual understanding and non-imposition in intercultural exchange. Specific cultural elements can be evaluated individually but one should not view entire cultures as superior or inferior to others.
Effective Essay. Cause and Effect Essay Examples YourDictionaryJessica Siewert
TIPS FOR EFFECTIVE ESSAY WRITING OF ESSAYS.pdf DocDroid. The Basics of Effective Essay Writing Last Seen. How To Write An Effective Essay - Effect Choices. 6 Tips on Writing an Effective Essay - Techicy. Cause and Effect Essay Examples YourDictionary. Effective essay. 7 Effective Application Essay Tips to Take Your .... 017 Cause And Effect Expository Essay Example Thatsnotus. 007 Argumentative Essays 8th Grade Printables Corner Pertaining To .... Essay Writing: Cause and Effect Essay. 8 Tips On Writing An Effective Essay, Writing Essay Tips - English .... Study skills: How to write effective essay exams in college and. Essay Tips: 10 Tips on Writing an Effective Essay. Sample Argumentative Essay.doc. 008 Cause And Effect Essay Examples For College Outline Example .... Buy cause and effect essay structure example global warming! Global .... 40 Best Topics for Cause and Effect Essay Physician Medical School. College Essay Format: Simple Steps to Be Followed. FREE 9 College Essay Examples in PDF Examples - How to write english .... Effective essay writing examples. 2 Easy Ways to Write a Good Essay .... How to Write an Effective Essay by. Cause and effect essay template. Cause and Effect Essay Outline. 2022 .... Essay Writing Tips: 7 Tips on Writing an Effective Essay - Modish Project. 2 Cause and Effect Essay Examples That Will Cause a Stir. 40 Cause and Effect Essay Topics for Students - writemyessay的部落格 - udn部落格. What is an effective essay. 5 Tips for Writing a Good Narrative Essay .... Simple Guide to Help You Write an Essay by BreeAndrea - Issuu. What are the types of essays and examples. Types of Essays. 2022-11-09. Infographics: Cause And Effect Essay Outline With images Cause and .... How to write an excellent essay. Tips on Writing an Excellent .... How to write cause and effect essays. Essay Tips: 5 Tips on Writing an Effective Essay Effective Essay Effective Essay. Cause and Effect Essay Examples YourDictionary
Argument In Support And Against Of Hofstede WorkTodd Turner
This document provides an overview of Hofstede's seminal work describing five cultural dimensions and discusses arguments both for and against his work. It summarizes Hofstede's study using data from 116,000 IBM employees in over 50 countries to identify four main cultural dimensions. It then reviews Hofstede's five dimensions in more detail and outlines some common criticisms of his work, including that surveys may not accurately measure cultural values, his assumptions of cultural homogeneity within countries ignores variations, and that cultures are not bounded by national borders.
Essay on "India Vision 2020".... [250+ words] Points : 25 ☺ - Brainly.in. Vision for the Future - 462 Words | Free Essay Example on GraduateWay. Essay websites: Essay on vision 2020. (PDF) Of Vision 2020, Nation-of-Intent and Moderation: A Commentary .... Essay on The vision of India 2020. 418 Words Essay on India Vision 2020. Cover Story: The nine challenges of Vision 2020 — where are we now .... An Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision | PDF Host.
Dimensionalizing Cultures_ The Hofstede Model in Context.pdfRobertDelia3
This document discusses Geert Hofstede's model of six dimensions of national culture: Power Distance, Uncertainty Avoidance, Individualism/Collectivism, Masculinity/Femininity, Long/Short Term Orientation, and Indulgence/Restraint. It describes how the model was developed based on factor analysis of a large IBM employee survey across over 50 countries. The dimensions identified common problems faced by employees in different societies. The model has been validated through correlations with over 400 other cross-cultural studies and remains relevant for describing enduring differences between national cultures.
