The Social Penetration Theory was developed in 1973 by psychologists Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor. The theory states that relationships develop through reciprocal self-disclosure, beginning with superficial facts and progressing to more intimate details over time. This process can be visualized using the "onion analogy," with relationship depth represented by moving from outer to inner layers of the onion. The theory has been supported by studies of confined strangers and college roommates. It remains relevant today in explaining relationship development through both in-person and digital/social media interactions.
Theory application research paper concerning Social Penetration Theory. Written as a final paper for a Theories of Communication Offered at GVSU in the fall of 2014.
Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor explain how close relationships develop through self-disclosure. They also introduced the onion metaphor to explain one's personality structure.
Tammy Dalley and Michal Willinger present the phenomenon of unconscious mimicry (copying another person without realizing it) and how it may hold the key to creating an equal and peaceful world.
Social Penetration Theory proposes that closeness in relationships develops gradually through reciprocal self-disclosure from more superficial to intimate levels of sharing. It views personality as layered like an onion, with more public aspects on the outside and private parts at the core. People aim to maximize the benefits of intimacy while minimizing vulnerability by carefully regulating how much they disclose based on expected rewards, costs, and available alternative relationships. However, the theory has been criticized for oversimplifying disclosure dynamics and overlooking gender and cultural factors.
This study examined the relationship between argumentativeness and communication apprehension, as well as differences in argumentativeness between males and females. The researchers surveyed 80 college students, finding that males scored significantly higher than females on argumentativeness, supporting the hypothesis. Contrary to expectations, they found a moderate positive correlation between argumentativeness and communication apprehension, rather than the predicted negative correlation. The findings both support previous research on gender differences in argumentativeness and contradict the assumed relationship between the two traits.
This chapter highlights theory and research that clarifies how communication establishes and maintains interpersonal relationships. Although all interpersonal communication episodes have implications for the relationships between participants, we focus on research traditions that specifically address communication’s role in the initiation, development, and maintenance of intimacy within personal relationships.
Theorizing the Future of Computer-Mediated Communication: The Changing Role o...Jessica Vitak
1. Computer-mediated communication theories have not evolved as quickly as the technologies they aim to explain.
2. Older theories focused on asynchronous and reduced-cue environments, but modern communication occurs across synchronous, visual, and networked platforms.
3. Understanding one's audience, both known and unknown, and how people selectively present themselves online, are now critical to developing updated theories of computer-mediated communication.
Social Penetration Theory proposes that relationships develop through reciprocal self-disclosure from superficial to intimate topics over time. It is likened to an onion with layers being peeled back through breath and depth of disclosure. Relationships progress through 5 stages from orientation to stable partnership or depenetration. People regulate intimacy based on weighing rewards against costs using standards of comparison to their current relationship and alternatives. While influential, the theory is limited in scope and not fully data-backed, and disclosure's impact can vary between increasing and decreasing closeness.
Theory application research paper concerning Social Penetration Theory. Written as a final paper for a Theories of Communication Offered at GVSU in the fall of 2014.
Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor explain how close relationships develop through self-disclosure. They also introduced the onion metaphor to explain one's personality structure.
Tammy Dalley and Michal Willinger present the phenomenon of unconscious mimicry (copying another person without realizing it) and how it may hold the key to creating an equal and peaceful world.
Social Penetration Theory proposes that closeness in relationships develops gradually through reciprocal self-disclosure from more superficial to intimate levels of sharing. It views personality as layered like an onion, with more public aspects on the outside and private parts at the core. People aim to maximize the benefits of intimacy while minimizing vulnerability by carefully regulating how much they disclose based on expected rewards, costs, and available alternative relationships. However, the theory has been criticized for oversimplifying disclosure dynamics and overlooking gender and cultural factors.
This study examined the relationship between argumentativeness and communication apprehension, as well as differences in argumentativeness between males and females. The researchers surveyed 80 college students, finding that males scored significantly higher than females on argumentativeness, supporting the hypothesis. Contrary to expectations, they found a moderate positive correlation between argumentativeness and communication apprehension, rather than the predicted negative correlation. The findings both support previous research on gender differences in argumentativeness and contradict the assumed relationship between the two traits.
This chapter highlights theory and research that clarifies how communication establishes and maintains interpersonal relationships. Although all interpersonal communication episodes have implications for the relationships between participants, we focus on research traditions that specifically address communication’s role in the initiation, development, and maintenance of intimacy within personal relationships.
Theorizing the Future of Computer-Mediated Communication: The Changing Role o...Jessica Vitak
1. Computer-mediated communication theories have not evolved as quickly as the technologies they aim to explain.
2. Older theories focused on asynchronous and reduced-cue environments, but modern communication occurs across synchronous, visual, and networked platforms.
3. Understanding one's audience, both known and unknown, and how people selectively present themselves online, are now critical to developing updated theories of computer-mediated communication.
Social Penetration Theory proposes that relationships develop through reciprocal self-disclosure from superficial to intimate topics over time. It is likened to an onion with layers being peeled back through breath and depth of disclosure. Relationships progress through 5 stages from orientation to stable partnership or depenetration. People regulate intimacy based on weighing rewards against costs using standards of comparison to their current relationship and alternatives. While influential, the theory is limited in scope and not fully data-backed, and disclosure's impact can vary between increasing and decreasing closeness.
