What is a Charter ? Charter is a record of PublicAct, delegating rights &privileges to recipients (in form of public declaration& not addressed to recipient, but notified to public).
Meaning of the doctrine:
In reality it is neither a rule or law
It is a doctrine of political morality that aims at ensuring the correct balance of rights and powers between individuals and the state
Adherence to the doctrine requires more than to govern according to the law since this is not necessarily equivalent to govern under the law
“Only in a country where the rule of law means more than formal, legal validity will subjects enjoy real protection from official tyranny and abuse” Mathews
he Specific Relief Act, 1963 is an Act of the Parliament of India which provides remedies for persons whose civil or contractual rights have been violated. It replaced an earlier Act of 1877. The following kinds of remedies may be granted by a court under the provisions of the Specific Relief Act:
Recovery of possession of property
Specific performance of contracts
Rectification of instruments
Rescission of contracts
Cancellation of Instruments
Declaratory decrees
Injunction
The slides discuss in detail the concept of Restitution of Conjugal Rights in Hindu, Muslim, Christian, and Parsi laws. Useful for Law Students and professionals.
LLB LAW NOTES ON JURISPRUDENCE
FREE AFFIDAVITS AND NOTICES FORMATS
FREE AGREEMENTS AND CONTRACTS FORMATS
FREE LLB LAW NOTES
FREE CA ICWA NOTES
FREE LLB LAW FIRST SEM NOTES
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KANOON KE RAKHWALE INDIA
HIRE LAWYER ONLINE
LAW FIRMS IN DELHI
CA FIRM DELHI
VISIT : https://www.kanoonkerakhwale.com/
VISIT : https://hirelawyeronline.com/
Meaning of the doctrine:
In reality it is neither a rule or law
It is a doctrine of political morality that aims at ensuring the correct balance of rights and powers between individuals and the state
Adherence to the doctrine requires more than to govern according to the law since this is not necessarily equivalent to govern under the law
“Only in a country where the rule of law means more than formal, legal validity will subjects enjoy real protection from official tyranny and abuse” Mathews
he Specific Relief Act, 1963 is an Act of the Parliament of India which provides remedies for persons whose civil or contractual rights have been violated. It replaced an earlier Act of 1877. The following kinds of remedies may be granted by a court under the provisions of the Specific Relief Act:
Recovery of possession of property
Specific performance of contracts
Rectification of instruments
Rescission of contracts
Cancellation of Instruments
Declaratory decrees
Injunction
The slides discuss in detail the concept of Restitution of Conjugal Rights in Hindu, Muslim, Christian, and Parsi laws. Useful for Law Students and professionals.
LLB LAW NOTES ON JURISPRUDENCE
FREE AFFIDAVITS AND NOTICES FORMATS
FREE AGREEMENTS AND CONTRACTS FORMATS
FREE LLB LAW NOTES
FREE CA ICWA NOTES
FREE LLB LAW FIRST SEM NOTES
FREE LLB LAW SECOND SEM NOTES
FREE LLB LAW THIRD SEM NOTES
FREE LLB LAW FOURTH SEM NOTES
FREE LLB LAW FIFTH SEM NOTES
FREE LLB LAW SIXTH SEM NOTES
FREE CA ICWA FOUNDATION NOTES
FREE CA ICWA INTERMEDIATE NOTES
FREE CA ICWA FINAL NOTES
KANOON KE RAKHWALE INDIA
HIRE LAWYER ONLINE
LAW FIRMS IN DELHI
CA FIRM DELHI
VISIT : https://www.kanoonkerakhwale.com/
VISIT : https://hirelawyeronline.com/
UNIT 1 Administration of Justice in the Presidency Towns at Madras, Bombay, C...SanskritiRazdan
The history of the legal system in British India opens with the establishment of the East India Company. The East India Company was incorporated in England by the Crown’s Charter of 1600. The Company was given executive trading rights in Asia (including India), Africa and America.
Hist 1 East India Company and its Administration (1757 - 1857)Gretta Castelino
On 31st December 1600, Queen Elizabeth granted a charter to the government and the merchant of the East India Company in London to trade with India. The charter was issued for 15 years and was later indefinitely extended. The English East India Company and the British government gained by occupying the Indian Soil. The inhabitants of India (Bengal) were unhappy and facing difficult times in order to survive them fell victims to famine and corrupt practice of the company’s officer on 1772. It had several defects that were addressed in the Act of Settlement, 1781 and Pitt's India Act, 1784. The charter acts were renewed after every 20 years which gradually diminished the power of the EIC over Indian politics.
Presentation is based on the establishment as well as historical background of the Privy Council in India when it was a British colony. This also contains the causes, nature, jurisdiction of the privy council. Lastly the appraise & council's unique position is been discussed. What were the issues or drawbacks of the "last court of appeal under the throne during 1830s is explained. This topic is basically a insight into the development of Judicature in India under English Legal system.
reforms of governor-general lord CornwallisRithikShankar
its a small summary about Cornwallis's tenure in India, how his nature was towards Indian .it also contains some of the high lights of his judicial and revenue reforms .at last what was the conclusion i had made about him after knowing about all his reforms which can vary from your opinions .
To understand the concept of Taxation, heads of income, including foreign income assessment procedures, adjudication and settlement of tax disputes are the focus points of study
in this paper.