Dimensionalizing cultures the hofstede model in contextThanh Thanh
This document summarizes Geert Hofstede's model of cultural dimensions and how it was developed based on prior conceptual work. It discusses how earlier researchers proposed dimensions to classify cultures but had weaknesses in clearly defining levels of analysis. Hofstede's model improved on this by focusing only on national cultures and empirically identifying dimensions. It describes some of the dimensions proposed by earlier researchers that influenced Hofstede, such as individualism-collectivism and power distance. Hofstede's study validated three dimensions identified in an earlier review as being consistently identified in studies of national character: relation to authority, conception of self, and ways of dealing with primary dilemmas.
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Dimensionalizing Cultures_ The Hofstede Model in Context.pdfssusercbd35c
This document discusses Geert Hofstede's model of six dimensions of national culture:
1) Power Distance 2) Uncertainty Avoidance 3) Individualism vs Collectivism 4) Masculinity vs Femininity
5) Long Term vs Short Term Orientation 6) Indulgence vs Restraint. It describes how Hofstede developed these dimensions through factor analysis of a large IBM employee survey across many countries. The dimensions empirically validated conceptual frameworks from prior researchers on standard issues across cultures. The dimensions are enduring aspects that cultures vary along and that correlate with other cultural measures.
Hofstede identified five cultural dimensions that can be used to analyze and compare cultures: Power Distance, Individualism vs Collectivism, Masculinity vs Femininity, Uncertainty Avoidance, and Long Term Orientation vs Short Term Orientation. The document then provides a brief overview of India's scores on these five dimensions according to Hofstede's research, noting that India scores highest on Power Distance and Long Term Orientation.
For the past centuries a number of authors and researchers have made.docxMorganLudwig40
For the past centuries a number of authors and researchers have made a number of determinisms, some based on correlational data about the relationship between the concepts of IQ, intelligence, race and other social factors. Many of these determinisms have been viewed as very problematic by other researchers because the views they take are very flawed and have been politically utilized to justify prejudiced agendas against immigrants, individuals of lower socioeconomic status and people of socially perceived differing racial attributes such as skin color. Most of the evidence purported to support these agendas are based on very limited and biased viewpoints of amassed scientific data. This scientific data isn’t fake data but data that has been twisted to fit into an ideological scheme that has pervaded human society since the middle ages or even before. That a select minority of the population are superior in terms of genetics, intelligence, beauty, strength, etc. and therefore are more deserving of higher positions of authority, power, wealth, prestige and status.
One of the greatest false premises is the notion of the concept of intelligence. Human society is obsessed with categorizing things and putting them in their proper places and this obsession is even applied to abstract concepts such as intelligence and social concepts such as race. (Gould, 1995) Everyone has their own definition of what constitutes intelligence. Psychology has attempted to operationalize intelligence in its attempt to objectively measure an abstract concept, give it some type of form and make it measurable and discernable. These attempts have produced many different theories about intelligence but one of the most prevalent is the notion that intelligence is biological, inherited and therefore fixed. Humans are born intelligent and not made. This is most recognizable as general intelligence or g factor, which is based on correlation data, taken and analyzed from different types of intelligence tests that have been designed and applied. G factor has even been correlated with race and other social factors to indicate that statistically the most intelligent of the population are white and wealthy. The biggest problem is that one can’t forget that correlation is not causation. Just because it correlates well statistically does not mean that it causes it. Also for a correlation to be considered statistically significant it need not be high. A correlation of just .25 or 25% might be considered statistically significant, even though that number would normally be considered rather low.
This correlation data has been utilized to continually justify a status quo mentality that the rich and powerful deserve to be where they are and it’s a waste for those from lower classes or lower scores of intelligence to even aspire to more. Biology completely determines one’s intellectual ability, nothing can be done about it but resign oneself to one’s place in life.