This document provides an overview of learning and labeling theories of criminology. It discusses key theorists and concepts associated with each theory. For learning theories, it outlines differential association theory proposed by Sutherland and expanded on by Akers. It also discusses Anderson's subculture of violence perspective. For labeling theories, it discusses Lemert's primary and secondary deviance, Braithwaite's reintegrative shaming, and Sherman's defiance theory. The document then compares the two theories, noting areas of overlap and differences in their causal explanations for crime. It argues that learning theories provide a more comprehensive explanation of human behavior and crime. Finally, it discusses how learning theories could explain extreme violence among Mexican drug cartels.
Symbolic interactionism and family studiesMoranodi Moeti
1. Symbolic interactionism is a sociological perspective that views society and the self as emerging from social interaction and the interpretation of shared symbols. Reality and all that is humanly significant, like the self and culture, are seen as social products that arise from symbolic interactions.
2. Key concepts in symbolic interactionism include meaning, which resides in the actions that symbols elicit; situational definitions, in which people act based on how situations are defined regardless of objective reality; and self-concept formation, which emerges through reflected appraisals and the internalization of roles.
3. There are divisions within symbolic interactionism between those who emphasize studying the process of reality construction qualitatively and those who use quantitative methods to study
This document summarizes Raymond Boudon's cognitive approach to morality. It makes the following key points:
1. Boudon proposes defining axiological rationality as a form of cognitive rationality, grounded in valid reasons, rather than instrumental rationality focused only on means-ends.
2. Major philosophical theories of morality (e.g. Kantian, utilitarian) provide important intuitions but cannot be fully accepted by sociologists due to empirical contradictions.
3. Boudon's cognitive theory of morality posits that people endorse moral statements and feelings when they appear grounded in valid, if sometimes context-dependent, reasons perceived as stronger than alternatives.
Uses and gratifications theory proposes that media use provides five key gratifications: escapism, entertainment, surveillance, personal identity, and public relations. Media dependency theory builds on uses and gratifications theory by arguing that people become dependent on media to meet needs like social integration based on their circumstances rather than an inherent need for media. Maslow's hierarchy of needs also supports how people can fulfill higher needs like esteem and self-actualization through social media use.
Similarity and Interpersonal Attraction discusses the theory that people are more attracted to others who are similar to themselves in looks, opinions, morals, and other attributes. The relationship between similarity and attraction was first studied by early social scientists and communication researchers. Studies have found that similarity can positively influence persuasion and relationships in situations like public speaking, teaching, and new acquaintances. However, some criticism exists around how similarity is defined and measured in different studies. Research also indicates people may be more attracted to others whose views are shifting towards their own rather than those with high similarity from the beginning.
This document summarizes a research paper on the effect of values systems on attitudes toward interracial marriage. The paper examines how individual and group values systems may impact opinions on interracial marriage and potentially segment people into groups not previously considered. The research aims to study interracial marriage through the lens of social values systems as a way to better understand reported attitudes versus rates of interracial marriage. It reviews literature on assimilation theory and interracial marriage trends. The study proposes to experimentally assess attitudes toward interracial marriage alongside participants' placement on a values system continuum.
Conformity Is A Type Of Social Influence
Theories Of Conformity
Conformity and Obedience Essays
Conformity In Psychology
Essay about On Conformity and Obedience
Conformity Research Paper
What Is Conformity?
Conformity And Personal Conformity
Conformity and Obedience Essay
Conformity Case Study Essay
Conformity Vs. Conformity Theory
Conformity Research Paper
Conformity Essay
Conformity Literature Review
Is Conformity Good Or Bad
Social Conformity Essay
Conformity Essay
Conformity And Social Conformity
Example Of Conformity Essay
The Power of Conformity Essay
This document discusses social psychology and how it has evolved over time. It describes some of the early contributors to social psychology, such as Norman Triplett who studied competitive behavior, and Gordon Allport who studied attitudes and the self. Kurt Lewin was also influential in developing the idea that behavior is a function of both the person and the situation. The document then discusses how social psychology developed in the 1950s with the emergence of behaviorism and psychoanalysis. It continues by outlining how social psychology has expanded our understanding of social behaviors and influences through the study of topics like group dynamics and social norms.
This document provides an annotated bibliography on four communication theories: Social Penetration Theory, Social Judgment Theory, Agenda Setting Theory, and Communication Accommodation Theory. It summarizes three scholarly articles on Social Penetration Theory and how it has been taught or studied. The articles look at using movies or anonymous self-disclosure between classmates to help students understand the theory through relating it to their own experiences. The last article discusses how culture can influence self-disclosure and the progression of relationships.
Social psychology is the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. It examines how we think about, influence, and relate to one another. The focus of social psychology is on understanding how individuals are shaped by their social environments and how individuals shape those environments in turn.
Khurram Zafar Awan presented on interpretivism theory and its differences from positivism. Interpretivism developed among researchers dissatisfied with positivism's inability to reflect nuances in human interaction. Interpretivists believe research values influence findings and seek meaning in individuals' subjective experiences rather than objective perspectives. Examples provided include Paul Willis's study of working class "lads" using ethnography and Emile Durkheim's positivist study of suicide rates across demographics.
This document summarizes the key steps and considerations for conducting sociological research on the topic of how bullying among girls affects their self-esteem. The research question posed is how bullying among girls at a particular high school impacts their self-esteem. Previous literature suggests bullying can have long-lasting negative effects on self-esteem, including loss of confidence, self-criticism, isolation, and other issues. The research aims to study this issue through surveys and interviews to understand the experiences of girls who have been bullied and how it has impacted their self-image. Institutional review board approval and ethical standards for participant privacy and consent will be followed.
