Chanderprabhu Jain College Political Science Documents

Chanderprabhu Jain College of Higher Studies & School of Law
Plot No. OCF, Sector A-8, Narela, New Delhi – 110040
(Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and Approved by Govt of NCT of Delhi & Bar Council of India)
SEMESTER: BALLB 3RD
NAME OF SUBJECT: POLITICAL SCIENCE-II
UNIT-I
TOPIC: DEMOCRACY
FACULTY NAME: MR. VIVEK TRIPATHI
(Assistant Professor)

DEMOCRACY
• The term “Democracy” first appeared in ancient Greek politics and philosophical
thought in the city-state of Athens.
• Democracy is a system of running organizations, businesses, and groups in which
each member is entitled to vote and take part in decisions.
• Democracy is the form of government in which citizens vote directly in or elect
representatives to form a governing body, sometimes called “rule of the majority”

MEANING & DEFINITION
• Democracy is a system of government in which people choose
their rulers by voting for them in elections.
• A democracy is a country in which the people choose their government by voting
for it.
• According to Hall,
“ Democracy is that form of political organization in which public opinion has control.
”

MEANING & DEFINITION
• According to Sir John Seeley, “Democracy is the government in which everyone
has a share.”
• According to Prof. MacIver, “Democracy is not the way of governing whether by
way of majority or otherwise, but primarily a way of determining who shall govern
and to what ends.”

NATURE OF DEMOCRACY
• Democracy is an institutional arrangement which ensures free participation of the
people.
• Freedom of choice is the fundamental principle of democracy.
• The government is responsible and accountable to the people.
• There is an independent judiciary.
• The government guarantees and protects the rights of the people.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF DEMOCRACY
• Democracy is based on the spirit of tolerance.
• It believes in persuasion rather than coercion.
• Democracy upload the dignity of each individual .
• It is rule of majority where minority enjoy equal rights.
• It is based on the principle of consent and consensus.
• Democracy aims at the welfare of the entire society.

TOPIC: FEDERALISM & ITS FEATURES

Federalism and its features
• WHAT IS FEDERALISM? • Federalism is at its core a system where the dual
machinery of government functions. • Generally, under federalism, there are two
levels of government. One is a central authority which looks after the major affairs
of the country. The other is more of a local government which looks after the day to
day functioning and activities of their particular region. • For example, our Indian
constitution says that India too is a federal country. As you know we have two
levels of parliament, the at center the union government and at state level, we have
the individual state governments

FEATURES OF FEDERALISM
• There are two levels of governance in the country at least. There can even be more.
But the entire power is not concentrated with one government. • All levels of
governance will govern the same citizens, but their jurisdiction will be different.
This means that each level of government will have a specific power to form laws,
legislate and execute these laws. Both of the governments will have clearly marked
jurisdiction. It will not be that one of the government is just a figurehead
government.

FEATURES OF FEDERALISM
• As stated above the federalism of a country must be prescribed by the constitution.
But it is also important that just one level of government cannot make unilateral
changes or amendments to the important and essential provisions of the
constitution. Such changes must be approved by all the levels of the government to
be carried through. • Now there are two levels of government with separate
jurisdictions and separate duties. Yet there is still a possibility that a conflict may
arise between the two. Well in a federal state, it will fall upon the courts or rather
the judiciary to resolve this conflict. The courts must have the power to interfere in
such a situation and reach a resolution.

Merits of Federalism
• Federalism provides a structure that diffuses governmental power.
• Federalism creates a protection against tyranny.
• Federalism is an efficient process.
• Federalism increases the level of participation by individuals.
• Federalism encourages a system of cooperation.
• Federalism encourages innovation in governing.

Demerits of Federalism
• Federalism often protects the will of the majority at any cost.
• Federalism can encourage the passing of ridiculous laws.
• Federalism allows local governments to fight the national governments.
• Federalism can create oppositional competition.
• Federalism can create uncertainty.

TOPIC: FEATURES OF PARLIAMENTARY SYSTEM IN
INDIA

Features of Parliamentary System in India
• India has a parliamentary system of Government. Article 74 and Article 75 deal
with the parliamentary system at the centre and Articles 163 and 164 deals with the
states. There are multiple features of the Parliamentary system and various
advantages over the Presidential system.

Features and Advantages of Parliamentary System in
India
• In a parliamentary system, the head of the state may be a monarch or a president,
but both of these positions are ceremonial. The head of the government, who is
generally called as the Prime Minister, is the real head. Thus, all the real executive
powers are vested in the Prime Minister.