Socio-Legal Dimensions of Gender (LLB-507 & 509 )cpjcollege
This paper intends to sensitize the students about the changing
dimensions of gender and also familiarizes them with the subtle manifestations of inequality rooted in our society.
The objective of the paper is to apprise the students with the laws relating to marriage, dissolution, matrimonial remedies, adoption, contemporary trends in family institutions in India, in particular the Hindus and Muslims.
Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) [LLB -309] cpjcollege
Alternative Dispute Resolution has become the primary means by which cases are resolved now days, especially commercial, business disputes. It has emerged as the preferred method for resolving civil cases, with litigation as a last resort. Alternative Dispute Resolution provides an overview of the statutory, procedural, and case law underlining these processes and their interplay with litigation. A significant theme is the evolving role of
professional ethics for attorneys operating in non-adversarial settings. Clients and courts increasingly express a preference for attorneys who are skilled not only in litigation but in problem-solving, which costs the clients less in terms of time, money and relationship. The law of ADR also provides an introduction to negotiation and mediation theory.
Environmental Studies and Environmental Laws (: LLB -301)cpjcollege
The objective of this paper is to acquaint the students with the environmental issues and the measures taken for its protection along with the norms prevailing at international and national
level
The paper will focus on the civil procedures followed in instituting a suit. The students will be familiarised with certain important concepts and practical skill development activity will provide insights into the actual working of the court procedures.
The objective of this paper is to provide an understanding of basic concepts of Indian Constitution and various organs created by the Constitution and their functions.
The paper needs to be taught in light of the New Companies Amendment Act 2013. The Companies act 1956 has not been repealed. The New Act of 2013 is made applicable by notifications as to particular sections by the Ministry of Company Affairs. The
notified sections which replace the provisions of Companies Act 1956 will be highlighted
It is an indispensable complementary part of our legal system without the study of which no advocate is suitably equipped with the basic requisites required to go to the court.
This paper focuses on understanding the forms that governments acquire along with nature and conflicts encountered by different forms of governments. Students would get trained to look into center-state conflicts and legislature-executive –judiciary conflicts.
The design is to look into how emerging issues in international relations become important in the legal context and prepare the students to understand International Law.
This paper focuses on various aspects of health care law including the constitutional perspective, obligations, and negligence of medical professionals and remedies available to
consumers of health care.
The object of this paper is to focus on land reforms in India, Constitutional provisions related to land reforms, Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation, and Resettlement Act,2013, Urban Real Estate Development Laws and the Provisions of the Rent Laws under the
Delhi Rent Control Act, 1958.
Business Environment and Ethical Practices (BBA LLB 213 )cpjcollege
The objective of the course is to familiarize students with the different aspects of business environment and ethical practices to be adopted by organizations in conducting their business.
The objective of the course is to familiarize students with the different aspects of managing Human Resources in the organization through the phases of acquisition, development and retention
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
1. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
Subject Code: 106
Subject: History II
UNIT I
Early Developments (1600-1836)
2. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
1. East IndianCompany and its development
Charter divided into 2 group
The Governor Company of Merchants of London trading into the East Indies Known
as East India Company in Sort When Came to India
Administration System
Legal System
3. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
British East India
Company Agents
4. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
R o y a l C h a r t e r s
A brief information& deliberation
•What is a Charter ?
Charter is a record of Public Act, delegating rights &privileges to recipients
(in form of public declaration& not addressed to recipient,
but notified to public).
•Legal status
A charter is a legally binding document incorporating an organization or institution
and specifying its purpose, remit or by laws. Organizations, such as Institution of
Civil Engineers in UK is chartered to maintain and advance, science and practice of
civil engineering in UK and by this charter has right to regulate business of civil
engineering in UK; this gives rise to a status of a ‘chartered engineer’- one who
satisfies requirements of charter holding organisation. Royal Charters also exist and
may have legal status in case normally comes from a ‘Royal Charter’.
5. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
•East India Company
Royal Charter was granted to East India Company in year 1600 to do merchandise &
rule India
•Ministry of Law India
Ministry of Law, Government of India had been granted Royal Charter in year1833
•Charter
A Charter is simply a document, which records a Public Act, particularly, record of a
gift or grant.
•English history
In English history. Charters are associated with delegation of authority and were
used by medieval Kings and their descendants, to give some powers of self-rule to
urban communities. Contents were determined by a combination of tradition, customs
and current practice. They were written to offer aspirations of towns people to ruling
Monarch for approval, and were often based around previous Charters granted to
other
towns.
6. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
British East India Company
1. In 1600, Queen Elizabeth charted British East India Company.
2. Between 1601-13, merchants of East India Company took twelve voyages to India,
and in 1609 William Hawkins arrived at court of Jahangir, Akbar's successor, to seek
permission to establish a British presence in India.
3. Hawkins was rebuffed by Jahangir, but Sir Thomas Roe, who presented himself
before Mughal Emperor in 1617, was rather more successful.
4. Two years later, Roe gained Jahangir's permission to build a British factory in
Surat,and in 1639, this was followed by founding of Fort St. George (Madras).
5. Despite some setbacks, such as Company's utter humiliation at hands of the Mughal
Emperor Aurangzeb, with whom Company went to war between 1688-91, Company
never really looked back.
6. As charter indicates hereinafter, East India Company was both empowered to
trade and to govern.