Solomon Asch conducted a conformity experiment in 1951 to determine if individuals would conform to an obviously incorrect group answer. Participants were asked to compare line lengths but confederates unanimously chose the wrong answer on some trials. Results showed that over a third of participants conformed at least once by choosing the incorrect answer to fit in with the group, demonstrating the powerful influence of social pressure on individual judgments.
Comparing And Contrasting Qualitative And Quantitative...Ashley Fisher
This document discusses the history and evolution of social research on natural disasters. It began during the Cold War when governments wanted to understand how citizens would react during crises like a nuclear attack. Researchers studied natural disasters to learn about social behavior under extreme conditions. The Disaster Research Center was founded to conduct qualitative studies through interviews and observations after disasters. While foundational, the document argues this research is now at a threshold where it needs to evolve to address modern challenges.
A Conceptual Framework for Examining Adolescent Identity,Med.docxsleeperharwell
A Conceptual Framework for Examining Adolescent Identity,
Media Influence, and Social Development
Blake Te’Neil Lloyd
University of South Carolina
The adolescent identity, media, and sociocognitive schema (AIMSS) framework offers
a theoretical understanding of adolescent consumption and cognitive processing of
media entertainment. Review and integration of mass communication theory, develop-
mental theory, and ecological theory serves as the conceptual foundation. The frame-
work outlines linkages between media exposure and adolescent development, in par-
ticular adolescent identity formation and social competence. A key contribution of the
model is consideration of the positive and negative aspects of adolescent cognition and
behavioral functioning. The present article offers several recommendations for testing
the utility of the AIMSS framework.
Less than a century ago, G. Stanley Hall pub-
lished his seminal work, Adolescence (1904),
which popularized the idea of adolescence as a
time of storm and strife. Since then our under-
standing of adolescence has slowly progressed
beyond a narrow focus on reactive, transient be-
haviors of maturing children to the study of intri-
cate developmental processes. Along the way,
several researchers have provided major concep-
tual and practical insights into our understanding
of how cognitive, social, and biological develop-
ment contribute to the overall well-being of the
adolescent. Erikson (1968), Elkind (1990), Brooks-
Gunn (1988), and numerous others have proposed
exemplary theoretical models that examine the
salient biological, psychosocial, and cognitive
tasks faced by adolescents. The key to deepening
this understanding of adolescent development is to
synthesize existing exemplary frameworks so as
to create new, perhaps eclectic, conceptual mod-
els. These new models must incorporate relevant
historical frameworks while simultaneously pre-
senting new theoretical perspectives that address
the interaction of the multiple domains of human
development within a contemporary context. If
adolescent social functioning is to be addressed
adequately, a close examination of the current
zeitgeist in which these youths develop is
paramount.
In this millennium, adolescents develop in an
environment saturated with technology, multi-
culturalism, and mass media imagery. Current
theories of adolescent development address the
biological and psychological growth of these
youths, but a comprehensive model that incor-
porates the sociocultural specificity of the 21st
century has not been set forth. If there is to be
an in-depth and more accurate understanding of
adolescent behavior, researchers must account
for these cultural and technological changes
within a developmental context. This article
lays out such a conceptual framework. It en-
deavors to present adolescent social develop-
ment within the context of these multiple phe-
nomena by considering the impact on adoles-
cent development and its most salient.
The internship at Compass Group involved sales tasks like cold calling, researching companies, and setting up meetings to find new clients and strengthen relationships with current ones. The intern learned about their strengths and weaknesses through tasks like researching a competitor and presenting findings. They gained experience in sales processes, communication skills, and self-motivation that solidified their interest in a sales career.
This document discusses race and ethnicity in sports. It begins by defining ethnicity as relating to heritage and culture, while race is a social construct often based on skin color. The document then provides examples of how Black athletes like Jackie Robinson helped catalyze social change. It also discusses activism among athletes during the civil rights movement versus avoiding politics. While all sports are popular, ethnic expectations can be limited by stereotyping, lack of mentorship, and money. Participation and coaching rates in major sports are then shown, with whites dominating in coaching roles. The document concludes by discussing how media can stack or place certain races in positions that fit social stereotypes and expectations, and the issues surrounding racial and ethnic mascots.
Samaritan's Feet is a global nonprofit organization that provides shoes to people in need around the world to prevent infections, protect health, and enable economic and educational opportunities. Located in several countries, it relies on donations of money, shoes, and help spreading the word from athletes and others to continue its important work of empowering individuals through something as simple as a pair of shoes.
Both interviewees use social media frequently and find it plays an important role in their lives. Hannah has seven accounts and uses Snapchat and Instagram most, seeing social media as a way to connect with family and friends since her family lives far away. Jack has four accounts and also uses Snapchat and Instagram most to keep up with pop culture and friends. Both emphasized the importance of managing social media time to be productive, with Hannah putting devices away for hours at a time to focus on other activities and Jack refraining from use until schoolwork is completed. They both find social media can expand their social lives by meeting new people and connecting over common interests.