India
• Elements and Features of Parliamentary System are;
• Nominal and Real Head
• Executive is a Part of Legislature
• Majority Party Rule: The party which wins majority seats in the elections of the
Lower House forms the government

India
• Collective Responsibility: The council of ministers are collectively responsible to
the parliament.
• Prime Minister as the Centre of Power
• Bicameral Legislature

TOPIC: .COFEDERAL AND QUASI FEDERAL FORM
(INDIA FEDERALISM)

Quasi-Federal Nature of Indian Constitution
• Article 1 of the Constitution of India states that ‘India that is Bharat shall be a union
of states’. Indian model of federalism is called the quasi-federal system as it
contains major features of both a federation and union.

Features of Quasi Federal Government (India)
• Supremacy of the Constitution
• Bicameral Legislature
• Dual Government Polity
• Written Constitution
• Rigid Constitution
• Independent Judiciary
• Revenue Sharing

TOPIC: KEY CONCEPTS OF
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

POWER
• It is important part of the system of the state. It is a instrument of state through
which the State is able to implement the internal external Policies.
• Mr. Schwarzenberger:- “The power is the capacity to impose one’s will on other by
reliance on effective sanctions of non-compliances”.
• Mr.William Ebenstien :- “National power is more than the sum total of population,
raw materials & quantitative factors and technical capacity”.

MEANING
• It means the totality of the state capacity to control the policy of other states in
according with its desire & interest.
• It does not refer to the power of all the individual residing in that state. It refers
to the power of certain individual who acts as agents of state.
• A change in the power of state can also take place due to increase its capacity in
all fields.
. • Ex:- U.K. was ranked 1st in the world before 1st world War.

DIVISION OF ELEMENTS OF NATIONAL POWER
• There are various elements of national power.
• Mr. Morgenthau has divided the elements into two categories .i.e permanent &
temporary.
• Prof Palmer & Perkins divided the elements into tangible (that can be touched)
namely geography , raw material & natural resources. • Intangible ideology ,
morale, & leadership.

Elements of National Power
• A) Geography :- Size,Climate , Location, Topography , Boundaries
• B) Population: Size , Quality & Quantity of Population,Population Control,
Education & Research, Population and food supply, Trends in Population growth.
• C) Natural Resources and Raw Material: Vegetable Products, Animals
Products,Minerals:- Metal, Non-metals & Fuels, Food Stuff & Agricultural
Products.
• D) Technology: Military Technology, Atomic & space technology , Industrial
Technology , Communication Technology.
• E) Military: Force, Quality & Quantity ,Economics Organization, Political
Structure,Diplomacy, Leadership.

Limitations on National Power
A. International Law
• International Law is the body of rules that the nation-states accept as binding upon
them, and which regulates their behaviour in international relations. It is an
important limitation on the power of a nation. It directs and controls the behaviour
of the nations engaged in international relations.
• International law constitutes a legal framework for the orderly conduct of
international relations both in times of peace and war. Backed by common consent,
natural law, international morality, world public opinion and its utility, International
law acts as a major limitation on the misuse of power by the states. It enunciates the
do’s and don’ts for the states.

B.International Morality
• Just as human behaviour in a society is regulated by a set of moral norms or rules,
likewise behaviour of states in the international environment is limited by
International Morality. International community accepts certain values—peace,
order, equality, goodness, mutual help, respect for life and liberty of all, and respect
for Human Rights of all, as right and good values which must be accepted and
followed by all states.

C. World Public Opinion
• The democratization of foreign policy and the coming of communications and IT
revolutions have together made possible the rise of organised and strong World
Public Opinion in contemporary international relations.
• It has emerged as an important factor of international relations. The presence of
strong global peace movements, strong movements in favour of Nuclear Arms
Control and Disarmament, a very strong and healthy global movement for the
preservation of Earth’s ecological balance, the environment protection movements,
Human Rights protection movements and several other such movements clearly
show the presence of a strong World Public Opinion.

Balance of Power
• Balance of Power is a device of both power management and limitation of
power. Its underlying principle is that the power of several equally
powerful actors can be a source of limitation on their powers. The major
actors should maintain a sort of balance in their power positions.
• No state should try to become unduly powerful as can endanger the
balance. If a state becomes or tries to become unduly powerful, another
state or states should collectively pool their powers and create a
preponderance of power against the offending state. Through use of force
or coercion or other devices, these states should act to reduce the power of
the threatening state and restore the balance.

