Experiments were conducted on six different types of reinforced concrete floor slabs to evaluate their performance in reducing surface crack width and optimizing ultimate punching load. Fiber-reinforced concrete slabs with circular pile mat reinforcement performed best in both reducing crack width and increasing load capacity compared to normally reinforced concrete slabs. The experiments provide data to improve design codes for predicting the behavior of specifically reinforced concrete floor systems.
Analysis of R.C Deep Beam by Finite Element MethodIJMER
ABSTRACT : The analytical study of reinforced concrete simply supported deep beams subjected to two point loads was
carried out using finite element method to study the behavior of deep beam by considering flexural stress, flexural strain,
and shear stress variations at different sections for various effective lengths to depth ratio and compared with EulerBernoulli Theory. The effective span to depth ratios of the beams considered were 1.25, 1.375 and 1.5
Keywords: Finite Element Method (FEM), Reinforced Concrete (R.C) deep beam, Shear strength.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
An Experimental Investigation into the Grindability Aspects of Newly Develope...IDES Editor
Ceramics are getting widely used in many engineering applications. These ceramic materials need to be ground. Unfortunately, the ground ceramic components mostly contain surface/subsurface damages. To minimize the grinding induced damages selection of appropriate grinding process parameters is very important. Ceramic composite material (AlSiTi) has been selected in the present study to investigate its grindability. This research work deals with the analysis of the process parameters such as wheel speed, table feed and infeed as influential factors, on the force components, grinding specific energy and surface roughness values based
on Taguchi’s experimental design method. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) has been used to analyze the subsurface damages. The result provides valuable insight into the grindability aspects of the composite ceramic (AlSiTi).
Determination of Critical Flaw Size in Gun Launched 40mm GrenadeSIMULIA
The inspection and screening of flaws in high explosive filled gun fired projectiles are crucial to ensure safety for soldiers using these items. In bore failure of structural components are sure to produce lethal consequences, therefore it is of great importance to determine what the maximum permissible crack size is for a given component coming off of the production floor. The analytical process to determine critical flaw size occurs in two stages. First, ABAQUS Explicit finite element analysis code is used to conduct interior ballistic simulation of a 40mm shape charge projectile. The modeling scope includes interior gun tube geometry with drive band engraving and spin up effects. Pressure load inputs, which were derived from live fire test data, are used to drive the model. Secondly, the explicit model results are passed to NASGRO software for critical flaw size determination using linear-elastic fracture mechanics theory. The modeling information and approach to the problem will be presented in this paper as well as explicit model results and proposed inspection criteria.
Vibrational Analysis Of Cracked Rod Having Circumferential Crack IDES Editor
The frequency ratio of torsional vibration of a rod without crack and of rod with crack subjected to torque at the free end for various crack depth and varying crack location is investigated. It is found that even a cracked of small depth is
dangerous at the fixed end, also as the crack depth is increases more than 50% of diameter of rod there is a considerable drop in natural frequency of the rod .
Analysis of R.C Deep Beam by Finite Element MethodIJMER
ABSTRACT : The analytical study of reinforced concrete simply supported deep beams subjected to two point loads was
carried out using finite element method to study the behavior of deep beam by considering flexural stress, flexural strain,
and shear stress variations at different sections for various effective lengths to depth ratio and compared with EulerBernoulli Theory. The effective span to depth ratios of the beams considered were 1.25, 1.375 and 1.5
Keywords: Finite Element Method (FEM), Reinforced Concrete (R.C) deep beam, Shear strength.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
An Experimental Investigation into the Grindability Aspects of Newly Develope...IDES Editor
Ceramics are getting widely used in many engineering applications. These ceramic materials need to be ground. Unfortunately, the ground ceramic components mostly contain surface/subsurface damages. To minimize the grinding induced damages selection of appropriate grinding process parameters is very important. Ceramic composite material (AlSiTi) has been selected in the present study to investigate its grindability. This research work deals with the analysis of the process parameters such as wheel speed, table feed and infeed as influential factors, on the force components, grinding specific energy and surface roughness values based
on Taguchi’s experimental design method. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) has been used to analyze the subsurface damages. The result provides valuable insight into the grindability aspects of the composite ceramic (AlSiTi).
Determination of Critical Flaw Size in Gun Launched 40mm GrenadeSIMULIA
The inspection and screening of flaws in high explosive filled gun fired projectiles are crucial to ensure safety for soldiers using these items. In bore failure of structural components are sure to produce lethal consequences, therefore it is of great importance to determine what the maximum permissible crack size is for a given component coming off of the production floor. The analytical process to determine critical flaw size occurs in two stages. First, ABAQUS Explicit finite element analysis code is used to conduct interior ballistic simulation of a 40mm shape charge projectile. The modeling scope includes interior gun tube geometry with drive band engraving and spin up effects. Pressure load inputs, which were derived from live fire test data, are used to drive the model. Secondly, the explicit model results are passed to NASGRO software for critical flaw size determination using linear-elastic fracture mechanics theory. The modeling information and approach to the problem will be presented in this paper as well as explicit model results and proposed inspection criteria.
Vibrational Analysis Of Cracked Rod Having Circumferential Crack IDES Editor
The frequency ratio of torsional vibration of a rod without crack and of rod with crack subjected to torque at the free end for various crack depth and varying crack location is investigated. It is found that even a cracked of small depth is
dangerous at the fixed end, also as the crack depth is increases more than 50% of diameter of rod there is a considerable drop in natural frequency of the rod .