The Social Penetration Theory was developed in 1973 by psychologists Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor. The theory states that relationships develop through reciprocal self-disclosure, beginning with superficial facts and progressing to more intimate details over time. This process can be visualized using the "onion analogy," with relationship depth represented by moving from outer to inner layers of the onion. The theory has been supported by studies of confined strangers and college roommates. It remains relevant today in explaining relationship development through both in-person and digital/social media interactions.
This document discusses the problems with authoritarian leadership styles in companies where the boss makes decisions solely because of their position and status within the company, without considering other perspectives. It suggests more democratic approaches that involve open discussion and negotiation between various stakeholders within an organization, including investors, workers, consumers, suppliers, and the community to make decisions.
This document provides an overview of learning and labeling theories of criminology. It discusses key theorists and concepts associated with each theory. For learning theories, it outlines differential association theory proposed by Sutherland and expanded on by Akers. It also discusses Anderson's subculture of violence perspective. For labeling theories, it discusses Lemert's primary and secondary deviance, Braithwaite's reintegrative shaming, and Sherman's defiance theory. The document then compares the two theories, noting areas of overlap and differences in their causal explanations for crime. It argues that learning theories provide a more comprehensive explanation of human behavior and crime. Finally, it discusses how learning theories could explain extreme violence among Mexican drug cartels.
Symbolic interactionism and family studiesMoranodi Moeti
1. Symbolic interactionism is a sociological perspective that views society and the self as emerging from social interaction and the interpretation of shared symbols. Reality and all that is humanly significant, like the self and culture, are seen as social products that arise from symbolic interactions.
2. Key concepts in symbolic interactionism include meaning, which resides in the actions that symbols elicit; situational definitions, in which people act based on how situations are defined regardless of objective reality; and self-concept formation, which emerges through reflected appraisals and the internalization of roles.
3. There are divisions within symbolic interactionism between those who emphasize studying the process of reality construction qualitatively and those who use quantitative methods to study
This document summarizes Raymond Boudon's cognitive approach to morality. It makes the following key points:
1. Boudon proposes defining axiological rationality as a form of cognitive rationality, grounded in valid reasons, rather than instrumental rationality focused only on means-ends.
2. Major philosophical theories of morality (e.g. Kantian, utilitarian) provide important intuitions but cannot be fully accepted by sociologists due to empirical contradictions.
3. Boudon's cognitive theory of morality posits that people endorse moral statements and feelings when they appear grounded in valid, if sometimes context-dependent, reasons perceived as stronger than alternatives.
Uses and gratifications theory proposes that media use provides five key gratifications: escapism, entertainment, surveillance, personal identity, and public relations. Media dependency theory builds on uses and gratifications theory by arguing that people become dependent on media to meet needs like social integration based on their circumstances rather than an inherent need for media. Maslow's hierarchy of needs also supports how people can fulfill higher needs like esteem and self-actualization through social media use.
Similarity and Interpersonal Attraction discusses the theory that people are more attracted to others who are similar to themselves in looks, opinions, morals, and other attributes. The relationship between similarity and attraction was first studied by early social scientists and communication researchers. Studies have found that similarity can positively influence persuasion and relationships in situations like public speaking, teaching, and new acquaintances. However, some criticism exists around how similarity is defined and measured in different studies. Research also indicates people may be more attracted to others whose views are shifting towards their own rather than those with high similarity from the beginning.
This document summarizes a research paper on the effect of values systems on attitudes toward interracial marriage. The paper examines how individual and group values systems may impact opinions on interracial marriage and potentially segment people into groups not previously considered. The research aims to study interracial marriage through the lens of social values systems as a way to better understand reported attitudes versus rates of interracial marriage. It reviews literature on assimilation theory and interracial marriage trends. The study proposes to experimentally assess attitudes toward interracial marriage alongside participants' placement on a values system continuum.
Conformity Is A Type Of Social Influence
Theories Of Conformity
Conformity and Obedience Essays
Conformity In Psychology
Essay about On Conformity and Obedience
Conformity Research Paper
What Is Conformity?
Conformity And Personal Conformity
Conformity and Obedience Essay
Conformity Case Study Essay
Conformity Vs. Conformity Theory
Conformity Research Paper
Conformity Essay
Conformity Literature Review
Is Conformity Good Or Bad
Social Conformity Essay
Conformity Essay
Conformity And Social Conformity
Example Of Conformity Essay
The Power of Conformity Essay
This document discusses social psychology and how it has evolved over time. It describes some of the early contributors to social psychology, such as Norman Triplett who studied competitive behavior, and Gordon Allport who studied attitudes and the self. Kurt Lewin was also influential in developing the idea that behavior is a function of both the person and the situation. The document then discusses how social psychology developed in the 1950s with the emergence of behaviorism and psychoanalysis. It continues by outlining how social psychology has expanded our understanding of social behaviors and influences through the study of topics like group dynamics and social norms.
This document provides an annotated bibliography on four communication theories: Social Penetration Theory, Social Judgment Theory, Agenda Setting Theory, and Communication Accommodation Theory. It summarizes three scholarly articles on Social Penetration Theory and how it has been taught or studied. The articles look at using movies or anonymous self-disclosure between classmates to help students understand the theory through relating it to their own experiences. The last article discusses how culture can influence self-disclosure and the progression of relationships.
Social psychology is the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. It examines how we think about, influence, and relate to one another. The focus of social psychology is on understanding how individuals are shaped by their social environments and how individuals shape those environments in turn.
