HISTORY & EVOLUTION OF PATHOLOGY
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PATHOLOGY, SECOND MBBS, MEDICAL COUNCIL OF INDIA, COMPETENCY BASED UNDERGRADUATE CURRICULUM FOR THE INDIAN MEDICAL GRADUATE, 2018
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ROLE OF PATHOLOGIST IN DIAGNOSIS & MANAGEMENT OF DISEASE
A pathologist plays two key roles in patient care: diagnosis of disease and management of disease. For diagnosis, the pathologist uses laboratory tests to confirm clinical diagnoses and determine the specific cause of disease. This informs evidence-based treatment. For management, the pathologist assesses treatment effectiveness through laboratory parameters and ensures safe blood transfusions when needed through the blood bank. As an example, a pathologist would diagnose and monitor the specific cause and treatment of a patient's anemia through hematological tests.
Introduction of pathology
This document provides an overview of pathology. It defines pathology as the study of structural, biochemical, and functional changes in cells, tissues, and organs that underlie disease. A pathologist examines cells and tissues removed from the body to identify diseases. The core areas of pathology include studying the etiology, pathogenesis, and morphological and functional changes that result from disease. Pathology aids in the diagnosis and management of disease processes by examining biopsied tissue samples microscopically, as seen in the example case of a woman diagnosed with follicular lymphoma following biopsy of an enlarged lymph node.
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Lymphoid neoplasm
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The document discusses the buffy coat method for preparing platelets from whole blood as an alternative to the apheresis platelet rich plasma method. It summarizes that the buffy coat method is used in many European and Asian countries and provides platelets with less activation and damage compared to the PRP method. It then outlines the buffy coat pooling method established at AIIMS blood bank in New Delhi, including preparation steps, quality control testing, and results showing non-inferiority to apheresis platelets in terms of yield, storage parameters, and sterility. Clinical trials also demonstrated equivalent efficacy to apheresis platelets in increasing platelet counts.
COMMON DEFINITIONS & TERMS USED IN PATHOLOGY
PATHOLOGY, SECOND MBBS, MEDICAL COUNCIL OF INDIA, COMPETENCY BASED UNDERGRADUATE CURRICULUM FOR THE INDIAN MEDICAL GRADUATE, 2018
Recommended
ROLE OF PATHOLOGIST IN DIAGNOSIS & MANAGEMENT OF DISEASE
A pathologist plays two key roles in patient care: diagnosis of disease and management of disease. For diagnosis, the pathologist uses laboratory tests to confirm clinical diagnoses and determine the specific cause of disease. This informs evidence-based treatment. For management, the pathologist assesses treatment effectiveness through laboratory parameters and ensures safe blood transfusions when needed through the blood bank. As an example, a pathologist would diagnose and monitor the specific cause and treatment of a patient's anemia through hematological tests.
Introduction of pathology
This document provides an overview of pathology. It defines pathology as the study of structural, biochemical, and functional changes in cells, tissues, and organs that underlie disease. A pathologist examines cells and tissues removed from the body to identify diseases. The core areas of pathology include studying the etiology, pathogenesis, and morphological and functional changes that result from disease. Pathology aids in the diagnosis and management of disease processes by examining biopsied tissue samples microscopically, as seen in the example case of a woman diagnosed with follicular lymphoma following biopsy of an enlarged lymph node.
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Lymphoid neoplasm
White blood cells, also known as leukocytes, are immune cells that help the body fight infections and diseases. There are different types of white blood cells, each with distinct functions in the immune system. Diseases can arise when white blood cells are damaged, functioning improperly, or their numbers become too high or too low.
Artefaccts in hemat part 1
The document discusses various investigations and artifacts in hematology. It covers topics like complete blood count, hemogram tests, tests of hemostatic function, blood collection methods, and common errors in hematological tests. The complete blood count includes tests like hemoglobin concentration, total erythrocyte count, total leukocyte count, and blood film examination. Hemostatic function tests include bleeding time, clotting time, prothrombin time, and fibrinogen determination. Proper blood collection and anticoagulant use are important to avoid hemolysis and other errors in test results.