7. As Mughul Dynasty weakened, East India Company became more and more defacto
government of India, a condition that persisted into 19th century.
8. Excerpts of Charter Granted by Queen Elizabeth to East India Company, 31
December 1600 follow
7. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
Administration of Surat:
(1612-1687)
Most Important Factory Initially .Important Commercial Centre. Populous Town &
International Port.1612 Established Factory at Surat. The Governor and Company of
merchant of London training into East.(15 year).1615 mughal farmaan and special
power to them. Governor and council (less knowledge of law)Qazi Court made by
Muslim Ruler to solve cases
•Defects in Surat
•No knowledge of law
•Fight between them only
•Corruption
•Hindu and
•Muslim
•law applied on them.
8. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
Administration of Madras(1693-1726)
Divide into 3 phase
1st phase
3rd
phase
2nd phase
9. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
1st phase1639 -1665 (Administrative set up, Judicial Set up, No
Established Procedure)
•The Charters and courts: Company was under the administration of an Englishmen
who called agent. They were authorized for civil and criminal cases
•Charter 1661: for improving judicial system in madras governor and council appointed
for
•Judge for civil and criminal law according to the laws of England
•Black and white town
•Black town Choultry Court(officer known as Adigaar
•On his corruption EIC appoint company to its post.
•On serious crime than permission by Hindu ruler and punish according to UK law
•No Diwani and Faujdari cases to this court
•No judicial system
10. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
2ndphase1665-1688 (Delay in Justice)
•Judicial system Appointed Streyn sham Master as governor in 1678 the whole judicial
system was recognized by him the court of governor and council was designated as high
court of judicature. court will twice a week and decide all civil and criminal cases with
12 jury man and also recognized old choultry court(small cases only)and Indian officer
replaced by English officer and of company services.
•The number of Judge was increased to 3 out of at least 2 were required to preside the
trial and sit two in a week i.e. Thursday and Friday.
•The Judge of choultry court will take care and clerk registers all the punishments. High
court of judicature hears appeal of choultry court it’s consist of governor and council.
English as court language
•English is an official language of Madras court till 1680 and after that Tamil,
Portuguese and Malayalam. Court of Admiralty(punish to illegal trader or sea matter)
•.Governor and council neither they are regular nor they are ready to give justice in a
manner. Tough to solve faujdari matter.
•Governor and council with 12 faujdari member to solve cases.
•Judicial power to governor not to agent .
•Petty Jury (6englishmen and 6 Portuguese )
11. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
3rd phase 1688-1725 (Admiraly, Mayor,Choultry Court and Corporation of
Madras)
•Court
➢Chaultry Court10
➢Mayor Court(end of the chapter)
➢Admiralty Court
➢High Court of Madras
•ADMIRALTY COURT-
•On August 9 1683, Charles II granted charter to the company to establish the courts
which was to consist of person learned in the Civil law and 2 merchants appointed by
the company.
•Court got the power to hear and try cases related to the mercantile, maritime, trespass,
injury and wrongs etc.
•Again on April 12, 1686 Charles II issued a new charter with same provisions.
•Chief Judge of the Admiralty Court was known as the Judge–Advocate.
12. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
• In 1687 company sent from England Sir John Biggs a professional lawyer learned
in civil law to act as the Judge advocate of Admiralty Court.
• After this the Governor and his Council stopped performing their Judicial
Functions and the Admiralty Court bestowed justice in all cases civil, criminal as
well as maritime.
• Sir Biggs Died in 1689 and Governor again took the charge of judicial function.
• In 1692 the Company sent John Dolben as new Judge advocate and in 1694 he was
dismissed on the charge of taking bribes.
• In 1696 company directed that members of the council should in succession serve
as the Judge advocate. After William Fraser, a merchant was appointed as Judge
advocate later he resigned and no one was ready to become the Judge advocate, so
company made the court registrar the Judge advocate.
• 1698 onwards, under the instructions of the company, the Governor and council
started hearing appeals from the Admiralty court in cases involving less than 100
pagodas. After 1704 admiralty court ceased to sit on regular basis.
• Court dead and Corporation made and Mayor Court form headed by Mayor 1688.
13. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
• Developments in Administration of Justice during this period.
The realisation of the need to shift from a “common” to a “civil” lawyer. The
Governor and his council relinquished their judicial functions which they had
been exercising hitherto the charter of 1661 and ceased to sit as a court. This
marked the separation of the Executive from the Judiciary. In 1683 the English
Common Law was practically devoid of rules governing mercantile cases.
5.Administration of Bombay (1668-1726) Charter 1668:
1670 judicial plan
1672 new judicial plan
1684-1690 admiralty court conflicts Judicial machinery 1718-1728 Court in
Bombay
➢Court of judicature- civil and criminal
➢Court of conscience- small cases
➢Contract court-deputy governor and its council-serious matter
➢Admirality court- according to charter 1648
14. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
FIRST STAGE: 1668- 1683
SECOND STAGE: 1683- 1690
THIRD STAGE: 1718- 1726
First stage 1668- 1683(Judicial system)
•Charter of 1668. judicial system
•Custom officer appointed in each divisions
•Jury system11
•Deputy governor and council(judicial system 1670)
•Bombay in 2 parts each court has 5 judges. Custom officer has judicial officer
Some Indian appointed as judge and sitting of at least 3 judges is necessary.
