The first autopilot was developed in 1912 by Sperry Corporation. It connected gyroscopic instruments to aircraft controls, allowing planes to fly straight and level without constant pilot input. In 1914, Lawrence Sperry demonstrated the autopilot by flying with his hands away from the controls. Autopilots greatly reduced pilot workload on long flights and helped enable transoceanic flights. Modern autopilots are computer controlled and can fly planes through all phases of flight except taxiing, with some able to perform automatic landings. They integrate with inertial guidance and radio navigation to fly precision routes while minimizing errors over long durations.
Laminar flow over backward-facing step (2D) simulationHayderJawadKadhim
Is to simulate a laminar flow over a backward-facing step and
Give some insight into the influence of the grid density and
Order of the spatial discretization.
CALIBRATION is a documented comparison of the measurement device to be calibrated against a traceable reference standard or device
Need of calibration:
Making sure that instrument making consistent measurement and displaying the correct readings
Establishing the instruments reliability
Maintaining adherence to industry standards , govt regulations , quality assurance norms like current good manufacturing practice
Determining the precision , deviation , and reliability of measurements
Wind tunnels are large tubes with air blowing through them
Need of wind tunnel:
tunnels are used to replicate the actions of an object flying through the air or moving along the ground
researchers use wind tunnels to learn more about how aircraft will fly
the wind tunnel moves air around an object making it seem as if the object is really flying
Aircraft Structures for Engineering Students 5th Edition Megson Solutions ManualRigeler
Full donwload : http://alibabadownload.com/product/aircraft-structures-for-engineering-students-5th-edition-megson-solutions-manual/ Aircraft Structures for Engineering Students 5th Edition Megson Solutions Manual
Laminar flow over backward-facing step (2D) simulationHayderJawadKadhim
Is to simulate a laminar flow over a backward-facing step and
Give some insight into the influence of the grid density and
Order of the spatial discretization.
CALIBRATION is a documented comparison of the measurement device to be calibrated against a traceable reference standard or device
Need of calibration:
Making sure that instrument making consistent measurement and displaying the correct readings
Establishing the instruments reliability
Maintaining adherence to industry standards , govt regulations , quality assurance norms like current good manufacturing practice
Determining the precision , deviation , and reliability of measurements
Wind tunnels are large tubes with air blowing through them
Need of wind tunnel:
tunnels are used to replicate the actions of an object flying through the air or moving along the ground
researchers use wind tunnels to learn more about how aircraft will fly
the wind tunnel moves air around an object making it seem as if the object is really flying
Aircraft Structures for Engineering Students 5th Edition Megson Solutions ManualRigeler
Full donwload : http://alibabadownload.com/product/aircraft-structures-for-engineering-students-5th-edition-megson-solutions-manual/ Aircraft Structures for Engineering Students 5th Edition Megson Solutions Manual
This presentation is about the Fly-By-Wire technology adopted in aircraft systems for greater maneuverability. The mechanical and electronics aspects of this technology is briefed in this presentation.
Design Methods for Large Cut-outs in Composite Fuselage StructuresHassan Ziad Jishi
Master Thesis defense presentation on September 5th, 2007.
The goal of this project is to develop a preliminary design method of reinforcement around large cut-out in the composite fuselage and perform preliminary sizing of reinforcement around a transport plug door cut-out in a composite fuselage.
A Technical Study and Industrial Report on the various Electrical and Communication Systems used in choppers manufactured and Overhauled by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited.