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Group-Level and Intraindividual Stability of National Stereotypes: A FourYear Longitudinal Study on Ingrian Finn Immigrants’ Pre-and Postmigration Stereotypes of a Typical Finn Jan-Erik Lönnqvist1 , Inga Jasinskaja-Lahti2 , and Markku Verkasalo1 Abstract In a 4-year longitudinal study, we investigated stereotype change in the context of increased intergroup contact. Specifically, using one pre- and two postmigration measurement points, we followed some 200 Ingrian Finns and their families migrating from Russia to Finland. Stereotypes of a typical Finn were conceptualized within the framework provided by Schwartz’s values theory. At the group level, migrants’ stereotype profiles were consensual, similar to Finns’s autostereotypes, somewhat accurate, and highly stable. However, mean-level changes indicated a process of disillusionment: Finns were increasingly perceived as less benevolent and more hedonistic. We argue that personal contact changes aspects of stereotypes related to communal characteristics, whereas contact with cultural institutions influences perceptions of conservativeness. Probably due to political climate, Finns were increasingly perceived as adhering to tradition and security values over stimulation. Although individual-level stereotypes were only moderately stable and stereotype change was heterogeneous, we could not predict individual-level changes. Keywords national stereotypes, intergroup contact, migration, values From Herodotus’s 5th century B.C.E. depiction of Egyptians as the wisest people of all mankind to Hollywood’s contemporary portrayal of the bad Arab, national stereotypes—beliefs about the characteristics of people from different countries—have fascinated scientists and laypeople alike. It could therefore be considered surprising how little is actually known about the processes Downloaded from jcc.sagepub.com at Apollo Group - UOP on April 5, 2016 766 Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 44(5) through which national stereotypes are formed. Yet such knowledge could in today’s shrinking world be of considerable importance. The present study asks, in a migration setting, how increased contact affects national stereotypes. This could shed some light on the mechanisms through which national stereotypes are formed. The present 4-year longitudinal study investigated how Ingrian Finn and Russian migrants’ premigration stereotypes of native Finnish host nationals changed postmigration. Stereotype change was investigated both at the level of the group and at the level of the individual. We were interested both in the content of the stereotype and the consensus with which it was held. Stability and Change in Group-Level National Stereotypes On the level of the group (that is, aggregated across individuals), the content of national stereotypes has been reported to be highly stable. Most important in this respect is a series of studies concerning the ethnic and national stereotypes of Princeton University students (Gilbert ...
Essays On Responsibility. The Responsibility to Protect - PHDessay.comdavih0fytav3
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Hofstede and globe the ecological fallacy
1. FASHION FOUNDED ON A FLAW: THE
ECOLOGICAL M0N0-DETERMINISTIC
FALLACY OF
HOFSTEDE, GLOBE, TROMPENAARS, ET AL.
For presentation at the IACCM Annual
Conference
Rotterdam School of
Management, Erasmus University, 20—
22 June, 2013
Brendan McSweeney
Royal Holloway, University of London
and
2. What, I guess, we commonly believe
• The world is not ‗flat‘ (but how might we
partition populations?)
• The past matters (but we should not
overstate lock-in due to initial conditions)
• Culture matters (but what is ‗it‘ and how
does it operate?)
3. Summary
• The popularity of the notion of ‗national
culture‘ largely rely on the fallacious belief
that one or other of its depictions depict
levels lower than the national: alliances,
organizations, individuals, or whatever.
• But to suppose that it does is a fallacy: the
ecological fallacy.
4. • The idea of ‗culture‘ is more easily
invoked that defined.
• I focus on one notion of culture:
‗national culture‘ and as defined
as ‗values‘
5. • The ontological status of ‗national culture‘; its
depiction as bi-polar value ‗dimensions‘; the
validity of measurements of those
dimensions; and the representativeness of
samples, have been the object of
considerable debate.
• Here I addresses a different issue: a reliance
on the ecological fallacy (Selvin, 1958).
• The fallacious inference that the
characteristics (concepts and/or metrics) of
an aggregate (historically called ‗ecological‘)
level also describe those at a lower
hierarchical level or levels.
8. Supposed: What is true at one sub-national space is
necessarily true at all other sub-national spaces.
• Brothel (in the same
country)
• Convent
9. • The objection here is not the generation of hypotheses from
ecological comparisons.
• Some of the recent discoveries of the causes of cancer (e.g.
dietary factors) have their origin in the generation of such
hypothesis from systematic international comparisons which
were then investigated in lower level studies (Pearce, 2000).
• The objection is to the doctrinaire (and invalid) transfer of
aggregate results to lower levels i.e. to the fallacious
assumption that what characterizes, or is believed to
characterize, entire national populations is also representative
of each sub-national population.