SLIDING WEAR OF AA6061/CARBON BLACK METAL MATRIX COMPOSITESIAEME Publication
In this study, the effects of carbon black amount on fracture and wear behaviors of AA6061-carbon black metal matrix composites produced by stir casting route were investigated. Wear tests were performed in a pin on type wear apparatus under different loads of 10, 20, 30 N with different sliding speeds of 2, 3 and 4 m/s, at three different sliding distances of 500, 750 and 1000 m. The design of experiments was carried out as per Taguchi technique. Wear rate function was determined in terms of volume fraction, normal load, sliding speed and sliding distance. It was found that there was a good agreement between the theoretical and the experimental value of wear rate. Maximum sliding wear of 68.72% was attributed sliding distance. Sliding wear resistance increases by 42.56% for AA6061/30%CB metal matrix composites as compared to the matrix alloy AA6061
Prediction Models for Sliding Wear of AA3003/Al2O3 CompositesIJERA Editor
In the present work, the AA3003/Al2O3 metal matrix composites were manufactured at 10% and 30% volume
fractions of Al2O3. The composites were wear tested at different levels of normal load, sliding speed and sliding
distances. The microstructure of worn surfaces pertaining to AA3003/ Al2O3 composite reveals the fracture of
AA3033 alloy matrix as well as the detachment of Al2O3 particles from the matrix.
Analysis of Two Way Simply Supported Slabs With Central Sunk Using Finite Ele...IJERA Editor
Majority of the sunken slabs are constructed with supporting beams, which leads to the uneconomy of the structure and difficult in arrangement of the centering work. In this view, it is considered to analyze a two way simply supported slab of different thicknesses with central sunk having one sunk depths.The objective of the paper is to analyze a two way simply supported slab having different thicknesses of 125,150,175,and 200mm with central sunk having depths of 250mm using Finite Element Analysis. This study significantly concludes that, adopting FE analysis using STAAD Pro for analysis of two-way sunken slab is advisable. By using FE analysis using STAAD Pro, we can avoid tedious and lengthy procedure of manual methods. From the chosen sunken slab it was observed that, there is decrease in sagging moments for sunk size of 0.25lx x 0.25ly with respect to two way slab without sunk.
Spring 2015 problems for the course Rak-43.3110 Prestressed and precast concrete structures, Aalto University, Department of Civil and Structural Engineering. European standards EN 1990 and EN 1992-1-1 has been applied in the problems.
This presentation material is concerned with research results for Ultra High Performance Concrete. The research was focused on the behavior of shrinkage in UHPC.
Microstructure and sliding wear behaviour of stircast ti gr and ti –fe metal ...eSAT Journals
Abstract
The type and weight percentage of reinforcement play important role in microstructure and sliding wear resistance of the composite. The low melting point nonferrous metal matrix composites Tin- Graphite and Tin-Iron metal matrix composites are cast by the liquid stir casting technique with up to 5 and 15 weight percentages of carbon and iron respectively as reinforcements. The sliding wear characteristics are important if the specimens are used as bearing materials for light duty applications. The specimens are polished and etched for microstructure examination to verify the homogeneous dispersion of reinforcements in the matrix. The microstructure examination reveals the uniform dispersion of reinforcements in the matrix. The specimens are also subjected to dry sliding wear on Pin –on –disc wear testing equipment and the weight loss method technique was used to find specific wear rate at the respective sliding distance. The cumulative specific wear rates and friction coefficients are plotted against sliding distance. The specific wear rate curves show the necessity of an optimum weight percentage of reinforcements in the composite to reduce the wear rate. The frictional coefficient versus sliding distance curves show the decrease in frictional force at higher sliding distances as the weight percentage of particulates increases. At higher sliding distances, in case of the Tin –Graphite composite the surface of the specimen observed to be smooth which makes the graphite particles to expose as flakes and act as solid lubricant to reduce wear. The scanning electron microscope image of the surface which is normal to the sliding surface also studied to verify the flake formation during wear. Both mild and severe wear regions are observed.
Keywords: particulate, metal matrix composites, stir casting, specific wear rate, friction coefficient.
Gantry girder
Gantry girder or crane girder hand operated or electrically operated overhead cranes in industrial building such as factories, workshops, steel works, etc. to lift heavy materials, equipment etc. and carry them from one location to other , within the building
The GANTRY GIRDER spans between brackets attached to columns, which may either be of steel or reinforced concrete. Thus the span of gantry girder is equal to centre to centre spacing of columns. The rails are mounted on gantry girders.
Loads acting on gantry girder
Gantry girder, having no lateral support in its length (laterally unsupported) has to withstand the following loads:
1. Vertical loads from crane :
Self weight of crane girder
Hook load
Weight of crab (trolley)
2. Impact load from crane :
As the load is lifted using the crane hook and moved from one place to another, and released at the required place, an impact is felt on the gantry girder.
3. Longitudinal horizontal force (Drag force) :
This is caused due to the starting and stopping of the crane girder moving over the crane rails, as the crane girder moves longitudinally, i.e. in the direction of gantry girder.
This force is also known as braking force, or drag force.
This force is taken equal to 5% of the static wheel loads for EOT or hand operated cranes.
4. Lateral load (Surge load) :
Lateral forces are caused due to sudden starting or stopping of the crab when moving over the crane girder.
Lateral forces are also caused when the crane is dragging weights across the' floor of the shop.
Types of gantry girders
Depending upon the span and crane capacity, there can be many forms of gantry girders. Some commonly used forms are shows in fig .
Rolled steel beams with or without plates, channels or angles are normally used for spans up to 8m and for cranes up to 50kN capacity.
Plate girder are suitable up to span 6 to 10 m.
Plate girder with channels, angles, etc. can be used for spans more than 10m
Box girder are used foe spans more than 12m.
TALAT Lecture 2711: Design of a Helicopter DeckCORE-Materials
This lecture presents design of the main structural parts of an aluminium alloy helicopter deck. The design of a bolted connection on the supporting structure is also presented.