TOPIC: Key Concept in International Relations

Organs of UN
• 192 member states
• Un headquarters is situated in New York
• The US has always been by far the largest single contributor to the UN budget.
• In June 2004 the US owed the UN just over $1 billion – almost half the total $2.5
billion owed to the UN by its members.
• The budget for the UN's main operations is $2.5 billion a year.
• In theory, any member state that owes more than its two previous years’
assessments cannot vote in the General Assembly.
• The UN Secretariat worldwide employs some 15,000 people from 170 different
countries
• Six official languages are used at the UN: Arabic, Chinese, English, French,
Russian, and Spanish.
• The current secretary general is

Aims /Objectives of the UN
• To keep peace throughout the world.
• To develop friendly relations between nations.
• To work together to help people live better lives, to eliminate poverty, disease and
illiteracy in the world, to stop environmental destruction and to encourage respect
for each other's rights and freedoms.
• To be a centre for helping nations achieve these aims.

Principles of the UN
• All Member States have sovereign equality.
• All Member States must obey the Charter.
• Countries must try to settle their differences by peaceful means.
• Countries must avoid using force or threatening to use force.
• The UN may not interfere in the domestic affairs of any country.
• Countries should try to assist the United Nations.

The Principal organs of the UN
• General Assembly
• Security Council
• Economic and Social Council
• International Court of Justice
• Secretariat
• Trusteeship Council

Security Council
• 5 permanent members: China, France, Russia, UK and the United States
• 10 rotating members
• Responsible for the maintenance of international peace and security.
• to investigate any dispute or situation which might lead to international friction;
• to recommend methods of adjusting such disputes or the terms of settlement;
• to formulate plans for the establishment of a system to regulate armaments;
• to determine the existence of a threat to the peace or act of aggression and to
recommend what action should be taken;
• to call on Members to apply economic sanctions and other measures not involving
the use of force to prevent or stop aggression;
• to take military action against an aggressor;
• to recommend the admission of new Members;
• to exercise the trusteeship functions of the United Nations in "strategic areas";
• to recommend to the General Assembly the appointment of the Secretary-General
and, together with the Assembly, to elect the Judges of the International Court of
Justice.

General Assembly
• It occupies the central position as the chief deliberative, policy-making and
representative organ of the United Nations.
• A forum for multilateral discussion on international issues between 192 Members
of the United Nations
• It plays a significant role in the process of standard-setting and the codification of
international law.
• The Assembly meets in regular session intensively from September to December
each year, and thereafter as required.

Educational and Social Council
• ECOSOC coordinates economic, social, and related work of the 14 UN specialized
agencies, functional commissions and five regional commissions.
• ECOSOC consults with academics, business sector representatives and more than
2,100 registered non-governmental organizations.
• It is responsible for:
 Promoting higher standards of living, full employment, and economic and social
progress;
 Identifying solutions to international economic, social and health problems;
 Facilitating international cultural and educational cooperation; and
 Encouraging universal respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.

International Court of Justice
• The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the principal judicial organ of the United
Nations (UN).
• It was established in June 1945 by the Charter of the United Nations and began
work in April 1946.
• The seat of the Court is at the Peace Palace in The Hague (Netherlands).
• The Court’s role is to settle, in accordance with international law, legal disputes
submitted to it by States and to give advisory opinions on legal questions referred to
it by authorized United Nations organs and specialized agencies.
• The Court is composed of 15 judges, who are elected for terms of office of nine
years by the United Nations General Assembly and the Security Council.
• Its official languages are English and French.

Trusteeship Council
• Responsible for supervising the administration of Trust Territories placed under the
Trusteeship System.
• Major goals :
to promote the advancement of the inhabitants of Trust Territories and their
progressive development towards self-government or independence.
• The aims of the Trusteeship System have been fulfilled to such an extent that all
Trust Territories have attained self-government or independence, either as separate
States or by joining neighbouring independent countries.
• The Council suspended operation on 1 November 1994, with the independence of
Palau, the last remaining United Nations trust territory, on 1 October 1994.