10. • The fallacy is also sometimes called the
―disaggregation error‖ (Van de Vijver &
Poortinga, 2002); or ―the fallacy of
division‖ (Aristotle, 350BC).
• An illustrative example is: the false
derivation that any Japanese is collectivist
because Japan, it is supposed, is culturally
a collectivist country.
11. • The other cross level extreme is the
‗atomistic fallacy‘ (also called the ‗fallacy of
composition‘ or the ‗reverse ecological
fallacy‘), that is, generalizing from individual
or small n data.
• For a national culture example of this
fallacy, see Kets de Vries, 2001. For a
discussion of the fallacy see, Liberson, 1991.
12. Generalizing from small-n’s.
• Thomas beats his
wife, therefore all
husbands beat their
wives.
• Hofstede‘s example of
Twelve Angry Men.
13. • Across the social sciences, deductive depictions of lower
levels have been speculatively based on a host of higher
ecological representations, not just the national.
• For example, characteristics of lower levels have been
inferred not only from nations (aka countries) but also
from regions (the West; ‗Anglo-Saxon‘ countries;
Asia, and so forth); religions, time periods, and
―civilizations‖ (Huntington, 1996; cf. Said, 2001).
• The level lower whose features are deduced from a
higher national level may be an individual, a group of
individuals, an organization, a sector, a segment, a class
or other social categorisation, a generation, a locality, a
neighbourhood, an occupational or other work
14. • Although the term ―ecological fallacy‖ itself
was coined later by Selvin (1958) in his
critique of Durkheim‘s research on
suicide, awareness of the methodological
crime of assuming that results derived from
aggregate data are the same as, and
therefore can be substituted for, those which
would be obtained from individual level
data, had been popularized earlier by
Robinson who in a seminal paper
demonstrated a striking discrepancy between
ecological and individual correlation (1950).
15. • For example, he showed that, the correlation
between illiteracy and nativity (foreign-born
vs domestically born) at the individual level
was positive (r = 0.12) while at the state level
it was negative (r = -0.53).
• In short, he showed that correlations
computed with aggregate data bear no
consistent relationship to correlations based
upon individuals (Subramanian, et al., 2009).
16. • Correlation computed at the individual
level can differ substantially not only in
magnitude but also in direction (i.e.
whether positive or negative) from those
calculated using the corresponding
statistics based on geographic areas or
groups.
17. • Bond (2002) illustrates that the cross level
conflation error applies not only to culture
dimension scores and directions but also to the
cultural concepts or dimension labels in that the
―same labels‖ are inappropriately and inaccurately
used for ―constructs at different levels of
analysis, individual and national, and thus
confound the two‖ (2012, p. 678).
• As Firebaugh states ―The demystification of cross-
level bias begins with the recognition that an
aggregate variable often measures a different
construct at the individual level (1978, p. 560)
18. • Clearly, aggregation/disaggregation leads to
misrepresentation whenever populations are
not wholly homogeneous. That point is
illustrated by the joke about the statistician
who drowned in the river whose average
depth was 5 centimeters.
• But population homogeneity does not debar
the fallacy
19. Decisive or indecisive?
• Schwartz (1994), citing, Zito
(1975), gives the illustrative
example of the discrepancy
between a hung jury at two
levels. As a group, a hung
jury is an indecisive
jury, unable to decide the
guilt or innocence of the
accused.
• However, attributing that
characteristic to the
individual members of the
jury would be incorrect as
the jury is hung because the
individual members (or a
majority) are very decisive –
not indecisive.
• So, indecisive at one
level, decisive at another.
20. • Both Hofstede and GLOBE explicitly warn against the
ecological fallacy (Hofstede, 2001;
House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman & Gutpta, 2004, for
instance).
• ―Hofstede‘s dimensions of national culture were
constructed at the national level. They were underpinned
by variables that correlated across nations, not across
individuals or organizations. In fact, his dimensions are
meaningless as descriptors of individuals or as
predictors of individual differences because the
variables that define them do not correlate
meaningfully across individuals.‖Minkov &
Hofstede, 2011: 12)(emphasis added).