Pressure Distribution on an Airfoil
The team conducted the experiment to determine the effects of pressure distribution on lift and pitching moment and the behavior of stall for laminar and turbulent boundary layers in the USNA Closed-Circuit Wing Tunnel (CCWT) with an NACA 65-012 airfoil at a Reynolds number of 1,000,000. The airfoil was tested in a clean configuration at angles of attack of 0, 5, 8, 10, and 12 degrees. Tape added to the leading edge tripped the boundary layer, and pressure distributions were taken at 8, 10, and 12 degrees angle of attack. Experimental results showed a suction peak at less than 1% of chord, providing a beneficial test article for contrast between smooth and laminar boundary layer behavior at the stall condition. The maximum lift coefficient for the clean airfoil was 0.9 at 10 degrees angle of attack, and tripped airfoil reached a maximum lift coefficient of 1.03 at 12 degrees angle of attack, a 14% increase. These data were 10% lower than the empirical airfoil data found in Theory of Wing Sections from Abbott and von Doenhoff. Pitching moment coefficient about the quarter chord remained near zero below stall as expected for a symmetrical airfoil, but rapidly became negative after stall for experimental and empirical data. The airfoil exhibited a leading edge stall for both laminar and turbulent boundary layers.
Matlab codes for Sizing and Calculating the Aircraft Stability & PerformanceAhmed Momtaz Hosny, PhD
Matlab codes for Sizing and Calculating the Aircraft Stability & Performance, with the knowledge of the DATCOM Results. (Simple and rapid way to analyze and evaluate the aircraft performance)
ATA Spec 2300, implementation perspectives. Who, why, what, how… When? Bruno ...Bruno Chatel
ATA e-Business FORUM 2014, Presentation Proposal, San Antonio, Texas, Bruno Chatel, Chadocs
From the version 2013.1, the ATA Spec 2300 can be considered as ready for implementation. This presentation details the implementation perspectives of the specification in the whole process of Flight Operations data management, from the OEM data producer to the operators’ needs and uses (customization and final pilot uses). It highlights the different possible scenarios to implement the specification, with the triggers, functional areas and the possible approaches, taking into account existing systems and constraints.
After a very short review of the status of ATA Spec 2300 (functional perimeter: Flight Operations data exchange, version 2013.1 all flight crew manuals, ready to implement), the presentation describes the global functional process of Flight Operations data management and identifies where ATA Spec 2300 is designed to be used. It also highlights the expected value-added in the process. OEMs are data producers, providing data to operators who need to customize and publish the flight ops manuals to final users (including on-board/on-ground e-viewer applications)..
Based on this global view, several opportunities to implement systems based on ATA Spec 2300 are studied:
o OEM: producing and delivering ATA Spec 2300 compliant data.
Based on different OEM approaches and taking into account the existing constraints (systems, programs, etc.), several questions are discussed: the triggers for OEM to implement such systems, the possible levels of support of the specification features, and, at a high level, the impacts on the current data production process.
o Operators/airlines: customizing OEM data, producing its own data, publishing in different environments (paper, electronic viewers, on board, on ground).
As an airline would take advantage of receiving ATA 2300 compliant data from OEMs when it will be produced, in the meantime an anticipated approach may be considered. The perspective for an airline to develop a new system to manage its flight operations data needs to consider the advantage of using ATA Spec 2300, a standard business-focused data format, as the core data model of the system and as the internal exchange data format between modules (content management, publishing engines, electronic consultation tools). The advantages and difficulties are discussed with the general principles of using ATA 2300 compliant features at different levels of the airline process.
Finally, for any scenario, the real remaining question is: when?
This presentation is about the Fly-By-Wire technology adopted in aircraft systems for greater maneuverability. The mechanical and electronics aspects of this technology is briefed in this presentation.
Design Methods for Large Cut-outs in Composite Fuselage StructuresHassan Ziad Jishi
Master Thesis defense presentation on September 5th, 2007.
The goal of this project is to develop a preliminary design method of reinforcement around large cut-out in the composite fuselage and perform preliminary sizing of reinforcement around a transport plug door cut-out in a composite fuselage.
A Technical Study and Industrial Report on the various Electrical and Communication Systems used in choppers manufactured and Overhauled by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited.