Topic: United Nations And International
Relations

WHAT IS DIPLOMACY ?
• (1) “Diplomacy is the process of representation and negotiation by which states
customarily deal with one another in times of peace.” —Padelford and Lincoln.
• (2) “Diplomacy is the application of intelligence and tact to the conduct of official
relations between governments of independent states.” —Sir Ernest Satow.
• (3) “Diplomacy is “the art of forwarding one’s interests in relation to other
countries.” —K.M. Panikar .
• On the basis of these definitions, it can be said that, Diplomacy is the mechanism
for the promotion of national interest of the nation that it represents. It is done by
means of negotiations and conduct of relations with other nations. Diplomacy is
always guided and conditioned by the foreign policy of the nation that it represents.

NATURE OF DIPLOMACY
(1) Diplomacy is not Immoral.
(2) Diplomacy is a means of International Relations.
(3) Diplomacy is machinery for action.
(4) Diplomacy acts through Settled Procedures.
(5) Bilateral as well as Multilateral in Form.
(6) Diplomacy handles all types of Matters.
(7) Breakdown of Diplomacy always leads to Crisis.
(8) Diplomacy operates both in times of Peace as well as War.
(9) Diplomacy works in an environment characterised both by Conflict and
Cooperation.

SIX MAIN DEVICES OF DIPLOMACY
(i) Persuasion
(ii) Rewards
(iii) Promise of Reward and Concessions
(iv) Threat of use of Force
(v) Non-violent Punishment
(vi) Use of Pressure

NEW DIPLOMACY AND DISTINCTION WITH OLD
DIPLOMACY
(i) New Diplomacy is Global, Old Diplomacy was mainly European
The New Diplomacy is truly global in nature and scope. The rise of Asia, Africa and
Latin America and the emergence of a large number of sovereign independent states
changed the character of post-war international relations.

NEW DIPLOMACY AND DISTINCTION WITH OLD
. DIPLOMACY
(ii) New Diplomacy is mostly Multilateral, whereas Old Diplomacy was mostly
Bilateral:
Multilateral negotiations in international conferences, institutionalized diplomacy at
the United Nations and the emergence of direct personal contacts among the
statesmen and leaders of various states, have all combined to give a new look and
content to New Diplomacy.
(iii) New Diplomacy is less formal than Old Diplomacy:
New Diplomacy is not as much formal and rigid in respect of rules or procedures as
was the case with the Old Diplomacy.

NEW DIPLOMACY AND DISTINCTION WITH .
. OLD DIPLOMACY
(iv) New Diplomacy is mostly open and Old Diplomacy was mostly secret:
In New Diplomacy the negotiations are open and the results are, invariably always,
made public soon after the reaching of agreements or treaties or alliances or
settlements.
(v) Democratic Nature of New Diplomacy versus Aristocratic nature of Old
Diplomacy:
The New Diplomacy is democratic, whereas Old Diplomacy was aristocratic in
nature. In the era of the latter, a special elitist class of diplomats, who were
professionals to the core, used to conduct diplomatic negotiations and relations.

United Nations And International
Relations
Topic - Peaceful Settlement Of Disputes

PEACEFUL SETTLEMENT OF DISPUTES
CONCILIATION
Conciliation differs from arbitration in one very important respect: the result of the
former is not legally binding and thus has no influence on any further litigation of
the dispute. Boczek defined conciliation as “...a diplomatic method of third-party
peaceful settlement. whereby a dispute is referred by the parties, with their consent,
to a permanent or ad hoc commission, ...whose task is impartially to examine the
dispute and to prepare a report with the suggestion of a concrete proposal.”

GOOD OFFICES
Similar to mediation is good offices, which is not mentioned in the UN Charter.
Good offices is recognized by the Hague Convention for the Pacific Settlement of
International Disputes of 1899 (187 CTS 410). It is like mediation except that the
third-party does not participate actively in the negotiations. S/he merely effects
communication between the parties saving them the difficulties of personal contact.
And the parties have no prior commitment to the result.
NEGOTIATION
Negotiation is a diplomatic procedure whereby representatives of states engage in
discussing matters...between them...to clarify and reconcile their divergent positions
and resolve the dispute.”

NEGOTIATION
Negotiation is a diplomatic procedure whereby representatives of states engage in
discussing matters...between them...to clarify and reconcile their divergent positions
and resolve the dispute.”

JUDICIAL SETTLEMENT
Judicial settlement is a settlement of dispute between States by an international
tribunal in accordance with the rules of International Law. The international
character of the tribunal is in both its organization and its jurisdiction. International
tribunals include permanent tribunals, such as the International Court of Justice
(ICJ), the International Tribunal for the law of the Sea (ITLOS), the European
Court of Justice, the European Court of Human Rights and the Inter-American
Court of Human rights, and include ad hoc tribunals, such as the United Nations
Tribunal in Libya. The ICJ is the most important international tribunal, because of
its both prestige and jurisdiction.