• House & Hanges (2004, p. 99) say that it is
inappropriate to assume that ―cultural-level
characterizations and relationships apply to individuals
within those cultures‖
21. • Gerhard & Fang (2005), and others, have demonstrated that
Hofstede‘s depictions of national culture do not apply at the
individual level.
• Recalculating Hofstede‘s data, they show that only a tiny
fraction (approximately 2 to 4 per cent) of differences in
individuals‘ ‗values‘ is explained by national differences.
• Hofstede himself acknowledges the low explanatory power at
the level of individuals noting that ―of the total variance … only
4.2% is accounted for‖ by nationality (1980, p. 71; 2001, p.
50).
• Oyserman, Coon and Kemmelmeier‘s analysis of all cross-
national empirical research studies published in English on
individualism and/or collectivism (the ‗dimension‘ of national
culture which has received the most empirical attention) found
that country explains only 1.2 per cent of the variance in
individual-level individualism scores, that is 98.8% of variance
in individualism is unexplained by country (2002)
22. • Whilst it is appropriate to acknowledge these
admissions, both Hofstede and GLOBE, and not just many
of their followers, also apply their national level dimensions
to the level of individuals and other sub-national levels.
• Earley points to Hofstede‘s and GLOBE‘s ―entangle[ment]‖ of
levels (2006, p. 923).
• Brewer & Vanaik state that the ―confounding of the levels of
analysis permeates through the Hofstede and GLOBE books
and publications on national culture dimensions …. both in the
definitions of their dimensions and the discussion of their
findings‖ (2012, p. 678).
• I don‘t pursue this ‗not-walking-the-talk‘ here (see my paper).
23. • Employment of the fallacy is not only
illogical, but it also usually leads to false results.
• As Robinson observes, whilst it is theoretically possible for
ecological and individual correlations to be equal, the
conditions under which it can happen are far removed from
those ordinarily encountered in data (1950, p. 341).
• There is no way of predicting in advance the degree of
severity of divergence.
• Almost any theory will generate some correct results but
analysis which relies on the fallacy cannot demonstrate the
validity even of correct results.
• Relationships identified at one level may be true of a lower
level but alternatively they may be stronger or weaker at the
lower level; they may not exist they may be different; or they
may even be in the reverse direction (Klein and
Kozlowski, 2000; Ostroff, 1993, for instance).
24. • The ecological fallacy has been addressed
quite extensively in studies of epidemiology
and electoral behaviour. It has not been
widely considered in the management and
business literature.
• And it appears to have largely been ignored
in popular research methods textbooks in that
arena (see Saunders et al., 2012, for
instance).
25. • The error is extensive in practitioner literature, in training
programmes, and in everyday stereotyping.
• An example from practice is given by Breidenbach and Nyíri
(2009, p. 262), who report that the Chairman of Daimler-
Chrysler decided not to appoint a Japanese person as a
manager of plant in India because he was convinced that
―Shinto culture‖ and ―Hindu culture‖ ―do not go together‖. A
Buddhist Japanese manager, with a US MBA, would, it was
assumed, be totally and irrevocably ‗programmed‘ by a
uniform Shinto culture and all Indians programmed with a
common Hindu one. A national notion of culture was
supposed to have programmed each individual within the
population. A mythical singularity - Hindu culture – was
assumed to be carried by all workers in the Indian
factory, who incidentally were mainly Muslims.
• The Muslim population of India (16.4 million) is only
marginally smaller than the Muslim population of Pakistan
(18.6 million) (CIA, 2013).
26. Untrue and Implausible
• Generalising about lower levels within a
country on the basis of ecological data
relies on the fallacy and is therefore
illogical.
• But it can also be demonstrated that
downward determination of behaviour by
national culture is untrue and implausible.
• That argument is now explored.
27. • The empirical evidence against the
overdetermining notion of national culture
is of two types.
1. The absence of evidence supporting
determination
2. The counter-evidence
28. Absence of Evidence
• There is zero empirical evidence in either Hofstede‘s or GLOBE‘s
questionnaire based calculations that national culture (as values), or
statistical representations of those cultures, influences individuals‘
behaviour (Gerhard & Fang, 2005).