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The document discusses the buffy coat method for preparing platelets from whole blood as an alternative to the apheresis platelet rich plasma method. It summarizes that the buffy coat method is used in many European and Asian countries and provides platelets with less activation and damage compared to the PRP method. It then outlines the buffy coat pooling method established at AIIMS blood bank in New Delhi, including preparation steps, quality control testing, and results showing non-inferiority to apheresis platelets in terms of yield, storage parameters, and sterility. Clinical trials also demonstrated equivalent efficacy to apheresis platelets in increasing platelet counts.
COMMON DEFINITIONS & TERMS USED IN PATHOLOGY
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Lymphoma is a cancer of lymphocytes. The most common place for abnormal lymphocytes is in lymph nodes (glands) particularly
under the arms, in the neck and in the groin.
Lymphoma is solid tumors of the immune system arising from cells of lymphoid tissues; lymphocytes, histiocytes, and reticulum cells. It can happen anywhere in the immune system, but usually in lymph nodes, spleen, marrow, and tonsils. Location and the behavior of lymphomas separate them from leukemia.The malignancy starts and restricted to lymphoid tissues and progress to involve the BM and appears in PB, at this stage it may be named, “lymphosarcoma cell leukemia.
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This document discusses diagnostic cytopathology. It covers:
1. Cytopathology examines cells from body cavities, mucosal surfaces, and organs/masses obtained via needle aspiration to determine the cause of disease microscopically.
2. The history of cytopathology including the contributions of Papanicolaou and Koss.
3. The advantages of cytopathology include rapid diagnosis, low cost, ability to sample without tissue injury, and ability to repeatedly sample. Disadvantages include inability to always determine tumor type or distinguish pre-invasive from invasive changes.
4. Types of cytopathology include exfoliative from spontaneously shed cells, abrasive which dislodges
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cytology of body fluid
1. Cytology of body fluids involves examining fluids from various body cavities including cerebrospinal fluid, pleural fluid, peritoneal fluid, pericardial fluid, and synovial fluid. Specimen collection and laboratory analysis includes gross examination, cell counts, biochemical analysis, and microscopic examination.
2. Transudates and exudates are distinguished based on characteristics like protein content and cell differentials. Infection, inflammation, and malignancy can be identified by analyzing changes in fluid characteristics.
3. Cytology of body fluids provides diagnostic information for conditions affecting various organ systems. Proper collection and analysis of physical and chemical properties aids in differential diagnosis.
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The intrathoracic and intraperitoneal organs are covered by a single layer of mesothelial cells, which is continuous with the lining of the thoracic and peritoneal cavities. The potential space between the two layers of epithelium contains a small amount of lubricating fluid.
Serous fluid lies between the membranes lining the body cavities(parietal) and those covering the organs within the cavities(visceral).
Production and reabsorption are normally at a constant rate. They are influenced by
Changes in osmotic and hydrostatic pressure in the blood.
Concentration of chemical constituents in the plasma
Permeability of blood vessels and membranes.
An accumulation of fluid, called an effusion, results from an imbalance of fluid production and reabsorption. This fluid accumulation in the pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal cavities is known as serous effusion.
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This document discusses various histopathological patterns seen in tissue samples. It defines terms like trabeculae, syncytium, alveolus, herringbone, storiform, fascicle, cribriform, tubule, papillae, Indian file, hobnail, rossette, microcystic, and follicle. Examples of diseases that exhibit each pattern are provided. The objectives are to help differentiate patterns in histopathology. Key patterns include trabecular, syncytial, alveolar, herringbone, storiform, fascicular, cribriform, tubular, papillary, micropapillary, Indian file, hobnail, and rossette
Automated cell counters
There are three main types of cell counting: manual, semi-automated, and automated. Fully automated cell counters use either impedance or optical methods like light scattering to count and classify cells. Automated counting has advantages over manual counting like being objective, eliminating errors, and providing additional parameters. Automated counters can provide a 3, 5, or 7-part differential count based on cell volume, staining properties, and light scattering characteristics. Newer technologies like flow cytometry provide more detailed analysis of cellular features.