COLLECTIVE SECURITY MECHANISM
(1) “Collective Security is machinery for joint action in order to prevent or counter
any attack against an established international order.” —George Schwarzenberger
(2) “Collective Security clearly implies collective measures for dealing with threats to
peace.” —Palmer and Perkins
(3) “In essence, Collective Security is an arrangement among states in which all
promise, in the event any member of the system engages in certain prohibited acts
(war and aggression) against another member, to come to latter’s assistance.” —
Schleicher.
In simple words, Collective Security system guarantees the security of each state of
the world against any war or aggression which may be committed by any state
against any other state. It is like an insurance system in which all the nations are
bound to protect the victim of an aggression or war by neutralizing the aggression
or war against the victim.

NATURE OF COLLECTIVE SECURITY
Collective Security stands for preserving security through collective actions. Its
two key elements are:
• (1) Security is the chief goal of all the nations. Presently the security of each nation
stands inseparably linked up with the security of all other nations.
• (2) The term ‘collective’, as a part of the concept of collective security, refers to the
method by which security is to be defended in the event of any war or aggression
against the security of any nation.
• Aggression or war against any one nation is a war against all the nations. Therefore
all the nations are to act collectively against every War/Aggression.

MAIN FEATURES/CHARACTERISTICS OF
COLLECTIVE SECURITY
(1) A Device of Power Management.
(2) It accepts Universality of Aggression.
(3) All Nations are committed to pool their power for ending Aggression.
(4) Global Preponderance of Power.
(5) Admits the presence of an International Organisation.
(6) Collective Security System is a Deterrent against War.
(7) Aggression/war is the enemy and not the State which commits it.

IDEAL CONDITIONS FOR THE SUCCESS OF
COLLECTIVE SECURITY
Collective Security system can successfully operate when the following conditions
are present in the international system.
1. Agreement on the definition of Aggression.
2. More broad based and more powerful United Nations.
3. More powerful role of UN Security Council and strong commitment of its permanent
members in favour of collective security of international peace and security.
4. Existence of a permanent international peace keeping force.
5. An established procedure for termination of every collective security action.
6. Popularization of peaceful means of conflict resolution.

United Nations And International Relations

UN PRINCIPAL ORGANS
INTRODUCTION
The United Nations (UN) is an international organization founded in 1945. It is
currently made up of 193 Member States. Its activities include maintaining
international peace and security, protecting human rights, delivering humanitarian
aid, promoting sustainable development and upholding international law. The name
“United Nations”, coined by United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt. A
document called The Declaration by United Nations was signed in 1942 by 26
nations, pledging their Governments to continue fighting together against the Axis
Powers (Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis) and bound them against making a separate
peace.

THE MAIN ORGANS OF THE UN
• the General Assembly,
• the Security Council,
• the Economic and Social Council,
• the Trusteeship Council,
• the International Court of Justice,
• and the UN Secretariat.
• All the 6 were established in 1945 when the UN was founded.

1. GENERAL ASSEMBLY
• The General Assembly is the main deliberative, policymaking and representative
organ of the UN.
• All 193 Member States of the UN are represented in the General Assembly,
making it the only UN body with universal representation.
• Each year, in September, the full UN membership meets in the General Assembly
Hall in New York for the annual General Assembly session, and general debate,
which many heads of state attend and address.
• Decisions on important questions, such as those on peace and security, admission of
new members and budgetary matters, require a two-thirds majority of the General
Assembly.
• Decisions on other questions are by simple majority.
• The President of the General Assembly is elected each year by assembly to serve a
one-year term of office.

2. SECURITY COUNCIL
• It has primary responsibility, under the UN Charter, for the maintenance of
international peace and security.
• The Security Council is made up of fifteen member states, consisting of five
permanent members—China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United
States—and ten non-permanent members elected for two-year terms by the General
Assembly on a regional basis.
• "Veto power" refers to the power of the permanent member to veto (Reject) any
resolution of Security Council.

3. ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL (ECOSOC)
• It is the principal body for coordination, policy review, policy dialogue and
recommendations on economic, social and environmental issues, as well as
implementation of internationally agreed development goals.
• It has 54 Members, elected by the General Assembly for overlapping three-year
terms.
• It is the United Nations’ central platform for reflection, debate, and innovative
thinking on sustainable development.

