The Social Penetration Theory was developed in 1973 by psychologists Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor. The theory states that relationships develop through reciprocal self-disclosure, beginning with superficial facts and progressing to more intimate details over time. This process can be visualized using the "onion analogy," with relationship depth represented by moving from outer to inner layers of the onion. The theory has been supported by studies of confined strangers and college roommates. It remains relevant today in explaining relationship development through both in-person and digital/social media interactions.

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Nick Rizzieri
Dr. Pollak
Communication Research
December 3, 2018
Historical Research Paper
The Social Penetration Theory is a staple to communication studies and is widely
accepted throughout the world. This theory was originated by two famous psychologists named
Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor, and the theory states that “relationships begin and deepen
through self-disclosure. In the beginning, people establish relationships by disclosing many
simple, harmless facts through small talk. As relationships grow, the rate of self-disclosure slows
while the facts disclosed become increasingly intimate in” (Social Penetration, 2012). This
theory relates to nearly all relationships, including intimate relationships, friendships, those
involving family members, work relationships, social media, and many more. This theory does
an exceptional job of breaking down the barriers of the relationship process before both
individuals reach disclosure.
History of the Theory
The Social Penetration Theory was developed in 1973, while Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor
were studying together at the Naval Academy. Even though there were various researchers with
an interest in this, these two were the primary administrators of the theory. Irwin Altman put this
study to the test by placing “eighteen pairs of men that were matched closely for demographic
factors such as age, education, and religious beliefs. These eighteen pairs were relative strangers
and were split into a control group and a test group. The test group was confined to a 12 x 12
room for ten days with no external communication. The test groups revealed more about intimate

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topics during the confinement period than the control group” (Altman, Taylor, 2014). This
research has been described as important work leading up to the development of the social
penetration theory by Altman and Taylor” (Altman, Taylor, 2014). This test exemplified how
these eighteen men reached disclosure from spending a large quantity of time together. “The
Social Penetration Theory suggests that relationships and trust develop in accord with self-
disclosing message exchanges and that reciprocal self-disclosures build trust. Self-disclosures
increase trust by reducing the uncertainty surrounding exchange and by allowing an exchange
partner to predict the likely reward or cost of future interactions” (Leisen, 1998). Even though
these eighteen individuals did not know each other prior to test, they were able to build a
stronger relationship, due to the process of the Social Penetration Theory.
Onion Analogy
To understand the Social Penetration Theory from a visual standpoint, it is important
think of the “onion analogy,” and the many layers that an onion contains. “The conception of
personality in the social penetration process is compared to that of an onion with many layers
progressing from the outer layer to the inner core” (Each layer of the onion has a particular
meaning that coincides with the process of self-disclosure. To explain this in a simplistic manner,
“the outer layers of the personality consist of characteristics such as age and gender. Personality
characteristics vary from "common to unique and from high to low visibility" (Altman & Taylor,
1973, p.18), as progression moves to the more central layers. An individual's self-esteem or self-
image is not easily visible in casual interactions and is sometimes not visible in more intimate
relationships. These characteristics tend to be quite unique in nature. As progression continues
towards the most central and inner core of the "onion," the more the characteristics represent
vulnerable parts of the personality including perceived weaknesses and inadequacies. As the

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depth of penetration increases, there is a greater depiction and representation of the total
personality” (Altman & Taylor, 1973). This explanation is widely used across communication in
order to break down the levels of resonation between individuals. “The Social penetration theory
(Altman and Taylor, 1973) indicates that self-disclosure is important in promoting cordial
relations” (Hwang, Kim, 2015). The deepest and most intimate part of the relationship would be
the most central layer, while the outermost layers are the physical attributions. “The social-
penetration variables, operationally defined in terms of openness, attentiveness
flexibility, and expressiveness” (Honeycutt, Godwin, 1986). The most outer layers therefore
reflecting the least intimate, and in some cases, the most superficial. To reach the ultimate level
of self-disclosure, it is imperative to reach the central layer of the onion. This may take a long
time or short amount of time depending how fast self-disclosure among the two people may take.
Personal Characteristics
An individual's “response set is partitioned into a series of breadth categories. Each
breadth category has an associated breadth frequency. Breadth categories include items such as
sports, work, religion, politics, and perhaps even right and wrong in various circumstances.
Within each of these categories will be general tendencies or beliefs, as well as specific aspects
or facets of those beliefs” (Baack, Fogliasso, Harris, 2000). The common breadth that people
share enhances their ability to sustain a strong and developed interpersonal relationship.
Individuals can often find common ground in these categories which can help break down
barriers and ultimately lead to a sharing of more personal and intimate information.
The Situational Context
From a historical context, the Social Penetration Theory has proven that people are less
likely to open up and totally disclose themselves in the beginning stages of relationships.

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"Altman and Taylor (1973) believe that the process of social penetration moves the most quickly
in the early stages of an involvement (outer layers of the onion are the most easily penetrated or
disclosed), but then slows considerably. If early stages of involvement shape longer term
patterns of intimacy, it follows that initial reactions to an ethical or unethical climate will shape
longer-term responses to moral decisions. If the initial exposure results in negative feelings then
greater "Intimacy" (satisfaction, commitment, effort) becomes more difficult to achieve" (Baack,
Fogliasso, 2000). It can often take extensive amounts of time for individuals in relationships to
reach the full stages of disclosure, and in some cases this could take years. If at the early stages
there is discomfort in an interaction, whether it is due to a negative incident that occurs or a
conversation that is not appealing or received negatively from one of the participants, the
timeline could become extended until there is eventually comfort reaching the aspect of full
disclosure.
Social Penetration Experiment
To get a greater understanding of the Social Penetration Theory, it's important to take a
look at a study created by Dalmas Taylor. "Thirty college roommate pairs were studied over the
course of a semester regarding various aspects of their interpersonal relations. Fifteen dyads were
composed of members who were high-revealers of personal information to their "best friend" and
15 were composed of low-revealers." This study was used to analyze the process of disclosure
across the roommates, and whether the bonds among them strengthened or weakened. The
roommates "responded to questionnaires covering these areas several times over a 13-week
interval. Mutual activities and self-disclosure both increased over time, and non-intimate or
superficial exchanges of activities and information about the self occurred to a greater extent
than intimate ones” (Taylor, 1968). This example relates back to the onion analogy. The college