Pressure Distribution on an Airfoil
The team conducted the experiment to determine the effects of pressure distribution on lift and pitching moment and the behavior of stall for laminar and turbulent boundary layers in the USNA Closed-Circuit Wing Tunnel (CCWT) with an NACA 65-012 airfoil at a Reynolds number of 1,000,000. The airfoil was tested in a clean configuration at angles of attack of 0, 5, 8, 10, and 12 degrees. Tape added to the leading edge tripped the boundary layer, and pressure distributions were taken at 8, 10, and 12 degrees angle of attack. Experimental results showed a suction peak at less than 1% of chord, providing a beneficial test article for contrast between smooth and laminar boundary layer behavior at the stall condition. The maximum lift coefficient for the clean airfoil was 0.9 at 10 degrees angle of attack, and tripped airfoil reached a maximum lift coefficient of 1.03 at 12 degrees angle of attack, a 14% increase. These data were 10% lower than the empirical airfoil data found in Theory of Wing Sections from Abbott and von Doenhoff. Pitching moment coefficient about the quarter chord remained near zero below stall as expected for a symmetrical airfoil, but rapidly became negative after stall for experimental and empirical data. The airfoil exhibited a leading edge stall for both laminar and turbulent boundary layers.
Matlab codes for Sizing and Calculating the Aircraft Stability & PerformanceAhmed Momtaz Hosny, PhD
Matlab codes for Sizing and Calculating the Aircraft Stability & Performance, with the knowledge of the DATCOM Results. (Simple and rapid way to analyze and evaluate the aircraft performance)
ATA Spec 2300, implementation perspectives. Who, why, what, how… When? Bruno ...Bruno Chatel
ATA e-Business FORUM 2014, Presentation Proposal, San Antonio, Texas, Bruno Chatel, Chadocs
From the version 2013.1, the ATA Spec 2300 can be considered as ready for implementation. This presentation details the implementation perspectives of the specification in the whole process of Flight Operations data management, from the OEM data producer to the operators’ needs and uses (customization and final pilot uses). It highlights the different possible scenarios to implement the specification, with the triggers, functional areas and the possible approaches, taking into account existing systems and constraints.
After a very short review of the status of ATA Spec 2300 (functional perimeter: Flight Operations data exchange, version 2013.1 all flight crew manuals, ready to implement), the presentation describes the global functional process of Flight Operations data management and identifies where ATA Spec 2300 is designed to be used. It also highlights the expected value-added in the process. OEMs are data producers, providing data to operators who need to customize and publish the flight ops manuals to final users (including on-board/on-ground e-viewer applications)..
Based on this global view, several opportunities to implement systems based on ATA Spec 2300 are studied:
o OEM: producing and delivering ATA Spec 2300 compliant data.
Based on different OEM approaches and taking into account the existing constraints (systems, programs, etc.), several questions are discussed: the triggers for OEM to implement such systems, the possible levels of support of the specification features, and, at a high level, the impacts on the current data production process.
o Operators/airlines: customizing OEM data, producing its own data, publishing in different environments (paper, electronic viewers, on board, on ground).
As an airline would take advantage of receiving ATA 2300 compliant data from OEMs when it will be produced, in the meantime an anticipated approach may be considered. The perspective for an airline to develop a new system to manage its flight operations data needs to consider the advantage of using ATA Spec 2300, a standard business-focused data format, as the core data model of the system and as the internal exchange data format between modules (content management, publishing engines, electronic consultation tools). The advantages and difficulties are discussed with the general principles of using ATA 2300 compliant features at different levels of the airline process.
Finally, for any scenario, the real remaining question is: when?
Development of autopilot for micro aerial vehicle using stm32 microcontrollereSAT Journals
Abstract
The performance of an autopilot controller has been an issue for industries over these days as they make use of less effective
microcontroller. This limitation can be overcome by using FreeRTOS based implementation logic and by replacing less effective
microcontroller with STM32 microcontroller. The prime objective of this paper is the development of FreeRTOS based autopilot
controller using STM32.this autopilot controller comprises of Global Positioning System (GPS), Sensor Suite, external flash for
data logging, Servo motor to control aileron, rudder and elevator action and MAVLink based transceiver in order to communicate
between Micro Aerial Vehicle (MAV) and Ground Control station (GCS).this system focuses not only on device monitoring but
also controlling it. The GCS comprises of Mission Planer software which is used to monitor the data received from MAV and can
also control the flight mode from it. The Radio Frequency (RF) joystick is used for MAV’s flight control.
