This document summarizes two explanations for the bystander effect in helping behavior: diffusion of responsibility and social norms. It describes a study that investigated which model better explains the bystander effect. The study found that helping behavior increased both when a bystander was present and even more so when the bystander modeled helping behavior. This contradicts the typical finding of decreased helping with more bystanders and supports the social norms explanation.
Distress and retaliatory aggression in response to witnessing intergroup excl...Maciej Behnke
The negative consequences of personal exclusion have been demonstrated by multiple
studies. Less is known about the consequences of witnessing one's own group
being excluded by other groups, although studies suggest exclusion can be experienced
vicariously and negatively affects members of the excluded group. Results of
the present lab-based
experiment (N = 153) indicate, in line with our predictions,
that witnessing intergroup exclusion (a national majority excluded by a minority,
manipulated by an adapted intergroup Cyberball paradigm) produced a sense of personal
exclusion. It also increased self-reported
distress and behavioral aggression
measured in the Taylor Aggression Paradigm), especially among participants high
on collective narcissism: a belief that the exaggerated greatness of the in-group
is
not sufficiently appreciated by others. Contrary to expectations, a short mindful decentration
intervention (instructing participants to observe thoughts and emotions as
transient mental products without engaging with them) delivered while participants
were witnessing intergroup exclusion (vs. inclusion) produced changes in heart rate
variability reactivity indicative of emotional arousal, especially among collective
narcissists. We concluded that collective narcissism is associated with distress in
the face of intergroup exclusion, aggressive retaliation, and in consequence, it is
a risk-factor
predisposing group members to stress-related
health and psychosocial
problems. Furthermore, a mindful decentration, despite being an effective strategy
to reduce maladaptive stress in most people, may be counterproductive in addressing
high collective narcissists' responses to threat to the in-group's
image.
Imagined interactions are a process of social cognition using verbal and visual imagery in which individuals imagine themselves in anticipated and/or past communicative encounters with significant others (Honeycutt, 2003). This theory explains how people use mental imagery to deal with conflict and think about others which serve a variety of functions. They seve six functions: catharsis, rehearsal, self-understanding, conflict management (rumination), compensation, relational maintenance
Distress and retaliatory aggression in response to witnessing intergroup excl...Maciej Behnke
The negative consequences of personal exclusion have been demonstrated by multiple
studies. Less is known about the consequences of witnessing one's own group
being excluded by other groups, although studies suggest exclusion can be experienced
vicariously and negatively affects members of the excluded group. Results of
the present lab-based
experiment (N = 153) indicate, in line with our predictions,
that witnessing intergroup exclusion (a national majority excluded by a minority,
manipulated by an adapted intergroup Cyberball paradigm) produced a sense of personal
exclusion. It also increased self-reported
distress and behavioral aggression
measured in the Taylor Aggression Paradigm), especially among participants high
on collective narcissism: a belief that the exaggerated greatness of the in-group
is
not sufficiently appreciated by others. Contrary to expectations, a short mindful decentration
intervention (instructing participants to observe thoughts and emotions as
transient mental products without engaging with them) delivered while participants
were witnessing intergroup exclusion (vs. inclusion) produced changes in heart rate
variability reactivity indicative of emotional arousal, especially among collective
narcissists. We concluded that collective narcissism is associated with distress in
the face of intergroup exclusion, aggressive retaliation, and in consequence, it is
a risk-factor
predisposing group members to stress-related
health and psychosocial
problems. Furthermore, a mindful decentration, despite being an effective strategy
to reduce maladaptive stress in most people, may be counterproductive in addressing
high collective narcissists' responses to threat to the in-group's
image.
Imagined interactions are a process of social cognition using verbal and visual imagery in which individuals imagine themselves in anticipated and/or past communicative encounters with significant others (Honeycutt, 2003). This theory explains how people use mental imagery to deal with conflict and think about others which serve a variety of functions. They seve six functions: catharsis, rehearsal, self-understanding, conflict management (rumination), compensation, relational maintenance
Crafting effective messages for environmental conservationCaren Magill-Myers
Most people that behave in environmentally conscious ways will claim that they do so because they are motivated by reasons of social responsibility toward conservation. They may even admit that there are economic advantages to doing so. However, they would be largely incorrect. The following literature review will examine the most likely cause for motivating the public to adopt pro-environmental behavior, and how these cognitive reactions can best be put to use the in development of conservation campaign messages.
Some Challenges in Motivating Pro-environmental Behaviors Dawn Drake, Ph.D.
This article considers fear avoidance, reactance theory, and alienation from nature as reasons why warnings about environmental damage and global warming fail to produce significant changes in individual behaviors. Behavioral decision-making stages identified by L. Pelletier and E. Sharp (2008) are associated with interest in nature, emotional affinity (love) for nature, message design theory, visionary charismatic leadership, and manifestation based on energetic investment as factors that support adoption of proenvironmental attitudes and behaviors. Suggestions are made about what could help inspire proenvironmental behavior.
Personal and familial crisis communication before and duringDonnaOti
Most crisis communication research to date has focused on organizational contexts and the need for organizations to plan for crises. This discussion, however, focuses on personal and familial preparedness practices in three countries. Suggestions for future preparations, such as family preparedness planning, 72 hour kits, and community involvement, are discussed. Also analyzed are motivations for preparation, including civic suggestions and religious community encouragement.