4. Trusteeship Council
• It was established in 1945 by the UN Charter, under Chapter XIII.
• Trust territory is a non-self-governing territory placed under an administrative
authority by the Trusteeship Council of the United Nations.
• A League of Nations mandate was a legal status for certain territories transferred
from the control of one country to another following World War I, or the legal
instruments that contained the internationally agreed-upon terms for administering
the territory on behalf of the League of Nations.
• It had to provide international supervision for 11 Trust Territories that had been
placed under the administration of seven Member States, and ensure that adequate
steps were taken to prepare the Territories for self-government and independence.
• By 1994, all Trust Territories had attained self-government or independence. The
Trusteeship Council suspended operation on 1 November 1994.

5.THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE
• The International Court of Justice is the principal judicial organ of the United
Nations. It was established in June 1945 by the Charter of the United Nations and
began work in April 1946.
• The ICJ is the successor of the Permanent Court of International Justice
(PCIJ),which was established by the League of Nations in 1920.

6. SECRETARIAT
• The Secretariat comprises the Secretary-General and tens of thousands
of international UN staff members who carry out the day-to-day work of the UN
as mandated by the General Assembly and the Organization's other principal
organs.
• The Secretary-General is chief administrative officer of the Organization,
appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security
Council for a five-year, renewable term.
• UN staff members are recruited internationally and locally, and work in duty
stations and on peacekeeping missions all around the world.

TOPIC: Cold war

Cold War?
• The tension and rivalry between the USA and the USSR was described as the Cold
War (1945-1990).
• There was never a real war between the two sides between 1945 and 1990, but they
were often very close to war (Hotspots). Both sides got involved in other conflicts
in the world to either stop the spread of communism (USA) or help the spread
(USSR).

A clash of Ideologies
1. Communism:
- Collectivism
- Equality
- Socialism
- Totalitarianism
* The end goal of communism is to convert the world.

A clash of Ideologies
2. Capitalism
- Individualism
- Freedom
- Democracy
- Limited Government
* The end goal of capitalism is economic freedom

Nuclear tensions
• The USA had shown its atomic power when it exploded the A-bombs on Hiroshima
and Nagasaki at the end of World War 2.
• The USSR was also developing atomic weapons/bombs.
• The USA and the USSR were in competition with each other to have the best, most
powerful weapons in the world – this was called the Arms Race.

Tension @ Potsdam
• The U.S., Great Britain and U.S.S.R. sat down before the end of WWII to decide
what Europe would look like
• The soviets viewed the lands they occupied following WWII as “payback” for the
sacrifices they made in WWII
• Stalin promised the Soviets would allow free elections in the lands that they
occupied
• “Free” elections meant only the communist party to vote for.
• What happened to all the other Parties? Hmmm?

The ‘Truman Doctrine’
• Truman had been horrified at the pre-war Allied policy of appeasement and was
determined to stand up to any Soviet intimidation.
The Truman Doctrine in March 1947 promised that the USA “would support free
peoples who are resisting subjugation by armed minorities or by outside
pressures”.
• Triggered by British inability to hold the line in Greece, it was followed by aid to
Greece and Turkey, and also money to help capitalists to stop communists in Italy
and France.
It signalled the end of “isolationist” policies.

“Economic” Aid
• The Marshall Plan offered huge sums to enable the economies of Europe to
rebuild after World War II, and, by generating prosperity, to reject the appeal of
Communism.
• The Soviet Union (USSR) prevented Eastern European countries from receiving
American money
• They followed up with their own “plan” called the Molotov Plan
• However, to receive aid from the Molotov Plan, Nations had to agree to Soviet
presence

Germany - divided
• Germany, which had been ruled by the Hitler and the Nazis until their defeat in
1945 was split in two.
• The western side became West Germany and the eastern side became East
Germany.
• East Germany became another communist country.

The Korean War
1950-1953
• Korea was divided at the 38th parallel of latitude.
• North Korea was communist and supported by the Soviets, and South Korea was
democratic and supported by the U.S.
• In June of 1950, North Korea invaded South Korea.

The Korean War
1950-1953
• The U.N. sent an international force to Korea in order to push the North Koreans
out of South Korea.
• United Nations forces fighting to recapture Seoul, South Korea, from communist
invaders, September 1950.

Crisis Over Cuba
• By the 1960’s, the U.S. and the Soviet Union emerged as superpowers.
• In 1959, Fidel Castro led a communist revolution in Cuba, causing thousands of
Cubans to flee to the United States.