Key Words: Autopilot controller, Free Real time operating system (FreeRTOS), STM32, GPS, MAVLink, MAV, GCS,
Mission Planer, RF.etc…….
Abstract— Execution of engineering projects are tracked against critical metrics such as safety, quality,
delivery cost and inventory. Earned value is a key parameter that helps in assessing delivery (schedule) and cost.
Static shows that 70% of projects are over budget behind schedule, 52% of all projects finish at 189% of their
initial budget and some, after huge investments of time and money, are simply never completed. The rest of this
paper gives a perspective on monitoring project health by Earned value analysis.
This 3-day, classroom and practical instructional program provides individuals or teams entering the unmanned aircraft system (UAS) market with the need to 'hit the ground running'. Delegates will gain a working knowledge of UAS system classification, payloads, sensors, communications and data links. You will learn the UAS weapon design process and UAS system design components. The principles of mission planning systems and human factors design considerations are described. The critical issue of integrating UAS in the NAS is addressed in detail along with major considerations. Multiple roadmaps from all services are used to explain UAS future missions.
Learn why you need to resister your drone with the FAA in order to fly in the United States. This covers policies that affect hobbyist and commercial flyers.
How to Become a Thought Leader in Your NicheLeslie Samuel
Are bloggers thought leaders? Here are some tips on how you can become one. Provide great value, put awesome content out there on a regular basis, and help others.
A PPT material about the first attempts to fly and the history of aviation made by a student involved in the Comenius multilateral partnership “From Icarus to Interplanetary Travels”
Aviation basic aviation history one perspective for Air Force Cadetsoldcramo2009
This is a look at aviation history with a differed perspective from the syllabus. I am adding this file for individual use rather than classroom. I've included the history that I believe is relevant
A PPT material about the first attempts to fly and the history of aviation made by a student involved in the Comenius multilateral partnership “From Icarus to Interplanetary Travels”
1. HISTORY OF AUTOPILOT
FIRST AUTHOR
Gangadhar B Kallur
E407386-AERO FC COE
Abstract - This paper gives overall history of
Autopilot. In the early days of aviation, aircraft
required the continuous attention of a pilot in
order to fly safely. As aircraft range increased
allowing flights duration of many hours, the
constant attention of the pilot led to serious
fatigue. An autopilot is designed to perform
some of the tasks of the pilot.
INTRODUCTION
The first aircraft autopilot was developed
by Sperry Corporation in 1912. The
autopilot connected a ‘gyroscopic
heading indicator’ and ‘attitude indicator’
to hydraulically operated elevators and
rudder. (ailerons were not connected as
wing dihedral was counted upon to
produce the necessary roll stability.) It
permitted the aircraft to fly straight and
level on a compass course without a
pilot's attention, greatly reducing the
pilot's workload.
Lawrence Sperry (the son of famous
inventor Elmer Sperry) demonstrated it
two years later in 1914. At an aviation
safety contest held in Paris, Lawrence
Sperry demonstrated the credibility of the
invention were he showed the flying of
aircraft with his hands away from the
controls and visible to onlookers of the
contest. This autopilot system was also
capable of performing take-off and
landing. The French military command
showed immediate interest in the
autopilot system. Wiley Post used a
Sperry autopilot system to fly alone
around the world in less than eight days
in 1933. Further developments of the
autopilot were performed, such as
improved control algorithms and
hydraulic servomechanisms. Also,
inclusion of additional instrumentation
such as the radio-navigation aids made it
possible to fly during night and in bad
weather.
In 1947 a US Air Force C-53 made a
transatlantic flight, including takeoff and
landing, completely under the control of
an autopilot.
In the early 1920s, the Standard Oil
tanker J.A Moffet became the first ship to
use an autopilot.
Famous inventor and engineer Elmer
Sperry patented the gyrocompass in 1908,
but it was his son, Lawrence Burst
Sperry, who first flight-tested such a
device in an aircraft. The younger
Sperry's autopilot used four gyroscopes to
stabilize the airplane and led to many
flying firsts, including the first night
flight in the history of aviation.