• GLOBE‘s descriptions of ―practices‖ are bizarrely not practices in the
sense of action or artifacts but merely another depiction of values
(Earley, 2006).
• The possibility of identifying a national culture on the basis of
responses to questionnaires is highly contested. But that debate
aside, analysis of those responses no matter how statistically
sophisticated, not only does not, but cannot, demonstrate a
causal link between a national culture (or its representation)
and an individual’s behaviour because the data analysed does
not include observations of such behaviour.
• An a priori belief in that link must be imposed. It cannot be derived
from the data.
29. Counter-Evidence
• Secondly, there is a vast body of empirical
data depicting considerable behavioural
variation within countries (see, for
example, Camelo et al., 2004;
Campbell, et al., 1991; Crouch, 2005;
Goold and Cambell, 1987; Kondo, 1990;
Law and Mol, 2002; Lenartowicz et
al., 2003; O‘Sullivan, 2000; Streeck and
Thelen, 2005; Thompson and Phua, 2005;
Tsurumi, 1988; Weiss and Delbecq, 1987;
Yanagisako, 2002).
30. That is not to say that there are no
uniformities
• Try driving on the left-hand side of the road in Germany or
publically drinking alcohol in Saudi Arabia, for example.
• But that should not blind us to diversities within countries. Nor
are the uniformities evidence of the causal influence of
national cultural values.
• ―Social action has many ingredients.
Laws, institutions, monarchs, the invisible
hand, rituals, coercion, social contracts are amongst the
explanations for uniform social practices. It is empirically
incontestable that under certain conditions it is possible to
detect common social action without reference to a unified
and commonly accepted cultural system‖
(McSweeney, 2009, p. 938).
31. I now consider reasons why claims based on the ecological
fallacy are implausible, including:
1. Causal complexity
2. Varieties of culture
3. Varieties of psychological features
4. Values are not invariant
5. Relationship between values and behaviour is uncertain
6. Cultural incoherence
7. The opaque, slippery and elusive ontological status of
‗culture‘
8. Nations as ―imagined communities‘
9. Individuals are not cultural ‗dopes‘
32. 1. Causal Complexity
• Social phenomena are complex not only because
they are almost always the outcome of multiple
influences but also because those influences can
combine in a variety of ways and at different times.
• The combinatorial, often complexly combinatorial,
nature of social causation makes identification of
causation (or prediction) highly challenging and
usually far beyond the capability of unilevel
analysis even when the latter is well executed.
33. • Attributing ‗lower‘ level behaviour to
exclusively national culture ignores the
multiplicity of potential influences – other
cultures active within a country and non-
cultural factors.
• There may be several microlevel independent
variables and several (not just one)
ecological variables. These may be clearly
separated, nested, overlapping, or
intermingled. They may be influential at
different times, some continuously and others
intermittently.
34. If causal influences other than, or additional to, a
‘national culture’ exists there must be intra-
country variation.
Only making culture the causal force - not just a causal
force - can intra-country diversity be denied.
Although a variety of within-country ‘sub’-cultures
are often acknowledged in the psycho-national
culture literature - they are not incorporated into
the explanation of action and thus
acknowledgement is an empty gesture.
35. Conflating Culture And Values
• Even if causal complexity is ignored, the
attribution of determinate power to culture
as values is problematic for the following
reasons:-
36. Varieties of Culture
First, one can distinguish between at least five different
conceptions (and locations) of culture:
1. Psychological (incl. culture as subjective values)
2. Mentalism (or cognition)
3. Textualism
4. Intersubjectivism
5. Practice
If we attribute causal influence to some or all of these, in
addition to culture as values, then some diversity at least
must be the deduced.
37. • Second, the values notion of national
culture focuses on just a subset of the
psychological, that is values. The possible
roles of a host of other psychological
constructs
(desires, goals, motives, needs, traits, ave
rsions, tastes, interests, likes, attractions,
dispositions, valences, attitudes, preferenc
es, cathexes, sentiments, and so forth) are
ignored
38. • Third, there are a great many definitions of
values, not just the singularity implied in
the national culture literature. As a result
an implicit or explicit definition is
contestable and ―definitional inconsistency
has been epidemic in values theory and
research‖ (Rohan, 2000, p. 255)
39. • Fourth, the assumption that values are
unaffected by context, that they are
invariant transituational preferences, is at
odds with an immense amount of contrary
evidence (Ewing, 1990; Shweder, 1999).