BOMBAY
JUDICIAL
STAGES
15. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
BOMBAY
Bombay divided into 2 divisions12
SURAT PRESIDENCY(GOVERNORAND COUNCIL)
•Each division had one court with 5 judges.
•The custom officer was to be president of the court
•New system consisted of George Wilcox as judge.
•The court was to have jurisdiction in all cases civil, criminal, probate and testamentary.
Bombay was divided into 4 sections.Justices of peace were appointed.court of
conscience (small matter and once in a week)delay in judgment and jurisdiction is 20
ciraffin(Portugal coin) Bombay, Mahik,Majgaon, Sion (4 section of Bombay).Follow
125yr. Portugal system
•Each division has sanchalak and Justice of peace
•The deputy governor and council were constituted as superior court.
16. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
Second Stage 1683- 1690 (Admiralty Court)_
•Dr. John St John was a person learned in the civil law. Charter of 1683
•King’s Bench of common pleas.
•1690 Bombay attacked by admiral Siddi.
•1690- 1718 is the dark period in legal history of island. 1687 Bombay became
presidency.
•Appoint Dr. Saint John salary (200 pound/year) (knowledge of law)
Third stage 1718- 1726 (Indian Judges, Working of the Court)
•30 year no court system in Bombay 15/03/1718 new court in Bombay 9 judge (5
bristher+4 Indian)
•In 1718, a court appeared again in Bombay with chief justice and nine other judges, of
whom 5 were British.
•Indians were called black justices.
•Awarded imprisonment ‘during pleasure’, which meant indefinite period of custody.
Seat once in a week
•Appeal to Governor general and Council
•Work till 1726 than 10/2/1728 royal charter issue Mayor Court. That court name has
court of judicature
17. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
THE MAYOR’S COURT
Factors Leading to the Establishment of Mayor’s Court
Before 1726 there were different judicial system functioning in the British Settlement,
which were increased in number by 1726. As a result the servants of the many, working
at such different settlements were subject to different sets of courts. There was, thus a
lack of uniformity in the British settlements, for the same offence wild entail different
and sometimes Contrary Penal Consequence. There was also another factor which
compelled the Company to have a uniform law.
There were quite important distinguishing feature between the Company’s Mayer’s
Court and the Crown’s Mayor’s Courts established under the Charter of 126. The main
differences are given below,
•the Mayor’s Court under the Charter of 1687 was created by the Company while the
Mayor’s Courts under the Charter of 1726 drew their power directly from the Crown.
Thus the latter were on a superior footing than the former
•The Charter of 1687 created only one Mayor’s Court at Madras, it did not touch the
judicial system prevailing in other settlements, presidencies under the Company.
18. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
The Mayor’s Court established under the Charter of 1687 made a provision for the
representation of the natives on the court. The Crown’s Mayors Courts did not have any
such representation, though there was a provision I for the same in the Charter of 1726.
•No doubt, the Crown’s Mayor’s Courts established under the charter of 1726 were
definitely superior courts so far as their status is concerned, but in strict judicial and
legal manner, the Company’s Mayor’s Court was better equipped, for there was a
provision for a lawyer-member who was to be called the Recorder. The Charter of 1726
although it purported to improve the judicial system in India, did not make any such
provision. . Thus the Courts established in 1726 were mostly composed of Company’s
civil servants who did not have sufficient experience in legal matters.
•There was yet another important distinction between the two Mayor’s Courts. The
Company’s Mayor Court evolved its own procedure and dispensed justice in
accordance with the rules of common sense, equity and good conscience. It avoided the
intricate procedural technicalities. But the Charter of 1726 which introduced the British
laws into India brought all the legal technicalities of the British Courts of law. Thus the
entire gamut of British laws
19. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
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and its procedure were foisted on the Courts established under the Charter of 1726.
•The Charter of 1726, in a way, did away with the concept of separation between the
executive and the judiciary in criminal matters. The Governor-in-Council acted as the
criminal court while the Mayor’s Courts handled only the civil matters and testamentary
and probate of wills cases. On the other hand, the Mayor’s Court at Madras was
invested with power to handle all civil and criminal matters and appeals from its
decisions went to the Admiralty Court rather than the Governor-in-Council.
The Charter of 1726 also constituted a Mayor’s Court for each of the presidency towns
consisting of a Mayor and nine Aldermen. Three of them i.e., the Mayor or senior
Alderman together with two other Aldermen were required to be present to form the
quorum of the Court. The Mayor’s Courts were declared to be present to fan the
quorum of the Court. The Mayor’s Courts were declared to be Courts of record and
were authorized to try, hear and determine all civil actions and pleas between party and
party. The Court was also granted testamentary jurisdiction id power to issue letters of
administration to the legal heir of the deceased person. It was authorized to exercise its
jurisdiction over all persons living in the presidency own and working in the
Company’s subordinate factories.
20. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
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Supreme court established under the 1774 charter
The supreme court established under the 1774 Charter , became an institution which
was disliked and dreaded equally by the officers of the government and especially
Indians.
Major cases which led to this situation
The East India Company became the dominant political power in the 18th Century
and passed the Regulating Act 1773.
Objectives-• Reform in constitution of the company.
•Reform in administration in India
•To provide remedies against company’s oppression in India.
Features of the Act:
•Governor was raised to power of governor general.
•Entire military and civil powers were vested in governor general.