Some of the inventions in the later years:
1908 - Anschuts Gyro Compass
1911 - Sperry Gyro Compass
1912 - First aircraft autopilot was
developed by Sperry Corporation. The
demonstration of which was done by
Lawrence Sperry in later two years in
1914 and proved the credibility of
the invention by flying the aircraft with
his hands away from the controls and
visible to onlookers.
The autopilot connected a gyroscopic
Heading indicator and attitude indicator
to hydraulically operated elevators and
rudder (ailerons were not connected as
wing dihedral was counted upon to
produce the necessary roll stability.) It
permitted the aircraft to fly straight and
level on a compass course without a
pilot's attention, greatly reducing the
pilot's workload.
In December, 1931 - For the first time in
history, a mechanical autopilot is licensed
to fly passengers and airmail. The
Department of Commerce permits it to
serve as copilot of a large Condor 18
passenger plane of Eastern Air Transport
on the New York - Washington route.
The device incorporates a Sperry
gyroscope and operates all the flight
controls of the plane except during take
offs and landings. The hope is that the
device will relieve human pilots of the
strain on long flights or flying in bad
weather.
In 1932, the Sperry Gyroscope Company
developed the automatic pilot that Wiley
2. Post would use in his first solo flight
around the world.
In 1978, the following autopilots were
introduced: Amerogen (Model Reference
Autopilot), Ohtsu (AR Autopilot),
Kallstrom (Self Tuning Autopilot).
The Aircraft and Autopilot Timeline
Figure 1: Autopilot Timeline
The Figure 1. describes the origin and
development of the aircraft autopilot life cycle
with respect to the timelines (1900-2010).
Below is the more description regarding the life
cycle of autopilot:
• In 1267, english philosopher Roger Bacon
describes flying machines in his Opus Majus.
• In 1505, lonardo da Vinci presents in his
Codex on the Flight of Birds plans for flying
machines, helicopters and light hang gliders.
• In 1670, francesco Lana de Terzi shows a
flying ship in his book Prodomo.
• In 1709, Bartolomeu Laurenço de Gusmão
demonstrates hot air balloons.
• In 1783, frenchman inventor Jacques Charles
makes the first flight with a hydrogen
balloon. Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier and
François Laurent make the first Montgolfier
hot-air balloon flight.
• In 1785, frenchman Jean-Pierre Blanchard
and American John Jeffries cross the English
Channel in a balloon.
• In 1797, André Jacques Garnerin jumps with
a parachute from a balloon.
• In 1843, George Cayley and William Samuel
Henson design an aerial carriage.
• In 1852, Frenchman Henri Giffard builds the
first steam balloon.
• In 1870, Alphonse Pénaud develops the
rubber band helicopter toy.
• In 1891, German engineer Otto Lilienthal
studies the aerodynamic effects of wing
shapes.
• In 1896, Samuel Langley launches his first
steam engine-powered unmanned aircraft.
• In 1901, Brazilian Santos-Dumont flies
around the Eiffel tower in Paris.
• In 1903, Wilbur and Orville Wright fly a
man-controlled airplane.
• In 1904, German professor of mechanics
Ludwig Prandtl researches the aerodynamics
of an aircraft wing.
• In 1905, The Flyer III is built by the Wright
brothers.
• In 1908, first army pilots. First passenger
flight. First female airplane passenger.
• In 1909, Eugène Lefèbvre becomes the first
pilot of a powered airplane to be killed in
flight. French pilot Louis Bleriot crosses for
the first time the English Channel. First
rotary-winged aircraft. First woman pilot
American Geneve Shaffer.
• In 1910, Walter Brookins sets an altitude
record with 6,234 feet.
• In 1911, U.S. Army military flight school is
founded. Retractable landing gear is
invented.
• In 1913, First aerial advertising aka sky
writing.
• In 1914, automatic pilot principle
discovered, later in airplane timeline 2 this
invention will be improved.
• In 1916, altitude record of 16,072 feet was
set. The Sperry Aerial Torpedo tests were the
first guided missile program in this country.