Pericardial fluid
It is fluid which is present
in the pericardial cavity of
heart b/w parietal pericardium n visceral pericardium.
The pericardial cavity is a
potential space lined by
mesothelium of the visceral n parietal pericardium.
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Endometrium in pathology
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–Why endometrial sampling?
–Why interpretation important and difficult?
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2. Key details are provided about the clinical features, oral manifestations, diagnosis, and management of each condition. Lazy leukocyte syndrome involves defects in neutrophil migration leading to recurrent infections. Chediak-Higashi syndrome is a genetic disorder characterized by enlarged granules and recurrent infections.
3. Infectious mononucleosis is caused by the Epstein-Barr virus and presents with fever, pharyngitis, adenopathy, and often oral lesions. Leukemia is classified as acute or chronic
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The document summarizes the anatomy and histology of the normal breast as well as various benign breast conditions. It describes the lobes, ducts, lobules and stroma of the breast. It then discusses various benign breast diseases and alterations including acute mastitis, periductal mastitis, duct ectasia, fat necrosis, granulomatous mastitis and various proliferative breast diseases without atypia.
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The document provides an introduction to the pathology department and describes the various subspecialties and benches within histopathology. It discusses that pathology is the study of disease processes and changes in cells, tissues, and organs. The key benches in histopathology are processing, grossing, tissue processing, embedding, cutting, histochemistry, immunohistochemistry, special stains, cytology, and cytogenetics. Each bench performs specific functions in examining tissues at the macroscopic and microscopic level to arrive at diagnoses.
Disorders of white blood cells
This document discusses white blood cells (WBCs) and lymphoid tissues. It begins by introducing WBCs and their development stages. WBCs are categorized into granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils) and agranulocytes (lymphocytes, monocytes). The document then discusses specific WBC types in more detail, including their morphology, functions, and pathological variations seen in disorders. Disorders are categorized as non-neoplastic (increases or decreases in WBC counts) and neoplastic (leukemias and lymphomas). Overall, the document provides an overview of WBCs and lymphoid cells
Renal pediatric tumors
This document discusses renal pediatric tumors. It begins by describing the main types of nephroblastic tumors and renal epithelial tumors of childhood. Wilms tumor, or nephroblastoma, comprises over 80% of renal tumors in children and is discussed in detail, including associated syndromes, gross and microscopic pathology, staging, and treatment. Mesoblastic nephroma and clear cell sarcoma are also described as relatively rare but important renal tumors of childhood. The key information provided includes classification, clinical features, histopathology, immunoprofile, differential diagnosis, and prognosis for the major pediatric renal tumors.
Chronic Lymphatic Leukaemia
Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is a progressive accumulation of dysfunctional B lymphocytes in the blood, bone marrow, and lymph nodes. It typically presents in older adults and runs a variable clinical course, with some patients experiencing rapid progression while others have stable disease for many years. Treatment is recommended for symptomatic disease or disease-related complications. While CLL remains generally incurable, newer chemoimmunotherapy regimens have shown high response rates with acceptable toxicity.
PRIMARY IMMUNE DEFICIENCY DISEASES
This document discusses primary immune deficiency diseases. It covers the general features, etiology, and types of congenital immune deficiencies including defects of B lymphocytes like X-linked agammaglobulinemia and common variable immunodeficiency. It also discusses defects of T lymphocytes including severe combined immunodeficiency. Other conditions mentioned include DiGeorge syndrome, Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome, and complement deficiencies. Multiple choice questions are provided to test understanding of these conditions.