40. • Fifth, a strong and direct influence of values on
behaviour is treated as a given. Values are taken
as cultural imperatives that lead to distinct action.
But this is at best a highly contested view (Joas,
2000; Rohan, 2000; Swidler, 1986).
• ―Current theories give little guidance for
understanding how values shape behavior‖ (Hitlin
& Piliavin, 2004, p. 360).
• That is not to say that values may not have an
influence on behaviour, but what we know about
the highly mediated relationship is limited and
values are but one type of a host of possible
determinants (Williams, 1979).
41. The assumption of coherence
• Sixth, the assumption of causal primacy of
culture (values or whatever) is logically
necessary, but not sufficient, to imply uniformity
of social action.
• The culture must also be assumed to be
coherent: that is, that it contains no
contradictory elements so that it is impossible to
construct incompatible, ambivalent, or
contradictory propositions within that culture.
42. The assumption of coherence
• ‗Look before you leap‘ vs. ‗he who hesitates is lost‘
• Clifford Geertz, in harmony with what has become the
accepted view in anthropology, dismissed the
coherence view of culture which he ridiculed as a
―seamless superorganic unity within whose collective
embrace the individual simply disappears into a cloud
of mystic harmony‖ (1965).
• Cultural coherence allows no room for individuals to
exploit – it is a theory of cultural automatons/dopes.
―Click, whirr, act‖ Cialdini, (2001). We are social but
not entirely socialized (Wrong, 1961) and it excludes
the possibility of endogenous change (Archer, 1988).
43. Cultural impurity
Winslow Homer‘s Eight Bells held out
to be an example of distinctly American
art. But …
Cross-Atlantic influences can readily
be discerned.
Tempura, regarded as an example of
unique Japanese cuisine. But …
A cooking method copied from
Portuguese missionaries in Japan.
44. What has causal force?
• Seventh, in the national culture literature
employing the ecological fallacy, the
ontological status of culture is opaque,
slippery, and elusive. Poorly specified
conceptions slide unclearly and inconsistently
between each other (Knight, 1982; Taras, et
al., 2010).
• Is national culture a statistical average?
Something real? Or what?
45. • The attribution of constitutive power to a statistical
average, distribution, or whatever relies on two errors.
• The first is the metaphysical fallacy of ‗misplaced
concreteness‘ (Whitehead, 1925) erroneously viewing
summary statistics as hard realities,
• The second related error is ―statistical fatalism‖
(Hacking, 1990) attributing deterministic power to a statistical
calculation.
• The idea that statistical distributions are ‗laws‘ was briefly very
fashionable in 1870s. It was mocked by Charles Dickens in
Hard Times (1854)(Hacking, 1983, 1990). Some averages
may have predictive power (Friedman, 1953) – but that is a
different type of claim. Averages are not causes. We do not
meet, compete, negotiate or form friendships with averages
(Bidney, 1944; Duncan, 1980).
46. • The notion of national culture as real is similar to what
Hegel, for instance, called Geist (an essential and
immutable objective spirit). As White (1968) puts it: ―If
the behavior of a people is determined by its
culture, what determines the culture? The answer is
that it determines itself. Culture may be regarded as a
process sui generis‖ (in Duncan, 1980, p.185).
• There are similarities between this doctrinal
holism, the depiction of culture as a superorganic fact
standing above individuals, responding to laws of its
own, and the historic biological notion of ‗vitalism‘
which treated life as the product of a mysterious vis
vitalis or life force.
47. Try this test
• When some event – positive or negative – is attributed to
‗culture‘, or when the basis of improvement is said be a
‗change of culture‘, replace ‗culture‘ with a made-up word, for
example, ‗bagabanga‘.
• Is your understanding any the less? What is lumped together
as culture – national or other - needs to be unbundled.