• In 1916, Lawrence Sperry, developer of the
autopilot, formed a new company and set up
flying. Nicknamed Bug, the aerial torpedo
was launched from a dolly running down a
track pointed precisely in the direction of
the target.
• In 1917, Aircraft Manufacturers association
is established. German mechanics scientist
Hugo Junkers creates Junkers J4.
• In 1919, first plane crossing the Atlantic
Ocean nonstop, from Newfoundland to
Ireland.
• In 1921, first refueling in the air aerial. The
pressurized cabin airplane is used.
• In 1924, an airplane flies for the first time
over the North Pole.
• In 1927, Charles Lindbergh makes the first
solo non-stop trans-Atlantic flight from New
York to Paris in the Spirit of St Louis. This
event is a historical milestone.
3. • In 1928, the electromechanical flight
simulator is invented. First woman crosses
the Atlantic Ocean by air.
• In 1929, an airplane flies for the first time
over the South Pole. Endurance record with a
Fokker C-2A 172, the craft fklieshours, 176
hours 321 minutes and 2 seconds non-stop.
• In 1930, British mechanic Frank Whittle
creates the jet engine.
• In 1931, Glider flight with a rocket powered
engine.
• In 1932, Non-stop transatlantic solo flight by
Amelia Earhart in a Lockheed Vega 5B from
Los Angeles to Newark.
• In 1933, The Boeing 247, the Douglas RD-2
Dolphin presidential air plane, and the
Douglas DC-1 are introduced.
• In 1935, Douglas DC-3 passenger airliner
presented.
• In 1937, Jet engines are improved.
• In 1938, Lockheed 14 sets a global speed
record in 3 days, 19 hours and 8 minutes.
• In 1939, Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress. Many
air battles during World War II. Russian-born
Igor Sikorsky creates the US Army VS-300
single main rotor helicopter. Germany
contructs the Heinkel 178 fighter.
• In 1940, The autopilot is improved.
• In 1944, Northrop MX-334 rocket driven
airplane was introduced. Developed an
electronic autopilot a wartime improvement
of the automatic pilot.
• In 1946, Douglas XB-43 jet bomber.
• In 1947, The Bell X-1 flies faster than
sound.
• In 1950, Boeing B-52 bomber developed.
• In 1951, Kaman K-225 gas-turbine
helicopter and the Boeing's B-47 bomber are
built.
• In 1952, British BOAC presents the De
Havilland Comet, the first of a series in
airplane timeline. American Richard
Whitcomb discovers the area rule for
designing aircrafts.
• In 1953, Bell X-1A and Douglas D-558-2 fly
Mach 2.
• In 1954, Kaman HTK-1 twin-turbine
helicopter presented.
• In 1957, Dwight D Eisenhower from now on
uses a helicopter, the Bell H-13J. Canadian
pilot Jacqueline Cochran sets the most speed,
altitude and distance records ever in the
airplane timeline history.
• In 1958, Pan American opens its
international commercial service with a
Boeing 707-121.
• In 1959, McDonnell XF-4H-1 sets a new
altitude record of 98,556 feet.
• In 1961, McDonnell XF-4H-1 sets a new
speed record of 16,063 miles per hour.
• In 1964, Geraldine Mock makes the first
female Solo flight around the world.
• In 1965, Lockheed A-12/SR-71 reaches
Mach 3.
• In 1969, Boeing 747 presented.
• In 1975, CESSNA 150 PLANE SURE
FLYERS WITH AUTO PILOT Learn the
thrills of model flying quickly. This Cessna
has an automatic pilot that can be switched
on to control this model airplane through
takeoff flight and landing.
• In 1979, Use of the autopilot enables the
pilot to spend more time on other necessary
aspects of the flight process. When the
weather is bad the autopilot can take on the
otherwise tiring job of maintaining a smooth
ride Other than a lighted switch on the
control panel the autopilot is quite.
• In 1990, Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird sets a
transcontinental speed record of Mach 28 or
2, 12405 miles per hour.
• In 1990, Lockheed creates the Stealth F-117
fighter.
