Water and Water Conservation

1. Chapter 9
Water Quality

2. Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter the reader will be able to:
• Describe sources of potable water
• Define what is meant by the hydrological cycle
• List hazardous substances that may be found in
drinking water
• Describe how water is made safe for human
consumption
• Discuss hazards to the aquatic environment (oceans,
lakes, rivers) associated with environmental pollution

3. Water Facts
• A human can live up to a month without food but can
only survive for about a week without water.
o Necessary for physiologic processes
o About two-thirds of the human body is made up of water.
• Average requirement for human consumption of water
per day is approximately 2 ½ quarts (80 oz).
o Should be potable
• Good taste, no odor, and microbial free

4. Water Use in the U.S.
• Average person uses about 100 gallons (about 400
liters) of water per day.
• Average residence uses over 100,000 gallons (about
400,000 liters) during a typical year.
• Most of this household water (50%-70%) is used for
outdoor purposes such as watering lawns and washing
cars.
• Diagram to the right
shows water use in
CA. Other states are
similar but toilets are
the highest use in the
home across the U.S.

5. Issues
• 20% of the worlds population lack access to safe
drinking water
• The U.S. has one of the safest supplies of drinking
water in the world…
• …but have demonstrated that we are susceptible to
problems
o Short term disease outbreaks
o Water restrictions due to drought
o Chemicals have been found in the supply
• Perchlorate and trihalomethanes levels pose dangerous side
effects

6. Figure 9-3: A slum in Ecuador that was heavily affected by cholera due to
its proximity to unsafe water sources.
90% of the cities in developing countries discharge sewage
directly into rivers and streams

7. Surface Water Supply
• Any water that is drawn from the surface
o As water runs over land on the way to streams, lakes, or rivers to
the sea, it may pick up various contaminants on the way
• Road salts and chemicals, fertilizers, human waste, etc
• All surface water needs to be filtered before it is potable
• Refer to pages 214-215 for key definitions used in this
chapter

8. Figure 9-4 Examples of surface waters.

9. Surface Water Supply
• Surface water can be captured and stored in a Cistern
o Large tank that captures water from a rooftop or ground source
o Limited by rainfall and the size of the holding tank
o Filtered before entering tank through a roof washer or sand filter
o Typically doesn’t create potable water
o Can be used for watering and flushing (known as greywater)

10. Ground Water Supply
• Water that has been absorbed into the soil
• For most places, surface water is insufficient to supply
the needs of the inhabitants
• Water below the surface flows within a layer of rock,
sand, and soil called an aquifer (click for more info)
o The upper level of water saturation is the water table
o Water flow moves at various rates depending on the soil density
o Difference between a Shallow aquifer vs Fossil Aquifer?
o Example of the largest fossil aquifer in the U.S.
• Also picks up the characteristics of what is in the soil
o Biological contaminants from underground sewage or minerals in
the soil
o But biological contaminants are filtered naturally in the soil

11. Ground Water Supply
• Digging below the surface is needed to supply water
o Wells are used to supply water but should be placed away from sources of
contamination
o Dug wells
• Walls of the well are supported to prevent them from caving in and surface
contamination
o Driven wells
• Pipe driven into the ground and a surface pump is used to draw water up
through the pipe
• Usually less than 25 feet deep
o Drilled wells
• More common for public water source
• May be drilled hundreds of feet deep
• Turbine surface pumps or submersible pumps are used to bring water to the
surface

12. Ground Water Supply

13. Ground Water Supply
Groundwater Under the Direct Influence of Surface
Water
• “any water beneath the surface of the ground with
substantial occurrence of insects or other
macroorganisms, algae, or large-diameter, or
substantial and relatively rapid shifts in water
characteristics that closely correlate with
climatologic or surface water conditions.”
• You do not want your ground water to be directly
impacted by these things.

14. Hydrological (Water) Cycle
• “The natural cycle by which water evaporates from
oceans and other water bodies, accumulates as water
vapor in clouds, and returns to oceans and other water
bodies as precipitation.”
• Only about 10% of the water that evaporates from the
ocean falls back on land.
• The Terrestrial cycle contributes about 35% back to the
ocean as runoff.