Khurram Zafar Awan presented on interpretivism theory and its differences from positivism. Interpretivism developed among researchers dissatisfied with positivism's inability to reflect nuances in human interaction. Interpretivists believe research values influence findings and seek meaning in individuals' subjective experiences rather than objective perspectives. Examples provided include Paul Willis's study of working class "lads" using ethnography and Emile Durkheim's positivist study of suicide rates across demographics.
This document summarizes the key steps and considerations for conducting sociological research on the topic of how bullying among girls affects their self-esteem. The research question posed is how bullying among girls at a particular high school impacts their self-esteem. Previous literature suggests bullying can have long-lasting negative effects on self-esteem, including loss of confidence, self-criticism, isolation, and other issues. The research aims to study this issue through surveys and interviews to understand the experiences of girls who have been bullied and how it has impacted their self-image. Institutional review board approval and ethical standards for participant privacy and consent will be followed.
Solomon Asch conducted a conformity experiment in 1951 to determine if individuals would conform to an obviously incorrect group answer. Participants were asked to compare line lengths but confederates unanimously chose the wrong answer on some trials. Results showed that over a third of participants conformed at least once by choosing the incorrect answer to fit in with the group, demonstrating the powerful influence of social pressure on individual judgments.
Comparing And Contrasting Qualitative And Quantitative...Ashley Fisher
This document discusses the history and evolution of social research on natural disasters. It began during the Cold War when governments wanted to understand how citizens would react during crises like a nuclear attack. Researchers studied natural disasters to learn about social behavior under extreme conditions. The Disaster Research Center was founded to conduct qualitative studies through interviews and observations after disasters. While foundational, the document argues this research is now at a threshold where it needs to evolve to address modern challenges.
A Conceptual Framework for Examining Adolescent Identity,Med.docxsleeperharwell
A Conceptual Framework for Examining Adolescent Identity,
Media Influence, and Social Development
Blake Te’Neil Lloyd
University of South Carolina
The adolescent identity, media, and sociocognitive schema (AIMSS) framework offers
a theoretical understanding of adolescent consumption and cognitive processing of
media entertainment. Review and integration of mass communication theory, develop-
mental theory, and ecological theory serves as the conceptual foundation. The frame-
work outlines linkages between media exposure and adolescent development, in par-
ticular adolescent identity formation and social competence. A key contribution of the
model is consideration of the positive and negative aspects of adolescent cognition and
behavioral functioning. The present article offers several recommendations for testing
the utility of the AIMSS framework.
Less than a century ago, G. Stanley Hall pub-
lished his seminal work, Adolescence (1904),
which popularized the idea of adolescence as a
time of storm and strife. Since then our under-
standing of adolescence has slowly progressed
beyond a narrow focus on reactive, transient be-
haviors of maturing children to the study of intri-
cate developmental processes. Along the way,
several researchers have provided major concep-
tual and practical insights into our understanding
of how cognitive, social, and biological develop-
ment contribute to the overall well-being of the
adolescent. Erikson (1968), Elkind (1990), Brooks-
Gunn (1988), and numerous others have proposed
exemplary theoretical models that examine the
salient biological, psychosocial, and cognitive
tasks faced by adolescents. The key to deepening
this understanding of adolescent development is to
synthesize existing exemplary frameworks so as
to create new, perhaps eclectic, conceptual mod-
els. These new models must incorporate relevant
historical frameworks while simultaneously pre-
senting new theoretical perspectives that address
the interaction of the multiple domains of human
development within a contemporary context. If
adolescent social functioning is to be addressed
adequately, a close examination of the current
zeitgeist in which these youths develop is
paramount.
In this millennium, adolescents develop in an
environment saturated with technology, multi-
culturalism, and mass media imagery. Current
theories of adolescent development address the
biological and psychological growth of these
youths, but a comprehensive model that incor-
porates the sociocultural specificity of the 21st
century has not been set forth. If there is to be
an in-depth and more accurate understanding of
adolescent behavior, researchers must account
for these cultural and technological changes
within a developmental context. This article
lays out such a conceptual framework. It en-
deavors to present adolescent social develop-
ment within the context of these multiple phe-
nomena by considering the impact on adoles-
cent development and its most salient.
The internship at Compass Group involved sales tasks like cold calling, researching companies, and setting up meetings to find new clients and strengthen relationships with current ones. The intern learned about their strengths and weaknesses through tasks like researching a competitor and presenting findings. They gained experience in sales processes, communication skills, and self-motivation that solidified their interest in a sales career.
This document discusses race and ethnicity in sports. It begins by defining ethnicity as relating to heritage and culture, while race is a social construct often based on skin color. The document then provides examples of how Black athletes like Jackie Robinson helped catalyze social change. It also discusses activism among athletes during the civil rights movement versus avoiding politics. While all sports are popular, ethnic expectations can be limited by stereotyping, lack of mentorship, and money. Participation and coaching rates in major sports are then shown, with whites dominating in coaching roles. The document concludes by discussing how media can stack or place certain races in positions that fit social stereotypes and expectations, and the issues surrounding racial and ethnic mascots.
Samaritan's Feet is a global nonprofit organization that provides shoes to people in need around the world to prevent infections, protect health, and enable economic and educational opportunities. Located in several countries, it relies on donations of money, shoes, and help spreading the word from athletes and others to continue its important work of empowering individuals through something as simple as a pair of shoes.