This is a most common type of retaining wall. It is consists of a vertical wall (stem), heel slab and toe slab which act as cantilever beams. Its stability is maintained by the weight of the retaining wall and the weight of the earth on the heel slab of the retaining wall. It is generally used when the height of wall up to 6m.
The cantilever retaining wall resists the horizontal earth pressure as wall as other vertical pressure by way bending of various components acting as cantilevers.
SLIDING WEAR OF AA6061/CARBON BLACK METAL MATRIX COMPOSITESIAEME Publication
In this study, the effects of carbon black amount on fracture and wear behaviors of AA6061-carbon black metal matrix composites produced by stir casting route were investigated. Wear tests were performed in a pin on type wear apparatus under different loads of 10, 20, 30 N with different sliding speeds of 2, 3 and 4 m/s, at three different sliding distances of 500, 750 and 1000 m. The design of experiments was carried out as per Taguchi technique. Wear rate function was determined in terms of volume fraction, normal load, sliding speed and sliding distance. It was found that there was a good agreement between the theoretical and the experimental value of wear rate. Maximum sliding wear of 68.72% was attributed sliding distance. Sliding wear resistance increases by 42.56% for AA6061/30%CB metal matrix composites as compared to the matrix alloy AA6061
Prediction Models for Sliding Wear of AA3003/Al2O3 CompositesIJERA Editor
In the present work, the AA3003/Al2O3 metal matrix composites were manufactured at 10% and 30% volume
fractions of Al2O3. The composites were wear tested at different levels of normal load, sliding speed and sliding
distances. The microstructure of worn surfaces pertaining to AA3003/ Al2O3 composite reveals the fracture of
AA3033 alloy matrix as well as the detachment of Al2O3 particles from the matrix.
Analysis of Two Way Simply Supported Slabs With Central Sunk Using Finite Ele...IJERA Editor
Majority of the sunken slabs are constructed with supporting beams, which leads to the uneconomy of the structure and difficult in arrangement of the centering work. In this view, it is considered to analyze a two way simply supported slab of different thicknesses with central sunk having one sunk depths.The objective of the paper is to analyze a two way simply supported slab having different thicknesses of 125,150,175,and 200mm with central sunk having depths of 250mm using Finite Element Analysis. This study significantly concludes that, adopting FE analysis using STAAD Pro for analysis of two-way sunken slab is advisable. By using FE analysis using STAAD Pro, we can avoid tedious and lengthy procedure of manual methods. From the chosen sunken slab it was observed that, there is decrease in sagging moments for sunk size of 0.25lx x 0.25ly with respect to two way slab without sunk.
Spring 2015 problems for the course Rak-43.3110 Prestressed and precast concrete structures, Aalto University, Department of Civil and Structural Engineering. European standards EN 1990 and EN 1992-1-1 has been applied in the problems.
This presentation material is concerned with research results for Ultra High Performance Concrete. The research was focused on the behavior of shrinkage in UHPC.
Microstructure and sliding wear behaviour of stircast ti gr and ti –fe metal ...eSAT Journals
Abstract
The type and weight percentage of reinforcement play important role in microstructure and sliding wear resistance of the composite. The low melting point nonferrous metal matrix composites Tin- Graphite and Tin-Iron metal matrix composites are cast by the liquid stir casting technique with up to 5 and 15 weight percentages of carbon and iron respectively as reinforcements. The sliding wear characteristics are important if the specimens are used as bearing materials for light duty applications. The specimens are polished and etched for microstructure examination to verify the homogeneous dispersion of reinforcements in the matrix. The microstructure examination reveals the uniform dispersion of reinforcements in the matrix. The specimens are also subjected to dry sliding wear on Pin –on –disc wear testing equipment and the weight loss method technique was used to find specific wear rate at the respective sliding distance. The cumulative specific wear rates and friction coefficients are plotted against sliding distance. The specific wear rate curves show the necessity of an optimum weight percentage of reinforcements in the composite to reduce the wear rate. The frictional coefficient versus sliding distance curves show the decrease in frictional force at higher sliding distances as the weight percentage of particulates increases. At higher sliding distances, in case of the Tin –Graphite composite the surface of the specimen observed to be smooth which makes the graphite particles to expose as flakes and act as solid lubricant to reduce wear. The scanning electron microscope image of the surface which is normal to the sliding surface also studied to verify the flake formation during wear. Both mild and severe wear regions are observed.
Keywords: particulate, metal matrix composites, stir casting, specific wear rate, friction coefficient.
Gantry girder
Gantry girder or crane girder hand operated or electrically operated overhead cranes in industrial building such as factories, workshops, steel works, etc. to lift heavy materials, equipment etc. and carry them from one location to other , within the building
The GANTRY GIRDER spans between brackets attached to columns, which may either be of steel or reinforced concrete. Thus the span of gantry girder is equal to centre to centre spacing of columns. The rails are mounted on gantry girders.
Loads acting on gantry girder
Gantry girder, having no lateral support in its length (laterally unsupported) has to withstand the following loads:
1. Vertical loads from crane :
Self weight of crane girder
Hook load
Weight of crab (trolley)
2. Impact load from crane :
As the load is lifted using the crane hook and moved from one place to another, and released at the required place, an impact is felt on the gantry girder.
3. Longitudinal horizontal force (Drag force) :
This is caused due to the starting and stopping of the crane girder moving over the crane rails, as the crane girder moves longitudinally, i.e. in the direction of gantry girder.
This force is also known as braking force, or drag force.
This force is taken equal to 5% of the static wheel loads for EOT or hand operated cranes.
4. Lateral load (Surge load) :
Lateral forces are caused due to sudden starting or stopping of the crab when moving over the crane girder.
Lateral forces are also caused when the crane is dragging weights across the' floor of the shop.
Types of gantry girders
Depending upon the span and crane capacity, there can be many forms of gantry girders. Some commonly used forms are shows in fig .