15. Figure 9-6: The world’s water cycle

16. Water Availability
• Although the earth’s surface (about 70%) is covered
largely by water, most of this water is unusable
ocean water.
• Approximately 3% of all water is freshwater, of which
the majority is unavailable for human use
• Remaining 1% of readily accessible water comes
from surface freshwater; sources include lakes,
rivers, and shallow underground aquifers.
• Surface water tends to be Renewable water,
whereas Fossil Aquifers (groundwater) are not
renewable
o They will deplete over time

17. Source: From Vital Water Graphics: Freshwater Resources, by United Nations Environment Programme, © 2002, United Nations. Reprinted by
permission of the publisher. Available at: http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/01.htm. Acce

18. Water Scarcity and Water Stress
• Two sections of the world that currently have severe
water shortages also are experiencing some of the
highest population growth rates in the world.
o Africa (sub-Saharan and North)
o Near East (a total of 20 countries)
• Scarcity – Less than 1000 cubic meters per person
(about 100 liters)
o Such countries can expect to experience chronic and widespread shortages of
water that hinder their development
• Stress – available water between 1000 and 1700 cubic
meters per person

19. Water Scarcity and Water Stress

20. Is it safe?
• Safe Drinking Water Act in 1974 (Chapter 4 pages 88-89)
o Regulated by the EPA
o Authorizes EPA to set enforceable health standards for contaminants in drinking
water
o Requires public notification of water systems violations and annual reports
(Consumer Confidence Reports) to customers on contaminants found in their
drinking water
o Establishes a federal-state partnership for regulation enforcement
o Includes provisions specifically designed to protect underground sources of
drinking water
o Requires disinfection of surface water supplies, except those with pristine,
protected sources
o Establishes a multi-billion-dollar state revolving loan fund for water system
upgrades
o Requires an assessment of the vulnerability of all drinking water sources to
contamination (epa.gov for a complete list)

21. Treatment of Water for
Residential Consumption
• Water supplied to the public in the U.S. undergoes
treatment in order to meet quality standards set by the
EPA for safe levels of chemical contaminants and
waterborne microorganisms.
• Two examples below:
o NJ American Water Treatment
o Water Treatment Process

22. The Four Stages of Water
Treatment in Most Plants
1. Coagulation–removes suspended
material
2. Sedimentation–causes heavy particles to
settle to bottom of tanks for collection
3. Filtration–removes smaller particles
4. Disinfection–kills bacteria or
microorganisms

24. Fluoridation of Water
• Some communities in the United States add fluoride to
public drinking water in order to prevent tooth decay.
• Field trials conducted in the 1940s demonstrated a 50%-
70% reduction in the prevalence of dental caries.
• No clear evidence to the negative aspects of adding
fluoride to water at normal levels. The question is then
where else would we get additional fluoride to possibly
create adverse affects?

25. Treatment of Water from Aquifers
• For high-quality water from aquifers, minimal aeration,
filtration, and disinfection are necessary.
• In some cases, water drawn from aquifers is free from
microorganisms but undesirable for human consumption
because of impurities and coloration that impair the
esthetic qualities of this essential liquid.

26. Figure 9-15: Water filtration system for water from aquifer. A. Pump B. Bank of filters
C. Samples of water before and after filtration
Source: Courtesy of Irvine Ranch Water District, Irvine, California.

27. Water Contamination
Instances of water contamination have occurred (i.e. Flint Michigan),
however U.S. water treatment is at a high standard.
• Still, many people go to bottled water as their drinking source
Discussion later)
Potential contaminants found in runoff include:
• Chemicals and nutrients (e.g., fertilizers and nitrates from agricultural
lands)
• Rubber, heavy metals, sodium from roads
• Petroleum byproducts and organic (from dry cleaners, service stations,
and leaking underground storage tanks)
• Chemicals used in the home (solvents, paints, used motor oil, lead, and
copper)
• Heavy metals and toxic chemicals from factories
• Microbial pathogens (human and animal wastes)
Next slide shows how pollutants may enter the system.