•Government of presidencies of Madras and Bombay were put under Governor-
General at Calcutta.
•All judges were prohibited from accepting gifts.
•Even judges can be tried in King’s Bench in England
21. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
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22. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
23. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
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24. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
25. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
26. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
27. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
28. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
29. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
30. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
31. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
Warren Hastings Judicial Plan 1772-1774-1780
Court in 1772
Administration Of Justice: First Stage
Court Judicial Plan of 1772 -1780
Civil Justice (Mofussil Diwani Adalat)
Criminal Justice (Mofussil Faujdari)
Sadar Nizamat Adalat
Revenue Administration
32. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
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The Man who first introduced the system of tires & grades in India
33. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
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34. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
35. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
36. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
37. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
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38. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
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39. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
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40. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
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41. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
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42. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
43. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
44. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
Lord Cornwallis‟s Judicial Plans of 1787, 1790 and 1793
45. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
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46. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
47. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
48. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
49. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
50. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
51. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
52. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
53. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
54. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
Following reforms were introduced by Lord William Bentinck:
•The first reform done was to abolish the Provincial Courts of Appeal and Circuit
Courts altogether. This was done by a regulation passed in 1829.
•In place of the Provincial courts of appeal and Circuit, the Commissioners of
Revenue and Circuit were appointed to do this job.
•For this purpose, the Bengal Presidency was divided into 20 divisions and each
division was placed under a separate commissioner.
•For revenue cases these commissioners worked directly under the Board of Revenue
and for Criminal cases they worked under Sadar Nizamat Adalat.
•Separate Diwani and Sadar Nizamat Adalat were opened at Allahabad.
•In 1831, another regulation was passed by which the “Respectable Indians” were to be
appointed in the Zilla or City Courts. They were called “Munsifs“. Munsifs were to be
appointed on a salary and they could decide the cases worth less than Three Hundred
Rupees.
•Then, in a separate regulation, it was decided the Governor General in Council would
appoint respectable Indians to the post of Sadar Amins. The Sadar Amins would hear
appeals from the Zilla and city courts.
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•Sadar Amin was now the highest Judicial Indian authority. However, neither Munsifs
nor Sadar Amins could trial the Europeans.
•In 1832, a sort of Jury was introduced in Bengal, which was like Indian Jury
(Panchayat) that could help the European Judges.
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UNIT II
Evolution of Law and Legal Institutions
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Personal Laws
In India different religions like Hindu, Muslim, Christian and Parsi etc are governed
by their own personal law as Hindu law (Hindu law acts 1955-56), Muslim law
(Muslim personal laws (Shariat) application act 1937), Christian law, Parsi law (Parsi
marriage and divorce act 1936), respectively. Every religion follows their own
personal laws in the family matters pertaining to marriage, adoption, succession and
so on.
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Hindu Law
Hindu Law is considered to be one of the most ancient systems of law known to the
world.Hindu law is applicable to the personal and family matters of Hindus such as
marriage, divorce, maintenance, adoption, minority and guardianship, rights of a
member of joint family, pious obligation of sons for the debts of the father, alienation of
family property, partition of joint family property and succession.
source of hindu law
Custom or Usage is a very important source of Hindu Law.
Section 3 (a) of the Hindu Marriage Act 1955 defines this expression as:
Custom or usage is a rule which has been continuously and uniformity observed for a
long time among the Hindus in any local area, tribe, community, group of family. The
rule should be certain, should not be unreasonable, should not be opposed to public
policy and has not been discontinued by the family.
Legislation is the most important modern source of Hindu Law. Several enactments have
been passed by the Parliament to regulate marriage, adoption, maintenance etc among
Hindus. Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 ,The Hindu Succession Act 1956, the Hindu Minority
and Guardianship Act, 1956 and the Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act 1956 are
examples of such legislations.
59. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
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Islamic /Muslim law
Muslim Law is applicable only to Muslims. A person one who believes that there is
only one God and that Mohammed is his Prophet is a Muslim. Muslims consist of two
sects namely Sunnis (governed by Sunni Law) and Shia (governed by Shia Law). There
are some difference between these laws but the sources of these laws are one and same,
namely the Holy Quaran, the Sunnat and the Ijma.
The Ouaran is the principal source of Muslim Law. Muslim personal law is founded on
the divine revelations embodied in the Quaran. The Holy Quaran is the very word of
God. Quaran contains a detailed code of conduct for the Muslims. Quaran is divided
into 114 chapters and consists of about 6666 verses. About 200 verses of Quaran are
concerned with legal principles and nearly about 80 verses are concerned with marriage
,dower, divorce and Inheritance.
Muslim Law has been further supplemented and modified by state legislation and
modern judicial precedents of the High Courts and the Supreme court of India and also
of the Privy Council. In India, Muslims also governed in their personal matters like
marriage, dower etc., by the various legislations passed either by the Parliament or by
State legislatures. Muslim law is governed according to the provisions of Muslim
personal laws (Shariat) application act 1937.
60. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
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Christian Law
Christian law, as a branch of personal law, is primarily applicable to the Christian
community. In India the Christian law is governed by the provisions of Indian Christian
marriage act 1872. the Indian divorce act 1869, and the concerts Marriage dissolution
act 1936. Christian law deals with matters such as marriage, divorce, succession,
adoption etc.
61. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
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Law commission India (bef. 1947)
1834 1853 1861 1879
First Law Commission 1834
making
•Penalcode
Lex loci
Cpc
Lmitation
Stamp law
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63. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
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(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
64. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
65. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
66. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
67. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
68. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
69. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
Indian High Courts Act 1861- Establishment of High Courts of
Calcutta, Madras and Bombay
By Indian High Courts Act 1861, the Supreme & Sadar Courts were amalgamated. The
‘Indian High Court Act’ of 1861, vested in Queen of England to issue letters patent to
erect and establish High Courts of Calcutta, Madras and Bombay.
The High Courts of Calcutta, Madras and Bombay were established by Indian High
Courts Act 1861.
It’s worth note that Indian High Courts Act, 1861 did not by itself create and establish
the High Courts in India. The objective of this act was to effect a fusion of the Supreme
Courts and the Sadar Adalats in the three Presidencies and this was to be consummated
by issuing Letter Patent. The jurisdiction and powers exercised by these courts was to
be assumed by the High Courts.
Composition of the High Court’s:
•The Indian High Courts Act 1861 had also spelled the composition of the High Court.
•Each High Court was to consist of a Chief Justice and NOT more than 15 regular
judges.
•the chief Justice and minimum of one third regular judges had to be barristers and
minimum one third regular judges were to be from the “covenanted Civil Service”.
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All Judges were the be in the office on the pleasure of the Crown.
The High Courts had an Original as well as an Appellate Jurisdiction the former derived
from the Supreme Court, and the latter from the Sudder Diwani and Sudder Foujdari
Adalats, which were merged in the High Court.
Please note the following facts:
The Charter of High Court of Calcutta was issued on 14th May, 1862 and Madras and
Bombay was issued on June 26, 1862.
So, the Calcutta High Court has the distinction of being the first High Court and one
of the three Chartered High Courts to be set up in India, along with the High Courts of
Bombay, Madras.
High Court at Calcutta which was formerly known as High Court of Judicature at Fort
William was established on July 1, 1862. Sir Barnes Peacock was its first Chief Justice.
71. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
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•On 2nd February, 1863, Justice Sumboo Nath Pandit was the first Indian to assume
office as a Judge of the Calcutta High Court.
•The Bombay High Court was inaugurated on 14th August ,1862.Indian High Court
Act 1861 also gave power to set up other High Courts like the High Courts of the
Presidency Towns with similar powers.Under this power, a High Court was
established in 1866 at High Court of Judicature for the North-Western Provinces at
Agra on 17 March 1866 by the Indian High Courts Act of 1861 replacing the Sadr
Diwani Adalat.
Sir Walter Morgan, Barrister-at-Law was appointed the first Chief Justice of the High
Court of North-Western Provinces. However it was shifted to Allahabad in 1869 and
the name was correspondingly changed to the High Court of Judicature at
Allahabad from 11 March 1919
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73. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
74. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
75. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
76. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
UNIT III
Constitutional Developments and
Framing of Indian Constitution
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The Indian Councils Act 1861 was passed by British Parliament on 1st August
1861 to make substantial changes in the composition of the Governor General’s
council for executive & legislative purposes. The most significant feature of this
Act was the association of Indians with the legislation work.
Reasons for Enactment of Indian Councils Act
The Government of India Act 1858 had introduced significant changes in the manner
in which India was governed from England, however, it did not alter in any
substantial way the system of government that prevailed in India. Further, in the
aftermath of the Mutiny of 1857, there was a general perception in England that it
would be very difficult to secure the government in India without the cooperation of
Indians in administration. These were the main reasons behind enacting some
legislation which could overhaul the system of administration in India. Some other
reasons were as follows:
Centralized law making was defective
The Charter act of 1833 had centralized the legislative procedures and deprived the
governments of Madras and Bombay of their power of legislation. The idea behind
centralizing the law making was secure uniformity of laws in the whole territory of
East India Company but this system proved to be defective. It had only one
representative each of the four provinces and it failed to make laws suiting to local
conditions.
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Key Provisions
Expansion of executive council of Governor General / Viceroy
The executive council of Governor General was added a fifth finance member. For
legislative purpose, a provision was made for an addition of 6 to 12 members to the
central executive. At least half of the additional members were to be non-officials.
These members were nominated by the Viceroy for the period of two years. Further,
the Governor General / Viceroy had been given some more powers such as:
He was authorized to nominate a president to preside over the meetings of the
Executive council in his absence.
He had the power of making rules and regulations for the conduct of business of
executive council.
He could create new provinces for legislative purposes and to appoint Lieutenant
Governors for them. He was also empowered to alter, modify or adjust the limits of
the provinces.
He could promulgate ordinances, without the concurrence of the legislative council,
during and emergency.
79. Though the central council was empowered to legislate on all subjects concerning all
persons and courts in British India but every bill passed required the assent of viceroy.
He could withhold his assent or exercise his veto power if he felt that the bill affected
the safety, peace and interest of British India.
He had to communicate all laws to secretary of state for India who could disallow them
with the assent of the crown.
Introduction of Portfolio System
The Act empowered the Governor-General to delegate special task to individual
members of the Executive council and hence all members have their own portfolio and
death with their own initiative with all but the most important matters. This was the first
beginning of Portfolio system in India.
No distinction between Central and Provincial subjects
No distinction was made between the central and provincial subject. But measures
concerning public debt, finances, currency, post-office, telegraph, religion, patents and
copyrights were to be ordinarily considered by the Central Government.