Rolled steel beams with or without plates, channels or angles are normally used for spans up to 8m and for cranes up to 50kN capacity.
Plate girder are suitable up to span 6 to 10 m.
Plate girder with channels, angles, etc. can be used for spans more than 10m
Box girder are used foe spans more than 12m.
TALAT Lecture 2711: Design of a Helicopter DeckCORE-Materials
This lecture presents design of the main structural parts of an aluminium alloy helicopter deck. The design of a bolted connection on the supporting structure is also presented.
This is a most common type of retaining wall. It is consists of a vertical wall (stem), heel slab and toe slab which act as cantilever beams. Its stability is maintained by the weight of the retaining wall and the weight of the earth on the heel slab of the retaining wall. It is generally used when the height of wall up to 6m.
The cantilever retaining wall resists the horizontal earth pressure as wall as other vertical pressure by way bending of various components acting as cantilevers.
Presentation to Windust Meadows HOA Board of Directors June 4, 2024: Focus o...Joseph Lewis Aguirre
Presentation to Windust Meadows HOA Board of Directors June 4, 2024: Focus on Public Safety as Job #1, Engagement, Wealth of HOA, Branding, Communication, Culture, Civic Responsibility
The KA Housing - Catalogue - Listing TurkeyListing Turkey
Welcome to KA Housing, a distinguished real estate development nestled in the heart of Eyüpsultan, one of Istanbul’s most promising districts.
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https://listingturkey.com/property/the-ka-housing/
Rixos Tersane Istanbul Residences Brochure_May2024_ENG.pdfListing Turkey
Tersane Suites Residences is a luxurious real estate project located in the heart of Istanbul, next to the beautiful Golden Horn. This unique development offers hotel concept residences with Rixos management, making it the perfect choice for both homeowners and investors.
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One of the standout features of Tersane Suites Residences is the Rixos management, which provides a truly exclusive and upscale living experience. Residents will have access to a range of luxury amenities, including a fitness center, spa, and indoor and outdoor swimming pools. Plus, the on-site restaurants and cafes provide a taste of the local and international cuisine.
The Tersane Suites Residences also offers a great opportunity for investors, as it provides a rental guarantee program. This means that investors can enjoy a steady income stream, with the peace of mind that their property is being managed by a reputable and experienced team.
The location of Tersane Suites Residences is also unbeatable, with easy access to the city’s main transportation links and within close proximity to the historic center, making it the perfect base for exploring all that Istanbul has to offer.
Rams Garden Bahcelievler - Istanbul - ListingTurkeyListing Turkey
Implemented by Rams Global in Bahcelievler, the Rams Garden Bahcelievler Apartments includes 796 residences of different types from 2+1 to 5+1.
Next to the project, which will have 33 thousand square meters of green area, there will be 42 thousand 300 square meters of woodland. There will also be a 210-meter-long pond in the landscape of the project. There are 94.5 square meters of green space per flat.
Rams Garden Bahcelievler Apartments, which has 8 times more green space than the average of Istanbul with its 33 thousand square meters of green area located within a total of 75 thousand square meters, offers various housing options from 2+1 to 5+1.RAMS Garden has brought a lifeline to the construction industry.
Rams Global, which has signed projects in many places from Dubai to Phuket and delivered more than 20 thousand residences, is now starting new projects in Istanbul.
Rams Garden Bahcelievler is located 9 minutes from Metroport AVM, 5 minutes from Marmara Forum AVM, 12 minutes from Kazlıçeşme beach, 9 minutes from Yıldız Technical University, 7 minutes from Istinye University, 9 minutes from Ramada Hotel and Medicana Hospital.
https://listingturkey.com/property/rams-garden-bahcelievler-apartments/
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Sense Levent Kagithane Catalog - Listing TurkeyListing Turkey
Sense Levent offers a luxurious living experience in the heart of Istanbul’s vibrant Levent district.
This cutting-edge development seamlessly integrates modern design with natural elements, featuring live evergreen plants maintained by an advanced irrigation system, ensuring lush greenery year-round.
The building’s elegant ceramic balconies are both stylish and durable, enhancing the overall aesthetic and functionality. Residents can enjoy the 700m Sky Lounge, which provides breathtaking views of Istanbul and a perfect space to relax and unwind.
Sense Levent promotes a healthy and active lifestyle with a full gym, swimming pool, sauna, and steam room, all available in the building. The interiors are crafted with high-quality materials, ensuring a luxurious and inviting living space.
Designed with young professionals in mind, Sense Levent features 1+1 and 2+1 units with smart floor plans and balconies. The project promises high investment returns, with an expected annual return of 6.5-7%, significantly above Istanbul’s average ROI.
Located in the rapidly growing and highly desirable Levent area, the development benefits from ongoing urban regeneration projects. Its prime location offers proximity to shopping malls, municipal buildings, universities, and public transportation, adding immense value to your investment.
Early investors can take advantage of discounted units during the construction phase, with an expected capital appreciation of +45% USD upon completion. Property Turkey provides comprehensive rental management services, ensuring a seamless and profitable investment experience.
Additionally, robust legal support and significant tax advantages are available through Property Turkey’s licensed Real Estate Investment Fund. Levent is a dynamic urban hub, ideal for young professionals with its numerous corporate headquarters and shopping malls.
Sense Levent is more than just a residence; it’s a place where dreams and opportunities come to life. Contact us today to secure your place in this exclusive development and experience the best of Istanbul living. Sense Levent: Sense the Opportunity. Live the Dream.
https://listingturkey.com/property/sense-levent/
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Discover Yeni Eyup Evleri 2, nestled among the rising values of Eyupsultan, offering the epitome of modern living in Istanbul.