• As Adam Kuper observes: ―unless we separate out the
various processes that are lumped together under the
heading of culture, and then look beyond the field of culture to
other processes, we will not get very far in understanding any
of it‖ (1999, p. 247).
48. • The objection here to the notion of a distinct and enduring
causal national culture is an objection to the attribution of
ontological status and autonomous and regulatory power to a
supra-individual abstraction (Bourdieu, 1977; Murdock, 1972;
Radcliffe-Brown, 1940).
• It is individuals who act. The notion of culture as a macro or
emergent social force might however seem to be supported
by the apparent evidence of collective or aggregate
effects, for example, by the apparent effects of ‗financial
markets‘ on interest rates on government borrowing. But
‗markets‘ are composed of the opinions, actions, or
whatever, of individuals – they are not real in the sense of
having autonomous social force.
49. • Contrary to a ―core nationalist doctrine‖
(Smith, 1983, p. 21) that humanity is naturally
divided into nations, no country is truly
primordial - most are of quite recent origin
founded in the nineteenth or twentieth
centuries.
• But nations are ―mental constructs sustained
in being by imaginative labour and discursive
habit‖ (Cubitt, 1998, p.3). Through what
Annette Ching calls the ―social construction of
primordiality‖ (in Yelvington 1991, p. 165).
50. • State boundaries may be unstable. Poland, for instance, as a
nation-state ceased to exist in the late eighteenth century and was
only reconstituted with quite different borders at the Treaty of
Versailles in 1919 when the borders of many other European
countries were radically altered. After World War II, the borders of
Poland and many other countries were again changed.
• Land and people formerly in one state may be re-designated as
part of another state. For example, Alsace-Lorraine was returned to
France most recently in 1945 (having yo-yoed back and forth over the
previous century).
• Whole states or parts of states may be annexed (or re-claimed)
as the north of Cyprus was by Turkey.
• New states may be formed by seceding from other states (e.g.
Bangladesh). States may be formed by the voluntary or involuntary
combination of multiple states (for instance, Germany in the late
nineteenth century and again in the late twentieth century).
• States may fragment into multiple states, violently (for
example, the break-up of Pakistan into [West] Pakistan and
Bangladesh) or peacefully (for example, the separation of
Czechoslovakia into the Czech Republic and Slovakia). Writing about
the determination of national boundaries at the Versailles Peace
Conference in 1919, Arthur Balfour, the UK‘s Foreign Secretary
angrily observed the spectacle of ―all powerful, all ignorant men sitting
there and partitioning continents‖
51. • Ninth, Of course, each individual is not an
‗island‘. Individual choice requires the
employment of a somehow socially shared
framework or rather frameworks
(Hodgson, 2007).
• But ‗share‘ is a very imprecise notion. To
what extent is it shared?
52. • Even if the exclusive causal force is assumed to
be culture, nationally unique and common
behaviour can only be deduced if the degree of
sharedness is assumed to be total. The fallacy
followers make that assumption. National
behaviour patterns are seen as having been
internalized by individuals. Thus, Hofstede,
Hofstede & Minkov refer to culture as the ―mental
programming‖ (2010, p.4) – culture as the central
processing mechanism common to each national
citizens‘ mind.
• This is what Wrong (1961) rejects as an
―oversocialized‖ notion of individuals. The potential
for individual agency is effectively denied by
reducing a person to what Garfinkel critically calls
a passive ―cultural dope‖ (1967, p. 66) –
dependent and impotent.
53. More than the standard fallacy
• Treating national culture as causal of behaviour
within countries makes claims even beyond that in
the standard ―ecological fallacy‖ of supposing
conceptual and/or empirical equivalence between
hierarchial levels.
• Where determinism of national culture is
supposed, the ―misuse‖ (Brewer & Venaik, 2012)
may more fittingly be called the ecological mono-
deterministic fallacy. I have described and
challenged a series illogical arguments and invalid
suppositions on which that fallacy relies.
54. • What is to be done? In short, the main
policy implication of the arguments here is:
don‘t suppose that descriptions of national
cultures are a multilevel ‗answering
machine‘.