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roommates were unable to reach the "core" of the onion, where intimate levels were reached.
This test was for a very short duration of time which might have affected the roommates’
abilities to reach full disclosure. If the questionnaire might be asked one year later, then the
disclosure figure would potentially increase as relationships were developed and strengthened.
Technology and the Social Penetration Theory
The Social Penetration theory has been exceptionally relevant in today's time with the
evolution of technology. Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor formally used this theory for
interpersonal relationships, but in today's modern era it is used throughout the digital world. While
applying the Social Penetration Theory, "this study examines computer-mediated communication
(CMC) and its impact on the formation of relationships. Using Facebook as a model, the study
suggests that the beginning layers of communication that occur, as per the Social Penetration
Theory, have evolved as a result of CMC" (Taylor, 1968). Since social media is such a common
platform for communication in today's society, the "onion" analogy is still relevant in order to
determine the level of self-disclosure between relationships. This particular example shows that
the Social Penetration theory is valuable in any subject being studied: "Social Penetration can
occur in different contexts including romantic relationships (e.g., Taylor & Altman, 1975, 1987),
friendships, social groups (for example, religious groups or soccer clubs), and work relationships.
The theory has also been applied in computer‐mediated communication contexts such as online
dating and virtual teams" (Carpenter, Greene)
The "Social penetration theory (Altman and Taylor 1973) is used to investigate the ways
that Twitter provides a platform to technologically augment friendship evolution” (Westcott,
Owen, 2013). Twitter uses the Social Penetration Theory in order to find disclosure between the

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users, "the visibility of users via their Tweets creates information that others can use to evaluate
character in what might be considered a phase of pre-friendship screening; this information also
generates trust and solidarity prior to an offline meeting. Perceived similarity between the user
and the Tweeter was contributory to an assessment of their worth as a potential friend”
(Westcott, Owen, 2013). Often times these connections are only surface connections, and at the
top layer of the onion, but it can be a place to start. Then, with future interactions and more
opportunities for deeper sharing and disclosure, the individuals have the ability to use this digital
medium to move toward a path of fuller and deeper disclosure. It's nearly impossible to not be in
the loop of the Social Penetration Theory with Social Media. Social Media is public and external
user and able to see internal relationships reaching disclosure. The Social Penetration theory,
once again, is very prevalent in Social Media.
Conclusion to the Theory
Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor have helped shaped the communication and
psychological world since the Development of the Social Penetration Theory, in 1973. The
Social Penetration Theory can be applied anywhere and occurs through all communication.
There are so many types of relationships that people are involved in, whether they are with
family and friends, a spouse or significant other, work relationships, and there are many factors
that can affect the ways that relationships evolve. Among individuals, if there is common
interest in items such as music, sports, religion, and politics, there is an opportunity for
relationships to evolve into deeper bonds that can lead to closer connections over time. If, at the
beginning, there is a situation or incident that is negative to one of the participants, there can be
challenges for those relationships to develop to that same degree. Time is often what is needed
to allow individuals to gain comfort and work through any difference, and gain confidence in

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reaching full disclosure. The digital age is here, and it has allowed for a new way of
communicating, and for initiating and developing relationships. It is a way for individuals to
connect with those of similar backgrounds and interests. In many instances, since these may be
superficial connections, and at the top layer of the onion. But with the ability to easily stay
connected on a daily basis, digital media can provide the tools for some to reach the central part
of the onion, and perhaps do this at a faster rate. Individuals could therefore use this technology
to quickly establish a larger number of overall relationships. Some may stay on the surface, but
there is the opportunity to turn many of these into the deeper variety by leveraging all that the
digital world can offer.
Future of the Theory
The Social Penetration Theory will continue to be a major tool for the present and the
future. With the evolution of technology, this theory will be an extreme necessity in order to
understand all sources of communication. Since the world is becoming digitally dense, we’re are
shying away from human interaction. The Social Penetration Theory will help generate the
ability to reveal the disclosure of communication through all levels of technology. The more the
world evolves, the more we’re in need for the Social Penetration Theory. The Social Penetration
Theory will guide the path for the future, and will be used more than it ever has been.

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Works Cited
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Baack, D., Fogliasso, C., & Harris, J. (2000). The personal impact of ethical decisions: A social
penetration theory. Journal of Business Ethics, 24(1), 39-49. Retrieved from
https://ezproxy.queens.edu:2048/login?url=https://search.proquest.com/docview/1979909
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Taylor, D. A. (1968). The Development of Interpersonal Relationships: Social Penetration
Processes. Journal of Social Psychology, 75(1), 79–90. Retrieved from
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Pennington, N. (2008). Will You Be My Friend: Facebook as a Model for the Evolution of the
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Westcott, H., & Owen, S. (2013). Friendship and trust in the social surveillance network.
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Honeycutt, J. M., & Godwin, D. D. (1986). A Model of Marital Functioning Based on an
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