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1. Experiments investigating Concrete
Floor Punching using Specific
Reinforcement
A.A. van den Bos1, H. Hofmeyer1,2
1
ABT consulting engineers, Civil Engineering Group, Arnhem, The Netherlands,
2
Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, Structural Design Group, The Netherlands
To reduce the surface crack width and to optimize the ultimate punching load of warehouse
concrete floors, fibre reinforcement and special reinforcement mats above piles are used. Due to
the special reinforcement mats, current design rules cannot be used to correctly predict the surface
crack width and the ultimate punching load. Therefore, full-scale experiments have been carried
out for six different reinforcement types. A fibre-reinforced floor with circular pile mat is the best
solution, both for reducing the surface crack width and for optimizing the ultimate punching load.
Keywords: Warehouse concrete floors, surface crack width, specific reinforcement, fibre reinforcement,
ultimate punching load, experiments.
1 Introduction
The utilization of warehouse floors involves the use of large amounts of material and labour
and thus a lot of effort is spent on optimizing the floor design. Because the floor surface is
visible and many warehouse floors have to be liquid retaining, owners complain about small
cracks, even if they are completely acceptable to the structural engineer. Thus the surface crack
width needs to be minimized. Secondly, to design a floor economically, one of the necessarily
aspects is a precise prediction of the ultimate punching load. Current design codes are not
suitable for finding the surface crack width and ultimate punching load for specific
reinforcement types (for instance steel fibre reinforcement). A description and evaluation of the
current European and American design codes is given by Albrecht (2002).
On the subject of concrete floor punching, experiments were carried out using normal strength
concrete (Richart 1948, Moe 1961, Kinnunen 1960, Andersson 1963, Regan 1984). More recently,
punching was studied experimentally using high strength concrete without shear reinforcement
(Hallgren 1993, Tomaszewicz 1993, Ramdane 1996). Tests including shear reinforcement were
also performed (Oliveira 1999, Lee 1999, Beutel 1998). Furthermore, on high strength
lightweight concrete, Osman, Marzouk and Helmy (2000) investigated punching behaviour. All
experiments mentioned were merely focused on the ultimate punching load rather than on the
surface crack width. However, some research was carried out to compare the ultimate
HERON, Vol. 50, No 2 (2005) 93
2. punching load for plates with fibre reinforcement and traditional bar reinforcement, without
addressing the surface crack width (Ding 1999, Alexander 1992, McHarg 2000). New analytical
models for determination of the ultimate punching load have been developed (Menétrey 2002,
Yankelevsky 1999, Salim 2002). These models predict the ultimate punching load only and do
not estimate surface crack behaviour.
To increase the knowledge on surface crack and punching behaviour for specific floor designs
(not covered by literature) and possible designs in the future, a research project was started.
Eight full-scale experiments were carried out at Technische Universiteit Eindhoven for several
floor designs. Hereafter, a finite element model was developed that was verified by the
experiments. The finite element model now proofs to be a valuable tool in practice, predicting
both the crack width and ultimate punching load (Hofmeyer 2005). In this article, the eight full-
scale experiments are presented.
2 Test specimen
2.1 Dimensions
All punching test specimens have dimensions of 3000 × 3100 mm2, with a thickness of 160 mm.
2.2 Material constituents
The punching test specimens are made with fibre reinforced concrete (FRC, specimen 1 to 3)
and normal concrete (NC, specimen 4 to 8). For both cases, special (low shrinkage, 160 mm
slump) concrete is used with the following constituents: water content 165 kg/m3, cement
content 330 kg/m3 of which 75% Portland blast furnace cement (ENV 197-1:1992 class III/B)
and 25% rapid-hardening Portland cement (type III), coarse aggregate: 75% parts smaller than
32 mm, 25% parts smaller than 16 mm. The fibre reinforced concrete is reinforced with 35
kg/m3 Bekaert Dramix RC 65/60 BN, figure 1.
2.3 Material properties
To investigate the material properties, material tests were carried out. The cylinder compressive
strength after 28 days is 32.8 N/mm2 for normal concrete and 32.0 N/mm2 for fibre reinforced
concrete. Typical results for three-point bending tests after 28 days are shown in figure 2; the
beam cross-section equals 150 × 150 mm2, the span length equals 500 mm. The ultimate load is
about equal for the normal and fibre reinforced concrete. For the fibre reinforced concrete, the
ratio between ultimate stress and the average tensile stress between 0 and 1.5 mm deflection
equals 0.58 (the so-called R1.5 value (CUR 1994), see section 5). Split-tensile strength tests after
28 days yield an average value for FRC equal to 5.3 N/mm2 and NC has a splitting tensile
strength of 5.1 N/mm2.
94
3. 0.9 mm
ƒy >1000 N/mm2
60 mm
Bekaert Dramix RC 65/60 BN
Figure 1: Fibre dimensions.
18
16
14
12
Load [kN]
10
FRC
8
6
4
NC
2
0
0 1 2 3
Deflection [mm]
Figure 2: Load vs. deflection for normal (NC) and fibre reinforced concrete (FRC), Three point bending
tests (150 × 150 × 500 mm3)
Table 1: Ultimate (punching) load for test specimens.
Concrete Reinforcement Ultimate load [kN] Comparison to
lay-out specimen 4 [%]
1 FRC 361 104
2 FRC B 458 131
3 FRC C 440 126
4 NC 349 100
5 NC B 353 101
6 NC C 351 100
7 NC A+B 422 121
A. Upper mat consists of bars (diameter 8 mm) in each direction, cross-sectional bar distance 100 mm.
Positioned over the whole test specimen.
B. Pile mat consists of 10 bars (diameter 8 mm, length 1000 mm) in each direction, cross-sectional bar
distance 100 mm. Upper surface of the mat distance 30 mm. Only positioned above the pile.