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Process of Decentralization
The Governments of Bombay and Madras were given the power of nominating
Advocate-General and not less than 4 and not more than 8 additional members of the
Executive council for purpose of legislation. These additional members were to hold
office for two years. The consent of the Governor and the Governor-General was made
necessary for all legislation passed or amended by the Governments of Madras and
Bombay. Further, the act provided for the establishment of new legislative councils for
Bengal, North-Western Frontier Province and Punjab, which were established in 1862,
1866, and 1897 respectively.
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Critical Examination of the Indian Councils Act 1861
The Act of 1861 was important in the constitutional history because it enabled the
Governor-General to associate the people of the land with work of legislation. And by
vesting legislative powers in the Governments of Bombay and Madras which
ultimately culminated in grant of almost complete internal autonomy to the provinces
in the 1937.
However, the legislative councils were merely talk shops with no power to criticize
the administration or ask for some information. Their scope was fixed in legislation
purpose alone; they had no right to move some kind of vote of no confidence. Further,
there was no statutory / specific provision for the nomination of Indians.
This nomination power of the Viceroy could be used only to placate the princes who
could help the British to keep their stronghold. Further, the ordinance making power
of the Governor General allowed him to make laws it his own whim. In summary, the
Indian Councils Act 1861 failed to satisfy the aspirations of the people of India.
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Indian Councils Act 1909
Lord Minto served as Viceroy of India since from 1905 to 1910. He
succeeded Lord Curzon in 1905. Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman who is
first man to be given official use of the title ‘Prime Minister’ became Prime
Minister in 1905. When he formed his cabinet he appointed John Morley as
Secretary of State for India.
This was the time of unrest in India. Both the Viceroy and the Secretary of
State for India decided to work out some scheme to reform the Legislative
councils. This culminated as Indian Councils act 1909 or Minto-Morley
reforms. The idea was to give locals some more power in the legislative
affairs. The act was passed in 1911. A provision was made for the expansion
of legislative councils at the both the levels viz. central as well as
provincial. The Indian Councils Act, 1909 was an unfortunate turn in our
history for many reasons.
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Important Provisions
Following were some of the important provisions of these reforms:
•It introduced separate and discriminatory electorate. This was for the first
time that, electorate for returning to the representatives to the councils was
decided on the basis of class & community. For the provincial councils a
provision of three categories was made viz. general, special and chambers of
commerce. For the central council, one more category Muslims was added.
This was for the first time that, the seats in the legislative bodies were reserved
on the basis of religion for Muslims. This is called Communal representation.
•The Minto Morley reforms are known to envisage a separate electorate for
Muslims and this had a long lasting impact on India’s polity.
•This was for the first time that Muslim community was recognized as a
completely separate section of the Indian nation and this triggered “A Cancer”
in India called “Hindu-Muslim Disharmony” which later culminated in India
and Pakistan.
•Separate constituencies were marked for the Muslims and only Muslim
community members were given the right to elect their representatives.
•The number of members of the legislative councils at the center was increased
from 16-60.
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Government of India Act 1935
Government of India Act 1935 was passed by British Parliament in August 1935.
With 321 sections and 10 schedules, this was the longest act passed by British
Parliament so far and was later split into two parts viz. Government of India Act
1935 and Government of Burma Act 1935.
The Government of India Act 1935 derived material from four key sources viz.
Report of the Simon Commission, discussions at the Third Round Table
Conference, the White Paper of 1933 and the reports of the Joint select committees.
This act ended the system of dyarchy introduced by GOI Act 1919 and provided for
establishment of a Federation of India to be made up of provinces of British India
and some or all of the Princely states. However, the federation never came into
being as the required number of princely states did not join it.
Salient Features
•Salient Features of the Government of India Act 1935 were as follows:
•Abolition of provincial dyarchy and introduction of dyarchy at centre.
•Abolition of Indian Council and introduction of an advisory body in its place.
•Provision for an All India Federation with British India territories and princely states.
•Elaborate safeguards and protective instruments for minorities.
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•Supremacy of British Parliament.
•Increase in size of legislatures, extension of franchise, division of subjects
into three lists and retention of communal electorate.
•Separation of Burma from India
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UNIT IV
Modern and Contemporary India
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88. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
89. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
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90. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
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91. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
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92. Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
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India)
Nationalist and Civil Disobedience Movement: Only
Gandhian Movements
Gandhi and His Thought:
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born on 2, Oct. 1869 at Porbandar in Gujarat.
After getting his legal education in Britain he landed at Durban in 1893 on a one-
year contract to sort out the legal problems of Dada Abdullah, a Gujarati.
In South Africa, Gandhi protested against the
discriminating treatments meted out to the Indians,
formed The National Indian Congress and suffered
imprisonment. Gandhi soon became the leader of the
struggle against these conditions and during 1893—
1914 was engaged in a heroic though unequal
struggle against the racist authorities of South
Africa. Gandhi in South Africa developed the
method of passive resistance or civil disobedience,
which he named Satyagraha.
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His principal mouth-piece was Indian Opinion (1903). He set up Tolstoy farm
which was the precursor of the later Gandhian ashrams that were to play
important role in the Indian National movement.