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Ch 2 adaptations, cell injury, cell death
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Lymphomas+ Multiple Choice Questions
Lymphoma is a cancer of lymphocytes. The most common place for abnormal lymphocytes is in lymph nodes (glands) particularly
under the arms, in the neck and in the groin.
Lymphoma is solid tumors of the immune system arising from cells of lymphoid tissues; lymphocytes, histiocytes, and reticulum cells. It can happen anywhere in the immune system, but usually in lymph nodes, spleen, marrow, and tonsils. Location and the behavior of lymphomas separate them from leukemia.The malignancy starts and restricted to lymphoid tissues and progress to involve the BM and appears in PB, at this stage it may be named, “lymphosarcoma cell leukemia.
diagnostic Cytology introduction , Body fluids cytology
This document discusses diagnostic cytopathology. It covers:
1. Cytopathology examines cells from body cavities, mucosal surfaces, and organs/masses obtained via needle aspiration to determine the cause of disease microscopically.
2. The history of cytopathology including the contributions of Papanicolaou and Koss.
3. The advantages of cytopathology include rapid diagnosis, low cost, ability to sample without tissue injury, and ability to repeatedly sample. Disadvantages include inability to always determine tumor type or distinguish pre-invasive from invasive changes.
4. Types of cytopathology include exfoliative from spontaneously shed cells, abrasive which dislodges
PATHOLOGICAL CALCIFICATION
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lekopoiesis
This document discusses leukopoiesis, the process by which white blood cells are formed. It explains that all blood cells, including white blood cells, are formed from pluripotent hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow. These stem cells can differentiate into either myeloid or lymphoid stem cells. Myeloid stem cells go on to produce red blood cells, platelets, monocytes, or granulocytes, while lymphoid stem cells produce lymphocytes. Leukopoiesis involves the maturation of these stem cells into the various types of white blood cells.
cytology of body fluid
1. Cytology of body fluids involves examining fluids from various body cavities including cerebrospinal fluid, pleural fluid, peritoneal fluid, pericardial fluid, and synovial fluid. Specimen collection and laboratory analysis includes gross examination, cell counts, biochemical analysis, and microscopic examination.
2. Transudates and exudates are distinguished based on characteristics like protein content and cell differentials. Infection, inflammation, and malignancy can be identified by analyzing changes in fluid characteristics.
3. Cytology of body fluids provides diagnostic information for conditions affecting various organ systems. Proper collection and analysis of physical and chemical properties aids in differential diagnosis.
Bone marrow biopsy and interpretation
The document discusses bone marrow biopsy techniques and evaluation. It describes the structure of bone marrow, including cellular elements and stroma. Needle types and biopsy sites are covered. Processing involves fixation, decalcification, embedding and staining. Evaluation is based on clinical history, hemogram, smear and aspiration. Adequacy, cellularity, cell topography, proliferation, fibrosis, infections, and infiltrative diseases are assessed. Stromal changes like fibrosis and necrosis are also evaluated. Common conditions affecting bone marrow including CML, MDS, Hodgkin's, NHL, CLL and metastasis are discussed. Adequate history, processing, cellularity, topography, stromal changes, infections and gran
Yokohama system cytology
The document summarizes the International Academy of Cytology (IAC) System for classifying breast malignancy based on fine-needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) results. The system was developed at a meeting in Yokohama in 2016. It aims to standardize breast cytology reporting to improve diagnosis and patient management. The system categorizes FNAC results as insufficient, benign, atypical, suspicious of malignancy, or malignant, with associated risks of malignancy. Cytological features and management recommendations are provided for each category. The goal is to link cytology reports to optimal breast care.
Fluid cytology in serous cavity effusions
The intrathoracic and intraperitoneal organs are covered by a single layer of mesothelial cells, which is continuous with the lining of the thoracic and peritoneal cavities. The potential space between the two layers of epithelium contains a small amount of lubricating fluid.
Serous fluid lies between the membranes lining the body cavities(parietal) and those covering the organs within the cavities(visceral).