Both interviewees use social media frequently and find it plays an important role in their lives. Hannah has seven accounts and uses Snapchat and Instagram most, seeing social media as a way to connect with family and friends since her family lives far away. Jack has four accounts and also uses Snapchat and Instagram most to keep up with pop culture and friends. Both emphasized the importance of managing social media time to be productive, with Hannah putting devices away for hours at a time to focus on other activities and Jack refraining from use until schoolwork is completed. They both find social media can expand their social lives by meeting new people and connecting over common interests.
The Social Penetration Theory was developed in 1973 by psychologists Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor. The theory states that relationships develop through reciprocal self-disclosure, beginning with superficial facts and progressing to more intimate details over time. This process can be visualized using the "onion analogy," with relationship depth represented by moving from outer to inner layers of the onion. The theory has been supported by studies of confined strangers and college roommates. It remains relevant today in explaining relationship development through both in-person and digital/social media interactions.
This document discusses the problems with authoritarian leadership styles in companies where the boss makes decisions solely because of their position and status within the company, without considering other perspectives. It suggests more democratic approaches that involve open discussion and negotiation between various stakeholders within an organization, including investors, workers, consumers, suppliers, and the community to make decisions.
This document discusses Miley Cyrus and whether she is a positive or negative role model. It notes that during the 2016 US presidential election, Miley Cyrus was critical of Donald Trump and promised to leave the country if he won. The document also argues that Miley Cyrus' on-stage drug use, sexually explicit behavior, and crude language set a bad example for children and youth. While acknowledging Miley Cyrus' talents and large fan base, the author believes she could have a more positive influence by promoting safe sex, discouraging drug use, and encouraging education.
Miley Cyrus is an American pop singer and actress who became famous at a young age starring in the Disney Channel show Hannah Montana. This vaulted her to stardom among millions of young fans worldwide during the social media craze. However, she has since become controversial due to her sexually explicit behavior and views. While she has had success as an entertainer with three number one albums, the author argues she is a bad role model for young people and uses minority culture for personal gain without being genuine.
The document discusses Miley Cyrus and whether she is a positive or negative influence. While it acknowledges she is her own person and confident, it criticizes her views on casual sex, open drug usage, and crude lyrics, questioning if this is good for kids to see. The document concludes by saying Miley has opportunities as a singer and actress to be a positive role model by promoting safe sex, discouraging drug use, and encouraging education.
The document discusses the problems with an authoritarian leadership style where the boss makes decisions solely on their own authority without input or discussion. It suggests that a better approach is stakeholder democracy, where all groups affected by a company's decisions, such as investors, workers, consumers, suppliers, and the community, engage in open discussion and negotiation to reach decisions together. This empowers employees and gives various stakeholders a voice in company actions.
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfTechSoup
"Learn about all the ways Walmart supports nonprofit organizations.
You will hear from Liz Willett, the Head of Nonprofits, and hear about what Walmart is doing to help nonprofits, including Walmart Business and Spark Good. Walmart Business+ is a new offer for nonprofits that offers discounts and also streamlines nonprofits order and expense tracking, saving time and money.
The webinar may also give some examples on how nonprofits can best leverage Walmart Business+.
The event will cover the following::
Walmart Business + (https://business.walmart.com/plus) is a new shopping experience for nonprofits, schools, and local business customers that connects an exclusive online shopping experience to stores. Benefits include free delivery and shipping, a 'Spend Analytics” feature, special discounts, deals and tax-exempt shopping.
Special TechSoup offer for a free 180 days membership, and up to $150 in discounts on eligible orders.
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Answers about how you can do more with Walmart!"
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Historical paper final
1. Rizzieri1
Nick Rizzieri
Dr. Pollak
Communication Research
December 3, 2018
Historical Research Paper
The Social Penetration Theory is a staple to communication studies and is widely
accepted throughout the world. This theory was originated by two famous psychologists named
Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor, and the theory states that “relationships begin and deepen
through self-disclosure. In the beginning, people establish relationships by disclosing many
simple, harmless facts through small talk. As relationships grow, the rate of self-disclosure slows
while the facts disclosed become increasingly intimate in” (Social Penetration, 2012). This
theory relates to nearly all relationships, including intimate relationships, friendships, those
involving family members, work relationships, social media, and many more. This theory does
an exceptional job of breaking down the barriers of the relationship process before both
individuals reach disclosure.
History of the Theory
The Social Penetration Theory was developed in 1973, while Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor
were studying together at the Naval Academy. Even though there were various researchers with
an interest in this, these two were the primary administrators of the theory. Irwin Altman put this
study to the test by placing “eighteen pairs of men that were matched closely for demographic
factors such as age, education, and religious beliefs. These eighteen pairs were relative strangers
and were split into a control group and a test group. The test group was confined to a 12 x 12
room for ten days with no external communication. The test groups revealed more about intimate
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topics during the confinement period than the control group” (Altman, Taylor, 2014). This
research has been described as important work leading up to the development of the social
penetration theory by Altman and Taylor” (Altman, Taylor, 2014). This test exemplified how
these eighteen men reached disclosure from spending a large quantity of time together. “The
Social Penetration Theory suggests that relationships and trust develop in accord with self-
disclosing message exchanges and that reciprocal self-disclosures build trust. Self-disclosures
increase trust by reducing the uncertainty surrounding exchange and by allowing an exchange
partner to predict the likely reward or cost of future interactions” (Leisen, 1998). Even though
these eighteen individuals did not know each other prior to test, they were able to build a
stronger relationship, due to the process of the Social Penetration Theory.