28. Figure 9-16: The urban water cycle: Man’s impact on groundwater.
Source: From Vital Water Graphics: Freshwater Resources, by United Nations Environment Programme, © 2002 United Nations.
Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
Available at: http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/a3.htm. Acces

29. Waterborne Diseases
• Conditions that are “transmitted through the ingestion of
contaminated water and water acts as the passive
carrier of the infectious agent.”
• Examples are:
o Cryptosporidiosis
o Cholera
o Certain viruses

30. Cryptosporidiosis
• Chryptosporidium parvum is a protozoan pathogen that
causes a diarrheal illness called cryptosporidiosis
• May also be accompanied by abdominal cramping,
nausea, vomiting, and fever.
• The life cycle of the spore can be completed in the
human host
• Transmitted through ingesting contaminated water
o Poorly treated public pools and waterparks can be sources
• Largest outbreak in the U.S. occurred in Milwaukee in
1993

31. Figure 9-18: This illustration depicts the life cycle of different species of
Cryptosporidium, the causal agents of cryptosporidiosis.

32. Amebiasis
• Entamoeba histolytica is a parasitic protozoan, estimated
to infect about 50 million people worldwide annually
• Usually transmitted by the fecal-oral route, but it can also
be transmitted indirectly through contact with dirty hands
or objects (food) as well as by anal-oral contact
• Can create intestinal and extraintestinal problems

33. Giardiasis
• Giardia lamblia is a flagellated protozoan parasite that
colonizes and reproduces in the small intestine Infection
can occur through ingestion of dormant microbial cysts in
contaminated water, food, or by the fecal-oral route
• Symptoms include loss of appetite,
diarrhea, hematuria, loose or watery
stool, stomach cramps, nausea,
bloating, excessive gas, and burping
• The cyst can survive for weeks to
months in cold water

34. Cyclosporiasis
• Caused by protozoan Cyclospora cayetanensis, a
pathogen transmitted by feces or feces-contaminated
fresh produce and water.
• After a one-week incubation the person begins to
experience severe watery diarrhea, bloating, fever,
stomach cramps, and muscle aches.
• Emerging because traditional anti-protozan drugs are not
sufficient

35. Bacterial Enteropathogens
• Escherichia coli
o A bacterial infection that may lead to hemorrhagic diarrhea, and
to kidney failure.
o Transmission is via the fecal-oral route, and most illness has
been through undercooked, contaminated ground beef or ground
pork being eaten.
• Vibrio cholerae
o Bacterium that causes Cholera
o Most commonly acquired from drinking water in which V.
cholerae is found naturally or into which it has been introduced
from the feces of an infected person.
o Pandemic that is more prevalent in Asia, Africa, and Latin
America
o Untreated, has a 50% fatality rate.

36. Viral Pathogens
• Over 100 kinds of viruses are found in human stools and
pose a potential for transmission
• Many are resistant to environmental conditions and
traditional sewage treatment processes
• Noroviruses are the most common cause of viral
gastroenteritis in humans, and affect people of all ages
o Transmitted by fecal-contaminated food or water; by person-to-
person contact; and via aerosolization of the virus and
subsequent contamination of surfaces
• Viral Hepatitis A and E can be spread via the fecal-oral
route by contaminated food and water
o Can be mistaken for the flu; Symptoms usually last less than 2
months, although some people can be ill for as long as 6 months

37. Guinea Worm
• A nodular dermatosis produced by the development of a
Dracunculus parasite in the subcutaneous tissue of
mammals
• The parasite enters a host by way of host ingestion of
stagnant water contaminated with guinea worm larvae.
• Approximately one year later, the disease presents with
a painful, burning sensation as the female worm (3 to 6 ft
in length) forms a blister, usually on the lower limb.
• Once endemic in over 20 countries in Asia and Africa,
only four remaining endemic nations remain in Africa:
Sudan, Chad, Mali and Ethiopia

38. Guinea Worm
Click on image to view a video on eradicating this disease

39. Legionnaires’ Disease
• Over 90% of legionellosis cases are caused by
Legionella pneumophila, a ubiquitous aquatic organism
that thrives in temperatures between 25 and 45 °C (77
and 113 °F)
• Legionnaires' disease acquired its name in July 1976
when an outbreak of pneumonia occurred among people
attending a convention of the American Legion at the
Bellevue-Stratford Hotel in Philadelphia.
• Can grow in domestic water systems, cooling systems,
and stagnant water
o Can be aerosolized