C. Circular pile mat consists of one bar (diameter 8 mm, length 17000 mm) circular bent using an
increasing radius of 75 mm for each revolution. On this mat, 7 v-shaped bars (diameter 8 mm,
95
4. length 1000 mm) are welded.
D. Bent-up bars are two trapezoidal 45 degrees bent bars (diameter 8 mm) in each direction, cross-
sectional bar distance 200 mm.
2.4 Reinforcement
Reinforcement at the top side with 30 mm cover consists of (A) a normal mat, (B) a pile mat,
(C) a circular pile mat, (D) bent-up bars, or a combination of A to D, see table 1 and figure 3.
2.5 Fabrication
The test specimens for the full-scale experiments were poured at a local contractor (Van Berlo
2003). A list of the test specimens is shown in table 1.
(A) Normal mat (C) Circular pile mat
1000
Ø8-100
Circular bars
Ø8-100
1000
Ø8 mm
3000
v-shaped bars
Ø8 mm
1000
30
160
160
30
3100 1050 1000 1050
(B) Pile mat (D) Bent-up bars
1000
1400
Ø8-100 Bent-up bars Ø8,
1000
200
distance 200 mm
1400
1000
30
160
1050 1000 1050
All measures in mm.
A and B C D
radial directed bars
30
30
30
160
160
160
30
tangential directed bars 120 200 120
Figure 3: Test specimen dimensions and reinforcement types A to D.
96
5. 3 Test setup
To optimize warehouse floor designs, it should be noted that normal inner floor fields are
quantitatively far more present than the boundary floor fields. Furthermore, it was tried to keep
the test setup size as small as possible. With regards to these concerns, it was chosen to test a
part of the floor above the pile, with a length and width equal to the field width and length, see
figure 4.
The equally distributed load in practice is replaced by four fixed supports as shown in figures 5
and 6. A hydraulic jack with a steel loading plate replaces the pile foundation in practice. Thus
the pile loads the plate, instead of the distributed load in practice. For a test setup for punching
tests Sherif (1996) showed the importance of restraining displacements and rotations at the
plate edges. As such, the boundary conditions along the plate edges (in practice an elastic
support of the surrounding floor) are replaced by a steel boundary frame that is able to support
the plate edges in horizontal and rotational directions. Measurements of the frame deformation
show that the frame provides a completely stiff support for the concrete plate.
The four support plates (figure 5) are each fixed to a load cell, recording the total reaction force
and the distribution of the reaction forces. An hydraulic jack loads the plate at the bottom side
and its hydraulic pressure is used to check the load cell recordings. At the plate top surface,
above the hydraulic jack, four Linear Voltage Displacement Transducers (LVDT) measure
deformations (elastic strains and crack opening widths) over 300 mm length, figure 7. Along the
lines between the four support plates, another four LVDT's measure the crack opening width,
see figure 7. Strain gauges (measurement length 12 mm) are positioned at the bottom surface,
near the hydraulic jack, and at the top surface, near the corner. Outward displacements of the
steel boundary frame are measured at six locations. At two locations, the steel boundary frame
rotation is measured. These measurements are used to check the frame effectiveness. During the
test, top surface cracks were marked and measured. The last mentioned measurements (not
presented) confirm the LVDT measured values.
Pile below 3000
floor
Concrete
floor, continues
in all directions
Observed part 3000
for experiments
Figure 4: Test specimen represents a part of the warehouse floor, measures in mm.
97
6. Test specimen,
concrete plate
585
220
Test rig beam
585
Loading plate,
220
simulates pile
moving up
A A'
585
Steel boundary
220
frame
585
Support plates,
keep plate fixed
in loading direction
220 220 220 All measures in mm.
610 610 610 610
Support plates,
Test rig beams hinge connected
to load cells
Test specimen, Steel boundary
concrete plate frame, concrete filled
steel tube 200x200x12
Hydraulic jack Loading plate,
hinge connected
Test rig beams to hydraulic jack
Section A-A'
Figure 5: Test rig with test specimen.
Figure 6: Photo of test rig
98
7. Measurement of Load cell
steel boundary
frame horizontal
displacement
3 strain gauges
585
at top of plate
220
LVDT meas.
length 300 mm
585
220
Measurement of
steel boundary
585
frame rotation
220
3 strain gauges
at bottom of plate
585
Measurement of
steel boundary
All
frame horizontal
measurements
displacement
220 220 220 in mm.
610 610 610 610
strain gauge
for y-direction
strain gauges centre positioned 50 mm strain gauge
in x- and y-direction from plate corner for diagonal
or load bearing plate corner direction
strain gauges
centre
strain gauge
for x-direction
Figure 7: Measurements, top view.
4 Experimental results
The punching test specimens are loaded via displacement control by 0.08 mm per second.
Results can be grouped in (1) ultimate load and failure, (2) stiffness and crack pattern, (3) LVDT
measurements, and (4) strain gauge measurements.
4.1 Ultimate load and failure
Table 1 presents the ultimate load found for each test. Figure 8 shows the load-displacement
curves for each test. The ultimate load was derived by the sum of the four load cell registrations
and was verified by comparing this data with the hydraulic oil pressure of the loading jack. For
all tests, the hydraulic jack load is equally distributed over the four load cells. The specimens
are thus symmetrically loaded. Fibre reinforced concrete (test 1) results in a 12 kN higher
ultimate punching load than non-reinforced concrete (test 4). A pile mat (B), test 5, results in a 4
kN increase of the ultimate punching load compared to the situation without pile mat (test 4). If
fibre reinforcement and a pile mat (B) are used together (test 2) the ultimate load increases 109
kN. This indicates that fibre reinforcement and a pile mat (B) improve each others action. It is
interesting to note that fibre and a pile mat (B), test 2, perform even better than a pile mat (B)
and a normal mat (A) (test 7, for which much more material and labour is needed). Failure is
sudden for all tests. The crack pattern functions as a starting grid for the punching cone, figure
9. The cone suddenly breaks out from the floor.
99
8. 500 Test 1, FRC
2
400
Test 2, FRC + (B)
Load [kN]
300 pile mat
3
Test 3, FRC + (C)
200
circular pile mat
4
100 Test 4, NC
1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Deflection [mm]
Test 5, NC + (B) pile
500
mat
400
Test 6, NC + (C)
circular pile mat
Load [kN]
300
8
Test 7, NC + (A)
200 normal mat + (B) pile
7 mat
100 6 5 Test 8, NC + (A)
normal mat + (B) pile
0 mat + (D) bent-up bars
0 10 20 30 40 50
Deflection [mm]
Figure 8: Load-deflection diagrams for all tests.