• In 1994, Boeing 777-200.
• In 1995, Boeing 777.
• In 1996, American and Russian aerospace
companies develop the second-generation
supersonic jetliner.
• In 2000, Concorde crash in Paris.
• In 2005, Steve Fossett makes a non-stop
non-refueled solo flight around the world.
• In 2007, Garmin's GHP 10 Marine Autopilot
is a new generation of the TR-1 Gladiator
autopilot which has become very popular in
US. Garmin acquired the assets of
Nautamatic Marine Systems, developer of the
TR-1, in March 2007. This new system for
hydraulically-steered boats will feature
Shadow Drive, a patented capability that
automatically disengages the autopilot if the
helm is turned, allowing for quick manual
manoeuvres.
4. • In 2008, A Singapore-bound Qantas jet
carrying 277 passengers was forced to turn
back to the west-coast city of Perth early on
December 27 2008, after the aircraft's auto
pilot disconnected. The plane was about 260
nautical miles (416 kilometers) north-west of
Perth when the malfunction occurred,
disrupting the supply of key information to
flight control computers.
Modern autopilots:
An autopilot is a mechanical,
electrical, or hydraulic system used to
guide a vehicle without assistance from a
human being. An autopilot can refer
specifically to aircraft, self-steering gear
for boats, or auto guidance of space craft
and missiles. The autopilot of an
aircraft is sometimes referred to as
"George."
Figure 2: Autopilot panel
Not all of the passenger aircraft
flying today have an autopilot system.
Older and smaller general aviation
aircraft especially are still hand-flown,
while small airliners with fewer than
twenty seats may also be without an
autopilot as they are used on short-
duration flights with two pilots. The
installation of autopilots in aircraft with
more than twenty seats is generally made
mandatory by international aviation
regulations.
There are three levels of control in
autopilots for smaller aircraft.
1. A single-axis autopilot controls an
aircraft in the roll axis only; such
autopilots are also known colloquially as
"wing levelers", reflecting their
limitations.
2. A two-axis autopilot controls an aircraft
in the pitch axis as well as roll, and may
be little more than a "wing leveler" with
limited pitch-oscillation-correcting
ability; or it may receive inputs from on-
board radio navigation systems to provide
true automatic flight guidance once the
aircraft has taken off until shortly before
landing; or its capabilities may lie
somewhere between these two extremes.
3. A three-axis autopilot adds control in the
yaw axis and is not required in many
small aircraft.
Autopilots in modern complex aircraft are
three-axis and generally divide a flight
into taxi, takeoff, ascent, level, descent,
approach and landing phases. Autopilot
automates all of these flight phases
except the taxiing. An autopilot-
controlled landing on a runway and
controlling the aircraft on rollout (i.e.
keeping it on the center of the runway) is
known as a CAT IIIb landing or Auto
land, available on many major airports
runways today, especially at airports
subject to adverse weather phenomena
such as fog.
Landing, rollout and taxi control to the
aircraft parking position is known as
CAT IIIc. This is not used to date but
may be used in the future. An autopilot is
often an integral component of a Flight
Management System.
Modern autopilots use computer software
to control the aircraft. The software reads
the aircraft's current position, and
controls a Flight Control System to guide
the aircraft. In such a system, besides
classic flight controls, many autopilots
incorporate thrust control capabilities that
can control throttles to optimize the air-
speed, and move fuel to different tanks to
balance the aircraft in an optimal attitude
in the air. Although autopilots handle new
or dangerous situations inflexibly, they
generally fly an aircraft with a lower fuel-
consumption than a human pilot.
The autopilot in a modern large aircraft typically
reads its position and the aircraft's attitude from
an inertial guidance system. Inertial guidance
systems accumulate errors over time. They will
incorporate error reduction systems such as the
carousel system that rotates once a minute so that
any errors are dissipated in different directions
and have an overall nulling effect. Error in
gyroscopes is known as drift. This is due to
physical properties within the system, either it is
mechanical or laser guided, that corrupt
positional data. The disagreements between the
5. two are resolved with digital signal processing,
most often a six-dimensional Kalman filter. The
six dimensions are usually roll, pitch, yaw,
altitude, latitude and longitude. Aircraft may fly
routes that have a required performance factor.