40. Chemicals in the H2O Supply
• Some chemicals that have been reported to cause
adverse health effects:
o Aluminum
o Arsenic
o Disinfection by-products
o Fluoride
o Lead
o Pesticides
o Radon
• Reported health effects have included:
o Various cancers
o Adverse reproductive outcomes
o Cardiovascular disease
o Neurological disease

41. Examples
• Nitrates from fertilizers
o Prevents hemoglobin from transporting oxygen
o More susceptible to infants, elderly, and ill
o Do not boil water with nitrates
• Lead
o Household plumbing supply, natural occurrence, paint waste
o Action level is .015 mg per liter
• Exposure in kids result in delays in physical and mental development, along
with slight deficits in attention span and learning abilities.
• Adults who drink this water over many years could develop kidney problems
or high blood pressure.

42. Chemicals in the H2O Supply
• Pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs)
represent another source of water contamination.
• They are washed off or excreted from the body.
• Examples include: analgesics, oral contraceptive agents,
drugs for lowering cholesterol, and anticonvulsants.
• MSNBC Report on H20

43. Water Disinfection Byproducts
(DBPs)
• Chemicals used to disinfect water include chlorine,
chloramines, chlorine dioxide, and ozone.
• These chemicals are associated with by-products of
chlorination called DBPs.
• Chlorine is associated with trihalomethanes (THMs),
which are among the most common and widely
measured DBPs.
• Associated with frequency of late adverse pregnancy
outcomes
o Congenital anomalies
o Other birth defects
o Stillbirths
o Neonatal deaths

44. Beach and Coastal Pollution
• The approximately 1 billion people who live near coastal
areas cause great stress on coastal ecosystems.
• Coastal areas are threatened by over-development, poor
planning, and economic expansion.
Figure 9-24: Beach closing sign. With increasing
levels of pollution in some areas, beach closings
have become more frequent.
• World’s coastal regions are
the recipients of billions of
gallons of treated and
untreated wastewater.

45. Effects of Beach and
Coastal Pollution
• Excessive amounts of nutrients that enter the
oceans may cause harmful blooms of algae,
resulting in reduced levels of oxygen in the
water (anoxic conditions).
• An anoxic ocean environment can bring about
fish kills and damage other forms of ocean life.
• Urban runoff and sewage contamination of the
ocean expose swimmers to waterborne
diseases.

47. Beach and
Coastal Pollution
• The EPA conducts an ongoing survey of beaches as
authorized by the Beaches Environmental Assessment
and Coastal Health Act (BEACH Act of 2000.)
• By far, the most frequent cause of beach closings was
elevated bacteria levels that exceeded water quality
standards.

48. Petroleum Spills
• Oil spills from tankers and off-shore drilling platforms can
have a devastating impact on the shoreline, aquatic life,
mammals, and birds.
o On March 24, 1989, the tanker
Exxon Valdez ran aground in
Alaska and caused the largest
oil spill in U.S. waters as of that
time.
o On April 20, 2010, the
Deepwater Horizon oil platform
exploded, causing history’s
largest accidental marine oil
spill as of mid-2010.

49. Consumption and
Conservation
• 50 to 70% of residential water is used for outdoor
activities
• Average single family water use is around 70-90 gallons
per day
o 107,000 per year
• On average use almost 2X as much water as other
developed countries
o European household use about 53 gal/day
o Sub-Saharan about 3-5 gal/day

51. Consumption and
Conservation
• Water utility conservation
o Temporary cutbacks
• Reduction of system-wide operating pressure
• Water use bans and restrictions
o Permanent conservation
• Public education
• Subsidizing use of flow control appliances, toilets, etc
• Building codes that require water-efficient fixtures, etc
• Leak detection surveys and repair

52. Consumption and
Conservation
• How can I conserve?
o Stop leaks
o Replace old toilets
o Replace old clothes washers with EPA Energy Star models
o Plant the kind of garden that requires less water
o Install water capturing devices to irrigate lawn, etc
o Turn it off when not in use