Figure 9: The crack pattern functions as a starting grid for the punching cone, test 8.
100
9. 4.2 Stiffness and crack pattern
For warehouse floors, flexural stiffness is important for floor surface flatness during
serviceability loads. Table 2 shows the stiffness (pile reaction force divided by the plate
deflection above the pile) for a serviceability load of 10.75 kN/m2. Furthermore, the table shows
the amount of surface cracks at ultimate load. For all tests, radial directed cracks are more or
less equally spaced and thus the distance between cracks depends on the distance to the plate
centre, see figure 9.
Table 2: Stiffness and crack pattern.
Test Concrete Reinforcement Number of Stiffness
radial cracks [N/mm]
1 FRC 9 10092
2 FRC (B) Pile mat 20 11957
3 FRC (C) Circular pile mat 27 15278
4 NC 6 9649
5 NC (B) Pile mat 9 13415
6 NC (C) Circular pile mat 23 13415
7 NC (A) Normal mat 24 17460
(B) Pile mat
8 NC (A) Normal mat 24 19097
(B) Pile mat
(D) Bent-up bars
In general, fibre reinforcement does not increase the floor stiffness for serviceability loads.
Traditional reinforcement increases floor stiffness, especially the combination of a normal mat
(A) with bent-up bars (D). The number of cracks is related to the crack width: for the same plate
deflection, more cracks relate to smaller crack widths. Application of fibre reinforcement does
only slightly increase the number of cracks (compare tests 1 and 4). The same is valid for the
application of a pile mat (B), as seen in tests 4 and 5. However, the combination of fibre
reinforcement and a pile mat (B) leads to a substantial increase of the number of cracks. If no
fibre reinforced concrete is used, a circular pile mat (C), test 6, performs slightly better
compared to the combination of fibre reinforcement and pile mat (B), test 2. The application of a
normal mat (A) and bent-up bars (D) in test 8 does not help to increase the number of cracks
compared to test 6 and 7.
101
10. 4.3 LVDT measurements
For every test the number of cracks within the measuring length of a specific LVDT was
monitored. Taking test 1, for example, the experiment shows that each LVDT measures over
one or two cracks. LVDT measurements range from 1.5 to 4 mm, depending on the location.
This results in a crack opening width between (1.5/2=) 0.75 and (4/1=) 4 mm. These results are
shown in figure 10 and 11 for all tests. The figures show that the plate without reinforcement
(test 4) and the plate with only fibre reinforcement (test 1) show the largest crack widths. Note
that fibre reinforcement alone does not significantly reduce crack width. If these two plates
(non-reinforced and fibre reinforced only) are improved by the use of a pile mat (normal or
circular: tests 2, 3, 5, and 6), crack widths are strongly reduced, not only at the centre, but also
along the lines between the supports, figure 11. Finally, for reducing the crack width above the
pile, the application of an upper mat (test 7) or punching reinforcement (bent-up bars, test 8) is
not useful.
8
7
Crack width above pile [mm]
6
Minimum crack width
5
Maximum crack width
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Test specimen
Figure 10: LVDT recorded minimum and maximum crack width values above the pile (radial and/or
tangential cracks).
4.4 Strain gauge measurements
See figure 7 for strain gauge locations. The strains measured are translated into indicative
stresses by multiplication with the Young's modulus (23000 N/mm2). Table 3 presents stresses
for a serviceability load equal to 10.75 kN/m2 and at ultimate load.
102
11. 8
7
6
Crack width supports [mm]
5 Minimum crack width
4 Maximum crack width
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Test specimen
Figure 11: LVDT recorded minimum and maximum crack width values along the lines between the
supports (radial cracks).
Table 3: Stresses derived from strain gauge measurements.
Test Bottom surface, near loading plate Top surface, at plate corner
[N/mm ] 2 [N/mm2]
at 10.75 kN/m 2 at ultimate load at 10.75 kN/m 2 at ultimate load
x,y, diagonal x,y, diagonal x,y, diagonal x,y, diagonal
1 -3, -5, -2 -13, -22, -7 -, -, -1 -20, -19, 43
2*
3 -5, -3, -2 -28, -28, -13 0, 0, 0 -8, -8, -27
4 -15, -12, -4 -40, -37, -5 -6, -3, -8 -20,-17, -47
5 -5, -14, -2 -17, -31, -6 0, 0, 0 -1, -13, -34
6 -5, -4, -3 -17, -28, -10 1, 0, 0 11, -7, -28
7 -5, -4, -2 -25, -23, -7 0, 0, 0 0, 6, -16
8 -5, -4, -3 -36, -28, -14 0, 0, 0 -2, -27, -47
*For test 2, strain gauge locations were different from specified. Therefore, this test cannot be compared
with the other tests.
Negative stress values indicate compression, positive values indicate tension. For a load equal
to 10.75 kN/m2, small stresses occur near the loading plate, which are quantitative comparable
for all tests. At the top surface, in the corner of the plate, no stresses occur. At ultimate load,
compressive stresses are about equal to the ultimate compressive strength of the concrete. No
relation was found between strain gauge measurements (table 3) and number of cracks (table 2)
or ultimate punching load (table 1).