Onion Analogy
To understand the Social Penetration Theory from a visual standpoint, it is important
think of the “onion analogy,” and the many layers that an onion contains. “The conception of
personality in the social penetration process is compared to that of an onion with many layers
progressing from the outer layer to the inner core” (Each layer of the onion has a particular
meaning that coincides with the process of self-disclosure. To explain this in a simplistic manner,
“the outer layers of the personality consist of characteristics such as age and gender. Personality
characteristics vary from "common to unique and from high to low visibility" (Altman & Taylor,
1973, p.18), as progression moves to the more central layers. An individual's self-esteem or self-
image is not easily visible in casual interactions and is sometimes not visible in more intimate
relationships. These characteristics tend to be quite unique in nature. As progression continues
towards the most central and inner core of the "onion," the more the characteristics represent
vulnerable parts of the personality including perceived weaknesses and inadequacies. As the
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depth of penetration increases, there is a greater depiction and representation of the total
personality” (Altman & Taylor, 1973). This explanation is widely used across communication in
order to break down the levels of resonation between individuals. “The Social penetration theory
(Altman and Taylor, 1973) indicates that self-disclosure is important in promoting cordial
relations” (Hwang, Kim, 2015). The deepest and most intimate part of the relationship would be
the most central layer, while the outermost layers are the physical attributions. “The social-
penetration variables, operationally defined in terms of openness, attentiveness
flexibility, and expressiveness” (Honeycutt, Godwin, 1986). The most outer layers therefore
reflecting the least intimate, and in some cases, the most superficial. To reach the ultimate level
of self-disclosure, it is imperative to reach the central layer of the onion. This may take a long
time or short amount of time depending how fast self-disclosure among the two people may take.
Personal Characteristics
An individual's “response set is partitioned into a series of breadth categories. Each
breadth category has an associated breadth frequency. Breadth categories include items such as
sports, work, religion, politics, and perhaps even right and wrong in various circumstances.
Within each of these categories will be general tendencies or beliefs, as well as specific aspects
or facets of those beliefs” (Baack, Fogliasso, Harris, 2000). The common breadth that people
share enhances their ability to sustain a strong and developed interpersonal relationship.
Individuals can often find common ground in these categories which can help break down
barriers and ultimately lead to a sharing of more personal and intimate information.
The Situational Context
From a historical context, the Social Penetration Theory has proven that people are less
likely to open up and totally disclose themselves in the beginning stages of relationships.
4. Rizzieri4
"Altman and Taylor (1973) believe that the process of social penetration moves the most quickly
in the early stages of an involvement (outer layers of the onion are the most easily penetrated or
disclosed), but then slows considerably. If early stages of involvement shape longer term
patterns of intimacy, it follows that initial reactions to an ethical or unethical climate will shape
longer-term responses to moral decisions. If the initial exposure results in negative feelings then
greater "Intimacy" (satisfaction, commitment, effort) becomes more difficult to achieve" (Baack,
Fogliasso, 2000). It can often take extensive amounts of time for individuals in relationships to
reach the full stages of disclosure, and in some cases this could take years. If at the early stages
there is discomfort in an interaction, whether it is due to a negative incident that occurs or a
conversation that is not appealing or received negatively from one of the participants, the
timeline could become extended until there is eventually comfort reaching the aspect of full
disclosure.
Social Penetration Experiment
To get a greater understanding of the Social Penetration Theory, it's important to take a
look at a study created by Dalmas Taylor. "Thirty college roommate pairs were studied over the
course of a semester regarding various aspects of their interpersonal relations. Fifteen dyads were
composed of members who were high-revealers of personal information to their "best friend" and
15 were composed of low-revealers." This study was used to analyze the process of disclosure
across the roommates, and whether the bonds among them strengthened or weakened. The
roommates "responded to questionnaires covering these areas several times over a 13-week
interval. Mutual activities and self-disclosure both increased over time, and non-intimate or
superficial exchanges of activities and information about the self occurred to a greater extent
than intimate ones” (Taylor, 1968). This example relates back to the onion analogy. The college
5. Rizzieri5
roommates were unable to reach the "core" of the onion, where intimate levels were reached.
This test was for a very short duration of time which might have affected the roommates’
abilities to reach full disclosure. If the questionnaire might be asked one year later, then the
disclosure figure would potentially increase as relationships were developed and strengthened.
Technology and the Social Penetration Theory
The Social Penetration theory has been exceptionally relevant in today's time with the
evolution of technology. Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor formally used this theory for
interpersonal relationships, but in today's modern era it is used throughout the digital world. While
applying the Social Penetration Theory, "this study examines computer-mediated communication
(CMC) and its impact on the formation of relationships. Using Facebook as a model, the study
suggests that the beginning layers of communication that occur, as per the Social Penetration
Theory, have evolved as a result of CMC" (Taylor, 1968). Since social media is such a common
platform for communication in today's society, the "onion" analogy is still relevant in order to
determine the level of self-disclosure between relationships. This particular example shows that
the Social Penetration theory is valuable in any subject being studied: "Social Penetration can
occur in different contexts including romantic relationships (e.g., Taylor & Altman, 1975, 1987),
friendships, social groups (for example, religious groups or soccer clubs), and work relationships.