Bay of Pigs Invasion
• · The exiles landed at the Bay of Pigs in Southern Cuba where they were easily
defeated by Cuban forces, strengthening Fidel Castro and embarrassing the United
States.
• Fidel Castro, parading through the streets of Havana after his victory against
Cuban expatriates in the Bay of Pigs invasion. (1961)

The Vietnam War
c.1963-1975
• · Vietnam, a former French colony, was divided into two sections in 1954.
• · North Vietnam, led by Ho Chi Minh, was communist and backed by the Soviet
Union.
• · South Vietnam, led by Ngo Dinh Diem, was democratic and backed by the U.S.

The Vietnam War
1963-1975
• · Many South Vietnamese distrusted Diem and joined the Vietcong, a communist
guerilla group supported by North Vietnam.
• · In August 1964, U.S. military officials believed that the North Vietnamese had
torpedoed an American ship in the Gulf of Tonkin.
• · In response, the U.S. passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which allowed the
U.S. to begin bombing enemy targets within North and South Vietnam.
• Peace Without Victory
• · In January 1973, the U.S. reached a cease-fire agreement with North Vietnam and
brought their troops home.
• · However, the U.S. continued to send billions of dollars in support of the South
Vietnamese.

The Vietnam War
1963-1975
• · In April of 1975, the communists captured the South Vietnamese capital of
Saigon, renamed it Ho Chi Minh City, and reunited Vietnam under one communist
flag.

TOPIC: International Terrorism

International Terrorism
• Numerous global issues impinge directly on our security; however, terrorism may
be considered as the most treacherous issue to the human race. Enders and Sandler
describe terrorism as stimulated violence and unlawful use of hostility against
civilians for religious, political and nationalistic goals by illegal groups (Enders and
Sandler, 5). The terrorism assaults across the globe particularly, the dreadful attack
in September 9/11, has confirmed categorically that terrorism may be a solemn
threat to global peace. Moreover, terrorism is a global phenomenal with numerous
sides that are interconnected with current issues.

• As a result of globalization, nations at present are more inter-reliant and this has
created a domino effect of acts of terror. Terrorism takes variant forms such as
hijackings, bombings, assassinations and shootings and is never accidental, blind or
unplanned. It is often an intended act of aggression towards a specific society that is
employed to harm its psyche so as to attain their ends; these ends may be political,
ideological or religious. Krueger indicates that terrorism is an approach aimed at
attaining economic and political ambitions through the spread of fear (Krueger, 14).
The consequences of these atrocious acts are not limited to any territory and
proceed to generate ripples of panic and fear across the globe caused by the
revolutions in As a result of globalization, nations at present are more inter-reliant
and this has created a domino effect of acts of terror. Terrorism takes variant forms
such as hijackings, bombings, assassinations and shootings and is never accidental,
blind or unplanned.

• It is often an intended act of aggression towards a specific society that is employed to harm its
psyche so as to attain their ends; these ends may be political, ideological or religious. Krueger
indicates that terrorism is an approach aimed at attaining economic and political ambitions
through the spread of fear (Krueger, 14). The consequences of these atrocious acts are not
limited to any territory and proceed to generate ripples of panic and fear across the globe
caused by the revolutions in information technology and communications that have shrunk
the earth into a “global village”. Consequently, even in the nonexistence of this augmented
connectivity across boundaries and distances, terrorism becomes an issue of concern to
nearly all the nations whether or not they are a direct target.

• Terrorist groups with various modus operandi and objectives continue to propagate
the ever-escalating divide among the “HAVES” and the “HAVE NOTS”. The
mounting frustration and desperation of millions of people then twirl into willing
tools for terrorist organizers to cause misery and various atrocities. According to
Krueger, terrorism flourishes like a scrounger on the frustrations and anguish of the
oppressed. In addition, terrorism has politico-religious and socioeconomic sources,
and these aspects must be taken into consideration so as to counteract the dangers
posed by terrorism. Moreover, we must bear in mind that governments are at
present engaged in wars against a nebulous enemy, occasionally even enemies
within that may strike at anytime. Although, the people and government may be
watchful, terrorists may use any susceptibility in the structure of government to
cruelly inflict great damage.