Therefore the amount of error or actual
performance factor must be monitored in order to
fly those particular routes. The longer the flight
the more error accumulates within the system.
Radio aids such as DME and GPS may be used
to correct the aircraft position
CONCLUSION
We understand the timeline of aircrafts and
origin of Autopilot and Detailed life cycle of
autopilot.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to acknowledge my gratitude for
presenting this paper and thank all the Tejasvi
Nagananda and My Wife Madhu.
REFERENCES
[1] Millard, A (2001). DK Big Book of
Airplanes.
Hansen, O S (2003). Military Aircraft of World
War I.
[2] Polmar, P (2006). A History of Carrier
Aviation and Its Influence on World Events,
Volume 1 1909-1945.
[3] Endres, G, Green, W, Swanborough, G,
Mowinski, J (1998).
[4] Modern Commercial Aircraft: A Revised and
Updated Illustrated Directory of the World's
Civil Airliners, Aircraft Technology and
Airlines.
[5] Federal Aviation Administration (2007).
Airplane Flying Handbook.
Wilson, S (1999). Airliners of the World.
[6] Blatner, D (2005). Everything You've Ever
Wondered About Flying On Airplanes.
[7] Kinert, R (1969). Racing Planes and Air
Races. A Complete History 1909-1967.
[8] Huntington, R (1989). Thompson Trophy
Racers. The Pilots and Planes of America's Air
Racing Glory Days 1929-1949.
[9] Gething, M and Endres, G (2007). Jane's
Aircraft Recognition Guide Fifth Edition. Jane's
Recognition Guides.
[10] Polmar, N (2008) Aircraft Carriers. History
of Carrier Aviation and Its Influence on World
Events: Vol. II, 1946-2006.
Braulick, C (2006). U.S. Air Force Spy Planes.
[11] Winchester, J (2006). The Encyclopedia of
Modern Aircraft: From Civilian Airliners to
Military Superfighters.
[12] Treager, I E (1995). Aircraft Gas Turbine
Engine Technology.
[13] Anderson, J (1999). Aircraft Performance
and Design. McGraw-Hill International Editions.
[14] Polmar, N (2008). Aircraft Carriers: A
History of Carrier Aviation and Its Influence on
World Events: Volume II, 1946 - 2006.
[15] Baker, A A, Dutton, S and Kelly, D (2004).
Composite Materials for Aircraft Structures.
Aiaa Education Series.
[16] Davies, P and Laurier, J (2005). USAF F-4
Phantom II MiG Killers 1972 - 1973 Combat
Aircraft.
[17] Schiff, B (2007). Dream Aircraft. The Most
Fascinating Airplanes I've Ever Flown.
[18] Meyer, I (2007). Luftwaffe Advanced
Aircraft Projects to 1945: Volume 1. Fighters &
Ground-Attack Aircraft, Arado to Junkers.
Luftwaffe Advanced Projects.
[19] Smith, Z (2005). Understanding Aircraft
Composite Construction, Second
Edition.bibliography.
[19] William Scheck (28 March 2010). "The
Development of the Autopilot". Aviation History
Magazine. http://www.century-of-
flight.freeola.com/Aviation%20history/evolution
%20of%20technology/autopilot.htm. Retrieved
14 July 2010.
[20] Stevens, Brian; Lewis, Frank (1992).
Aircraft Control and Simulation. New York:
Wiley. ISBN 0471613975.
[21] "Rockwell Collins AFDS-770 Autopilot
Flight Director System". Rockwell Collins.
Wednesday, 03 February 2010.
http://www.rockwellcollins.com/ecat/at/AFDS-
770.html. Retrieved 14 July 2010.
[22] Alan Parekh (April 14, 2008). "Autopilot RC
Plane". Hacked Gadgets.
http://hackedgadgets.com/2008/04/14/autopilot-
rc-plane/. Retrieved 14 July 2010