103
12. 5 Code equations
Current codes do not include a prediction for the surface crack width (ACI 2002, Eurocode2
2002). However, they provide a prediction of the ultimate punching load for some
reinforcement types. In this section, American Standard ACI 318-02 (2002) and Eurocode2 (EC2,
2002) are used, without safety factors, for predicting the ultimate punching load of the section 3
experiments, table 4. American Standard ACI 318-02 predicts the ultimate punching load as
follows:
Vn = Vc + Vs (1)
Vc = 2 f c, b wd (2)
Av f y d
Vs = (3)
s
The notation is explained in section "Notation and symbols", after the references. The minimum
area of shear reinforcement should be:
b s
Av = 0.75 f c, w
fy (4)
For EC2, the following formula is used:
Vsd = βduτ Rd k (1.2 + 40 ρ1 ) +
∑ Asw f ywk sinα
ud (5)
The perimeter of the critical section for punching shear u is not based on the (equivalent)
diameter of the pile head (as for the ACI) but on the diameter of the pile head plus 1.5d.
The ACI code predicts the ultimate punching load well. Article 11.5.1. does not permit to use
the (A) normal mat, (B) pile mat, and (C) circular pile mat as shear reinforcement. Even the
bent-up bars are not allowed as shear reinforcement because the test specimen depth is too low
(formula 4). If still a prediction is made, the value permitted is lower than for the non-shear-
reinforced sections because for the concrete shear part, a reduced value should be used.
104
13. Table 4: Comparison of ultimate punching load from tests and codes.
Test Type of Reinforcement Test ACI EC2 EC2+
concrete 318-02 FRC adj.
[kN] [kN] [kN]
[kN] (ACI/test) (Code/test) (Code/test)
1 FRC 361 489 (1.35)
2 FRC B 458 522 (1.14)
3 FRC C 440 522 (1.19)
4 NC 349 343 (0.98) 411 (1.18)
5 NC B 353 343 (0.97) 438 (1.24)
6 NC C 351 343 (0.98) 438 (1.25)
7 NC A+B 422 343 (0.81) 521 (1.24)
8 NC A+B+D 496 291 (0.59) 645 (1.30)
(A) Normal mat, (B) Pile mat, (C) Circular mat, (D) Bent-up bars
EC2 predicts the failure load too high, but with an almost constant magnification factor. EC2
cannot be used to predict the fibre-reinforced tests. In addition to EC2, it is possible to use an
approach that allows an increase of the concrete tensile strength based on the fibre reinforced
post-peak behaviour (Brite-Euram 2002). For this approach, the R1.5 value has to be determined
which is a measure for the concrete ductility, see section 2.2. This ductility measure can be used
to allow for an increase of the tensile strength of the concrete. Based on this approach, for the
concrete used here, the Dutch CUR (1994) predicts a R1.5 value equal to 0.54. This allows a 1.34
higher tensile stress (CUR 1994b). Results are shown in the last column of the table and show
the same (overestimating) behaviour as for normal concrete.
6 Conclusions
Due to fibre reinforcement and special reinforcement mats, current design rules cannot be used
to correctly predict the surface crack width and the ultimate punching load for warehouse
floors.
Fibre reinforcement only does not increase the ultimate punching load. If a pile mat is used
additionally, the ultimate load increases significantly, more than only using the pile mat.
Current design codes cannot be used to predict this effect.
LVDT measurements give a good indication of surface crack width behaviour. Fibre
reinforcement only does not significantly reduce crack width. If the fibre reinforced plate is
improved by the use of a pile mat (normal or circular) crack widths are strongly reduced, much
more than with a pile mat only, and even away from the pile (along the lines between the
supports). Again, current design codes cannot be used to predict this effect.
Local strain gauge measurements cannot be used to compare or indicate crack width and
105
14. punching behaviour for warehouse floors.
EC2 predicts the failure load too high, but with an almost constant magnification factor. The
ACI code performs well in this respect but does not permit the use of normal mats (A), pile
mats (B), and circular pile mats (C) as shear reinforcement. Even the bent-up bars are not
allowed as shear reinforcement because the test specimen depth is too low. However, the
experiments show that the bent-up bars significantly increase the ultimate punching load.
References
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for Structural Concrete with Commentary (31802), ACI World Headquarters, 38800
Country Club Drive, Farmington Hills, MI 48331, USA, 2002.
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Cement and Concrete Composites, Volume 24, Issue 6, December 2002, Pages 531-538.
Alexander, S.B.D.; Simmonds, S.H.: Punching Shear Tests of Concrete Slab-Column Joints
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107
16. Notations and symbols
Vn nominal shear strength, lb.
Vc nominal shear strength provided by concrete, lb.
Vs nominal shear strength provided by shear reinforcement, lb.
f'c specified compressive strength of concrete, psi.
bw web width, or diameter of circular section, in.
d distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of longitudinal tension reinforcement, in.
Av area of shear reinforcement within a distance s, in.2
s spacing of shear or tension reinforcement measured in a direction perpendicular to longitudinal
reinforcement, in.
fy specified yield strength of nonprestressed reinforcement, psi.
Vsd Design value of the applied shear force at the ultimate limit state
β Coefficient taking account of the effects of eccentricity of load
d Effective depth of a cross-section
u Perimeter of critical section for punching shear
τrd Basic shear strength of members without shear reinforcement
k Coefficient which allows for the effects of non-uniform self-equilibrating stresses
ρ1 Equivalent longitudinal reinforcement ratio
Asw Cross-sectional area of shear reinforcement
fywk Characteristic yield strength of shear reinforcement
α Angle of the shear reinforcement with the longitudinal reinforcement (main steel)
108