The theory has also been applied in computer‐mediated communication contexts such as online
dating and virtual teams" (Carpenter, Greene)
The "Social penetration theory (Altman and Taylor 1973) is used to investigate the ways
that Twitter provides a platform to technologically augment friendship evolution” (Westcott,
Owen, 2013). Twitter uses the Social Penetration Theory in order to find disclosure between the
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users, "the visibility of users via their Tweets creates information that others can use to evaluate
character in what might be considered a phase of pre-friendship screening; this information also
generates trust and solidarity prior to an offline meeting. Perceived similarity between the user
and the Tweeter was contributory to an assessment of their worth as a potential friend”
(Westcott, Owen, 2013). Often times these connections are only surface connections, and at the
top layer of the onion, but it can be a place to start. Then, with future interactions and more
opportunities for deeper sharing and disclosure, the individuals have the ability to use this digital
medium to move toward a path of fuller and deeper disclosure. It's nearly impossible to not be in
the loop of the Social Penetration Theory with Social Media. Social Media is public and external
user and able to see internal relationships reaching disclosure. The Social Penetration theory,
once again, is very prevalent in Social Media.
Conclusion to the Theory
Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor have helped shaped the communication and
psychological world since the Development of the Social Penetration Theory, in 1973. The
Social Penetration Theory can be applied anywhere and occurs through all communication.
There are so many types of relationships that people are involved in, whether they are with
family and friends, a spouse or significant other, work relationships, and there are many factors
that can affect the ways that relationships evolve. Among individuals, if there is common
interest in items such as music, sports, religion, and politics, there is an opportunity for
relationships to evolve into deeper bonds that can lead to closer connections over time. If, at the
beginning, there is a situation or incident that is negative to one of the participants, there can be
challenges for those relationships to develop to that same degree. Time is often what is needed
to allow individuals to gain comfort and work through any difference, and gain confidence in
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reaching full disclosure. The digital age is here, and it has allowed for a new way of
communicating, and for initiating and developing relationships. It is a way for individuals to
connect with those of similar backgrounds and interests. In many instances, since these may be
superficial connections, and at the top layer of the onion. But with the ability to easily stay
connected on a daily basis, digital media can provide the tools for some to reach the central part
of the onion, and perhaps do this at a faster rate. Individuals could therefore use this technology
to quickly establish a larger number of overall relationships. Some may stay on the surface, but
there is the opportunity to turn many of these into the deeper variety by leveraging all that the
digital world can offer.
Future of the Theory
The Social Penetration Theory will continue to be a major tool for the present and the
future. With the evolution of technology, this theory will be an extreme necessity in order to
understand all sources of communication. Since the world is becoming digitally dense, we’re are
shying away from human interaction. The Social Penetration Theory will help generate the
ability to reveal the disclosure of communication through all levels of technology. The more the
world evolves, the more we’re in need for the Social Penetration Theory. The Social Penetration
Theory will guide the path for the future, and will be used more than it ever has been.
8. Rizzieri8
Works Cited
Social Penetration Theory. (2012, September 20). Retrieved from
http://www.communicationstudies.com/communication-theories/social-penetration-
theory
Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor: history of the social penetration theory.. (n.d.) >The Free
Library. (2014). Retrieved Dec 02 2018 from
https://www.thefreelibrary.com/Irwin+Altman+and+Dalmas+Taylor%3a+history+of+the
+social+penetration...-a0323349767
Baack, D., Fogliasso, C., & Harris, J. (2000). The personal impact of ethical decisions: A social
penetration theory. Journal of Business Ethics, 24(1), 39-49. Retrieved from
https://ezproxy.queens.edu:2048/login?url=https://search.proquest.com/docview/1979909
60?accountid=38688
Taylor, D. A. (1968). The Development of Interpersonal Relationships: Social Penetration
Processes. Journal of Social Psychology, 75(1), 79–90. Retrieved from
https://ezproxy.queens.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct
=true&db=ufh&AN=16427677&site=ehost-live&scope=site
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Pennington, N. (2008). Will You Be My Friend: Facebook as a Model for the Evolution of the
Social Penetration Theory. Conference Papers -- National Communication Association,
https://ezproxy.queens.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct
=true&db=ufh&AN=44853060&site=ehost-live&scope=site
Westcott, H., & Owen, S. (2013). Friendship and trust in the social surveillance network.
Surveillance & Society, 11(3), 311-323. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.24908/ss.v11i3.4502
Carpenter, A., & Greene, K. (n.d.). Social Penetration Theory. Retrieved from
https://wp.comminfo.rutgers.edu/kgreene/wp-
content/uploads/sites/51/2018/02/ACGreene-SPT.pdf
Hwang, J., Han, H., & Kim, S. (2015). How can employees engage customers? International
Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 27(6), 1117-1134.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/IJCHM-03-2014-0154
Leisen, B. (1998). Antecedents to trust in professional services: The case of medical services
(Order No. 9912006). Available from ProQuest Central. (304437496). Retrieved from
https://ezproxy.queens.edu:2048/login?url=https://search.proquest.com/docview/3044374
96?accountid=38688
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Honeycutt, J. M., & Godwin, D. D. (1986). A Model of Marital Functioning Based on an
Attraction Paradigm and Social-Penetration Dimensions. Journal of Marriage & Family,
48(3), 651–663. Retrieved from
https://ezproxy.queens.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct
=true&db=ufh&AN=5273500&site=ehost-live&scope=site