Production and reabsorption are normally at a constant rate. They are influenced by
Changes in osmotic and hydrostatic pressure in the blood.
Concentration of chemical constituents in the plasma
Permeability of blood vessels and membranes.
An accumulation of fluid, called an effusion, results from an imbalance of fluid production and reabsorption. This fluid accumulation in the pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal cavities is known as serous effusion.
Patterns in histopathology
This document discusses various histopathological patterns seen in tissue samples. It defines terms like trabeculae, syncytium, alveolus, herringbone, storiform, fascicle, cribriform, tubule, papillae, Indian file, hobnail, rossette, microcystic, and follicle. Examples of diseases that exhibit each pattern are provided. The objectives are to help differentiate patterns in histopathology. Key patterns include trabecular, syncytial, alveolar, herringbone, storiform, fascicular, cribriform, tubular, papillary, micropapillary, Indian file, hobnail, and rossette
Automated cell counters
There are three main types of cell counting: manual, semi-automated, and automated. Fully automated cell counters use either impedance or optical methods like light scattering to count and classify cells. Automated counting has advantages over manual counting like being objective, eliminating errors, and providing additional parameters. Automated counters can provide a 3, 5, or 7-part differential count based on cell volume, staining properties, and light scattering characteristics. Newer technologies like flow cytometry provide more detailed analysis of cellular features.
Pericardial fluid
It is fluid which is present
in the pericardial cavity of
heart b/w parietal pericardium n visceral pericardium.
The pericardial cavity is a
potential space lined by
mesothelium of the visceral n parietal pericardium.
Endometrial histopathology-Basics
Endometrium in pathology
•Basic questions
–Why endometrial sampling?
–Why interpretation important and difficult?
486 qualitative disorders of wbc
1. The document discusses several qualitative disorders of white blood cells including lazy leukocyte syndrome, Chediak-Higashi syndrome, infectious mononucleosis, leukemia, and lymphoma.
2. Key details are provided about the clinical features, oral manifestations, diagnosis, and management of each condition. Lazy leukocyte syndrome involves defects in neutrophil migration leading to recurrent infections. Chediak-Higashi syndrome is a genetic disorder characterized by enlarged granules and recurrent infections.
3. Infectious mononucleosis is caused by the Epstein-Barr virus and presents with fever, pharyngitis, adenopathy, and often oral lesions. Leukemia is classified as acute or chronic
Breast benign disorders pathology
The document summarizes the anatomy and histology of the normal breast as well as various benign breast conditions. It describes the lobes, ducts, lobules and stroma of the breast. It then discusses various benign breast diseases and alterations including acute mastitis, periductal mastitis, duct ectasia, fat necrosis, granulomatous mastitis and various proliferative breast diseases without atypia.
Introduction of pathology by DR. ROOPAM JAIN
The document provides an introduction to the pathology department and describes the various subspecialties and benches within histopathology. It discusses that pathology is the study of disease processes and changes in cells, tissues, and organs. The key benches in histopathology are processing, grossing, tissue processing, embedding, cutting, histochemistry, immunohistochemistry, special stains, cytology, and cytogenetics. Each bench performs specific functions in examining tissues at the macroscopic and microscopic level to arrive at diagnoses.
Disorders of white blood cells
This document discusses white blood cells (WBCs) and lymphoid tissues. It begins by introducing WBCs and their development stages. WBCs are categorized into granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils) and agranulocytes (lymphocytes, monocytes). The document then discusses specific WBC types in more detail, including their morphology, functions, and pathological variations seen in disorders. Disorders are categorized as non-neoplastic (increases or decreases in WBC counts) and neoplastic (leukemias and lymphomas). Overall, the document provides an overview of WBCs and lymphoid cells
Renal pediatric tumors
This document discusses renal pediatric tumors. It begins by describing the main types of nephroblastic tumors and renal epithelial tumors of childhood. Wilms tumor, or nephroblastoma, comprises over 80% of renal tumors in children and is discussed in detail, including associated syndromes, gross and microscopic pathology, staging, and treatment. Mesoblastic nephroma and clear cell sarcoma are also described as relatively rare but important renal tumors of childhood. The key information provided includes classification, clinical features, histopathology, immunoprofile, differential diagnosis, and prognosis for the major pediatric renal tumors.