In 1914, he was awarded Kaisar-i-Hind gold medal for raising an Indian
ambulance in England during the Boer war and 1st World War. After his
arrival in India in January 1915, he founded the Sabarmati Ashram at
Ahmadabad (1916), where his friends and followers were to learn and practise
the idea of truth and non-violence. He also set out to experiment with his new
method of struggle in the Indian freedom struggle.
Gandhiji was greatly influenced by the works of Leo Tolstoy’s essay, ‘Civil
disobedience’ and Ruskin’s ‘Unto This Last’. Tolstoy’s ideal of non-
possession was developed by Gandhiji in his concept of Trusteeship. He was
also influenced by the life and teachings of Swami Vivekananda. His political
guru Gokhale and Dadabhai Naoroji also influenced him.
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Khilafat Movement and Hindu Muslim Unity
The period 1919-22 is understood as the heyday of Hindu-Muslim unity
against the colonial rule. This was the period when the leaderships of
Congress and the Khilafat movement often overlapped. This was in tune
with Gandhi’s idea that British can be fought only with united Hindus and
Muslims. Strikes, demonstrations, and Satyagrahas took place around the
country, while ‘Hindu-Musalman ki Jai was the famous slogan.
But the above was just ephemeral. After 1922 a series of differences
between the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation leaderships intersected with
growing popular conflict between Hindu and Muslim communities. Some
section of Muslims started to see the futility of Swaraj and fresh interest was
awakened in the Muslim League which had been stagnant since 1918.
The most ardent khilafatists started to believe that there was more to be
gained by supporting government in its honest efforts than by adhering to
the hitherto non-cooperation. Many Muslim leaders raised fears and doubts
about the capacity of India to win freedom through civil disobedience. As a
result of this, the old dissensions, based upon complaints like cow-slaughter
and music before mosque, were raised up and issues of disagreement such as
Suddhi Movement or tabligh and sangathan or tanzim were added.
95. The Hindu Muslim Unity was shattered, giving way to a period of
“communalism”. This was the sad demise of the Hindu-Muslim unity as
marking a turning point in the freedom struggle. The disintegrated state of
affairs then offered an opportunity to the British to re-establish their old
relations with the Muslims. They were able to successfully bring the
Muslims into their loyalists fold. The so called bond of fraternity turned out
to be an ad hoc coalition of interests. India was now on a path to partition.
Civil Disobedience Movement: Dandi March, Gandhi-Irwin Pact and Communal Award
Civil Disobedience Movement
Introduction: The Civil disobedience movement was an important part of Indian
freedom movement. It was led by Mahatma Gandhi against certain laws and commands
of the ruling British Government.
•Who started the Civil disobedience movement? In India, the Civil disobedience
movement was started by Mahatma Gandhi.
•Why Gandhi started Civil disobedience movement? In March 1930, Gandhiji wrote
in the newspaper, Young India, that he might suspend his civil disobedience or law-
breaking movement if the government accepted his eleven-point demands. But Lord
Irwin’s government did not respond. So, Gandhiji started the Civil Disobedience
Movement.
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•When was Civil disobedience movement started? It was started with Dandi March
(also Salt march, Salt satyagraha) by Mahatma Gandhi on 12th March, 1930. On 12
March, 1930 he along with his 78 followers began a march from the Sabarmati
Ashram to “Dandi” on the Gujarat coast. It was a distance of 200 miles. At Dandi a
few day s later they violated the salt laws by making salt from sea-water. Thus, began
the civil disobedience Movement.
•What was the importance of Dandi March (Salt Satyagraha)? The Dandi March
aroused great enthusiasm among the people. Everywhere the people began to break the
law by selling banned political pamphlets, by showing defiance of section 144 and by
with holding rents. Gandhiji called upon the women to begin spinning. In response to
his call women took to spinning they also started picketing at the door of Government
offices and foreign-goods shops. This participation of the women was a new thing in the
freedom struggle. The movement was very tense in Bengal and the north-west. Sarojini
Naidu came to the forefront during this movement. In the north-west the most famous
leader was Abdul Gaffar Khan, knick-named as “Frontier Gandhi”.
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Gandhi-Irwin Pact: The Government had called a round Table conference in 1930
in London. The congress did not join it. In order to make sure that the congress would
participate in the second conference, Lord Irwin made a pact with Gandhiji in 1931.
In this “Gandhi-Irwin Pact” the Government agreed to let off all political prisoners
and to cancel the oppressive laws. The Second Round Table Conference was a failure
from India’s point of view. Gandhiji’s demand for full self-government was rejected.
Communal Award: Then on 17 August 1932 came that infamous “Communal
Award” of Ramsay MacDonald, the British Prime Minister. By it Muslims, Sikhs and
the Hindu scheduled castes were to vote separately. Actually this step was taken to
destroy the national unity. Gandhiji strongly opposed it. He went on to fast till death
in the prison. Ultimately, caste Hindus and the scheduled caste Hindus were united by
the “Pact of Poona” in 1932 under the leadership of Dr. Ambedkar. Meanwhile it was
clear to both Gandhiji and the other leaders that the Civil Disobedience Movement
was losing its force. So in 19354 Gandhiji called off the movement.
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Conclusion: The Civil Disobedience Movement was not successful. But it prepared the people
of India for great sacrifice. It was a good training for the people. Unlike the Non-cooperation
Movement, the Civil Disobedience Movement increased the popularity of the Congress.