• Terrorism may be a virulent disease which is too costly to cure. Besides, the
economic and socio-political factors lay a foundation for executors to set-up
breeding grounds for terrorism; hence, they ought to be professionally addressed.
Once poverty, exploitation, corruption, unequal access and uneven distribution of
resources are eradicated, the simplicity with which radicals are conscripted will
desist. All this may be easier said than done; however, the fact remains that, once
the cause is caped, the burden will end automatically. In addition, ensuring that
these issues become controllable and conquerable is vital for global peace. Pape
points out that, terrorists hardly aspire to install democracy in their own countries;
hence, we ought to fight terrorism everywhere it exists, since terrorism threatens
democracy universally.

• In conclusion, terrorism has been present for a long time, in various places and in
numerous forms. Terrorism may be harmful to the world and ought to be prevented.
Deterrence of terrorism can only be accomplished through governments taking
smart and mature actions, and also through educating their populace. War on
terrorism will never improve the state of affairs; given the fact that both the
governments and their citizens continue to be blind and hypocritical to issues of
terrorism; thus, the paramount way to end terrorism systematically is to desist from
engaging in behaviors that cause it.

TOPIC: NON –Aligned Movement & NATO

Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)
• Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), international organization dedicated to
representing the interests and aspirations of developing countries. In the early 21st
century the Non-Aligned Movement counted 120 member states.

• The Non-Aligned Movement emerged in the context of the wave
of decolonization that followed World War II. At the 1955 Bandung
Conference (the Asian-African Conference), the attendees, many of whose
countries had recently gained their independence, called for “abstention from the
use of arrangements of collective defense to serve the particular interests of any of
the big powers.” In the context of the Cold War, they argued, countries of the
developing world should abstain from allying with either of the two superpowers
(the United States and the U.S.S.R.) and should instead join together in support of
national self-determination against all forms of colonialism and imperialism. The
Non-Aligned Movement was founded and held its first conference (the Belgrade
Conference) in 1961 under the leadership of Josip Broz Tito of Yugoslavia, Gamal
Abdel Nasser of Egypt, Jawaharlal Nehru of India, Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana,
and Sukarno of Indonesia.

• As a condition for membership, the states of the Non-Aligned Movement cannot be
part of a multilateral military alliance (such as the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization [NATO]) or have signed a bilateral military agreement with one of the
“big powers” if it was “deliberately concluded in the context of Great Power
conflicts.” However, the idea of nonalignment does not signify that a state ought to
remain passive or even neutral in international politics. On the contrary, from the
founding of the Non-Aligned Movement, its stated aim has been to give a voice to
developing countries and to encourage their concerted action in world affairs.

• Unlike the United Nations (UN) or the Organization of American States, the Non-
Aligned Movement has no formal constitution or permanent secretariat. All
members of the Non-Aligned Movement have equal weight within its organization.
The movement’s positions are reached by consensus in the Summit Conference of
Heads of State or Government, which usually convenes every three years. The
administration of the organization is the responsibility of the country holding the
chair, a position that rotates at every summit. The ministers of foreign affairs of the
member states meet more regularly in order to discuss common challenges, notably
at the opening of each regular session of the UN General Assembly.

• One of the challenges of the Non-Aligned Movement in the 21st century has been
to reassess its identity and purpose in the post-Cold War era. The movement has
continued to advocate for international cooperation, multilateralism, and national
self-determination, but it has also been increasingly vocal against the inequities of
the world economic order.

NATO
• What Is NATO :
•A political and military organization.
• Member countries
• Sharing common values
• The principles of collective defense
• Comprehensive vision of security
• Maintaining the trans-atlantics link.

NATO works
• Consensus decision making
• Civil and military structure
• Delegations
• Main bodies of NATO
• NATO Secretary General
• International military staff
• Military command stuff
• Agencies
• Paying for NATO

Purposes
• NATO during the Cold War. From its founding, NATO's primary purpose was to
unify and strengthen the Western Allies' military response to a possible invasion of
western Europe by the Soviet Union and its Warsaw Pact allies. Its main purpose
was to defend each other from the possibility of communist Soviet Union taking
control of their nation.

Why was NATO created
• The North Atlantic Treaty Organization was created in 1949 by the United States,
Canada, and several Western European nations to provide collective security
against the Soviet Union. NATO was the first peacetime military alliance the United
States entered into outside of the Western Hemisphere.

Mission
• NATO is a crisis management organization that has the capacity to undertake a
wide range of military operations and missions. Currently, NATO is operating in
Afghanistan, Kosovo and the Mediterranean. NATO is also supporting the African
Union and conducting air policing missions on the request of its Allies.

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