Chronic Lymphatic Leukaemia
Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is a progressive accumulation of dysfunctional B lymphocytes in the blood, bone marrow, and lymph nodes. It typically presents in older adults and runs a variable clinical course, with some patients experiencing rapid progression while others have stable disease for many years. Treatment is recommended for symptomatic disease or disease-related complications. While CLL remains generally incurable, newer chemoimmunotherapy regimens have shown high response rates with acceptable toxicity.
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GANGRENE
Wet gangrene occurs due to venous obstruction leading to tissue ischemia and bacterial proliferation in moist tissues. It presents as soft, swollen, foul-smelling black tissue without a clear line of demarcation. Diabetic foot gangrene results from peripheral vascular disease, neuropathy, and infection facilitated by hyperglycemia. Dry gangrene occurs from arterial insufficiency and presents as a dry, shrunken black tissue with a well-demarcated border. Gas gangrene involves Clostridium bacteria producing tissue-damaging toxins and crepitus. Prompt surgical debridement and antibiotics are critical for treatment.
APOPTOSIS
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CELL INJURY
This document discusses cell injury, including its definition, types, causes, and pathogenesis. It defines cell injury as a change that occurs in a cell due to external or internal factors in its environment. There are two types of cell injury - reversible and irreversible. Reversible injury is when the cell is damaged but viable, while irreversible injury means the cell is nonviable. Common causes of cell injury include hypoxia, chemicals, infections, physical factors, and genetic factors. The pathogenesis of cell injury involves mitochondrial damage, disturbances in calcium metabolism, damage to cellular membranes, DNA and proteins. Reversible injury can progress to irreversible injury when ATP production ceases, cell membranes lyse, vital proteins are absent, and vital
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This document provides information about evaluating abnormalities in a semen analysis panel, including:
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- 1. PA1.3 DESCRIBE THE HISTORY & EVOLUTION OF PATHOLOGY Dr IRA BHARADWAJ MCI TEACHER ID: PAT 2300569 KUHS FACULTY ID: M21512
- 2. SLO • HISTORY & EVOLUTION OF STUDY OF GROSS PATHOLOGY • HISTORY & EVOLUTION OF STUDY OF MICROSCOPIC PATHOLOGY • HISTORY & EVOLUTION OF STUDY OF CLINICOPATHOLOGICAL CORELATIONS • HISTORY & EVOLUTION OF STUDY OF CLINICAL PATHOLOGY, HEMATOLOGY & CYTOLOGY • SDL – READ ABOUT ONE PERSONALITY FROM EACH SUBGROUP & NOTE IN YOUR LOG BOOK
- 3. EVOLUTION OF GROSS PATHOLOGY • VESALIUS • GABRIEL FALLOPIAN • G B MORGAGNI • JOHN HUNTER • WILLIAM HUNTER • XAVIER BICHAT • CARL F VON ROKITANSKY
- 4. EVOLUTION OF MICROSCOPY • ANTONY VAN LEEUWENHOCK • MARCELLO MALPIGI • METCHNIKOFF • D L ROMANOWSKY • ROBERT FEULGEN • RUDOLF VIRCHOW • JULIUS COHNHEIM • RUSKA & LORRIES
- 5. CLINICOPATHOLOGICAL CORRELATIONS • SIR PERCIVALLI SCOTT • THOMAS ADDISON • THOMAS HODGKIN • R BRIGHT • JAMES EWING • LAUREN ACKERMAN • WILLIAM STEWART HALSTEAD • DENIS PARSONS BURKITT
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