Hello Everyone,
A big thank you for all the interest in this study guide. It was originally created as a fun introduction that took the Cognitive Bias wiki and tried to make it easier to memorize.
However, the authors of the wiki article have expressed some concern over the accuracy of certain entries. The document was taken down until that could be corrected.
But, people started asking that I release a new version with a warning. In response, a new "Beta version" of the document has been uploaded with a very strong warning label up front and improved citations. I make it clear that all the text is based on an evolving wiki page and that some of the cognitive biases in there might be incorrect wiki entries. My hope is that this will continue to get people interested in pitching in to help fix the Cognitive Bias wiki pages. :) When the wiki is in a good place, I will take the document out of Beta, and will remove the warning label.
If you are a cognitive expert, join “Operation Fix The Cognitive Bias Wiki!” Add your suggestion to the conversation here: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:List_of_cognitive_biases
Thanks for your interest!
Eric
P.S. . The images have been updated for better remixing and sharing rights. Rather than using permission based images, now all the images are public domain or free non-commercial use by anyone.
Crafting effective messages for environmental conservationCaren Magill-Myers
Most people that behave in environmentally conscious ways will claim that they do so because they are motivated by reasons of social responsibility toward conservation. They may even admit that there are economic advantages to doing so. However, they would be largely incorrect. The following literature review will examine the most likely cause for motivating the public to adopt pro-environmental behavior, and how these cognitive reactions can best be put to use the in development of conservation campaign messages.
Some Challenges in Motivating Pro-environmental Behaviors Dawn Drake, Ph.D.
This article considers fear avoidance, reactance theory, and alienation from nature as reasons why warnings about environmental damage and global warming fail to produce significant changes in individual behaviors. Behavioral decision-making stages identified by L. Pelletier and E. Sharp (2008) are associated with interest in nature, emotional affinity (love) for nature, message design theory, visionary charismatic leadership, and manifestation based on energetic investment as factors that support adoption of proenvironmental attitudes and behaviors. Suggestions are made about what could help inspire proenvironmental behavior.
Personal and familial crisis communication before and duringDonnaOti
Most crisis communication research to date has focused on organizational contexts and the need for organizations to plan for crises. This discussion, however, focuses on personal and familial preparedness practices in three countries. Suggestions for future preparations, such as family preparedness planning, 72 hour kits, and community involvement, are discussed. Also analyzed are motivations for preparation, including civic suggestions and religious community encouragement.
Hello Everyone,
A big thank you for all the interest in this study guide. It was originally created as a fun introduction that took the Cognitive Bias wiki and tried to make it easier to memorize.
However, the authors of the wiki article have expressed some concern over the accuracy of certain entries. The document was taken down until that could be corrected.
But, people started asking that I release a new version with a warning. In response, a new "Beta version" of the document has been uploaded with a very strong warning label up front and improved citations. I make it clear that all the text is based on an evolving wiki page and that some of the cognitive biases in there might be incorrect wiki entries. My hope is that this will continue to get people interested in pitching in to help fix the Cognitive Bias wiki pages. :) When the wiki is in a good place, I will take the document out of Beta, and will remove the warning label.
If you are a cognitive expert, join “Operation Fix The Cognitive Bias Wiki!” Add your suggestion to the conversation here: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:List_of_cognitive_biases
Thanks for your interest!
Eric
P.S. . The images have been updated for better remixing and sharing rights. Rather than using permission based images, now all the images are public domain or free non-commercial use by anyone.
We all talk about #positive #Attitude.... this defines a lil bit..with an approach being Great. Go through it for self assessment and reinventing your personality style.
The slides speaks about various examples and full form of Attitude
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology1968, Vol. 8, No.docxtawnyataylor528
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
1968, Vol. 8, No. 4, 377-383
BYSTANDER INTERVENTION IN EMERGENCIES:
DIFFUSION OF RESPONSIBILITY3
JOHN M. BARLEY
New York University
BIBB LATANfi
Columbia University
Ss overheard an epileptic seizure. They believed either that they alone heard
the emergency, or that 1 or 4 unseen others were also present. As predicted
the presence of other bystanders reduced the individual's feelings of personal
responsibility and lowered his speed of reporting (p < .01). In groups of
size 3, males reported no faster than females, and females reported no slower
when the 1 other bystander was a male rather than a female. In general,
personality and background measures were not predictive of helping. Bystander
inaction in real-life emergencies is often explained by "apathy," "alienation,"
and "anomie." This experiment suggests that the explanation may lie more
in the bystander's response to other observers than in his indifference to
the victim.
Several years ago, a young woman was
stabbed to death in the middle of a street in
a residential section of New York City. Al-
though such murders are not entirely routine,
the incident received little public attention
until several weeks later when the New York
Times disclosed another side to the case: at
least 38 witnesses had observed the attack—
and none had even attempted to intervene.
Although the attacker took more than half
an hour to kill Kitty Genovese, not one of
the 38 people who watched from the safety
of their own apartments came out to assist
her. Not one even lifted the telephone to
call the police (Rosenthal, 1964).
Preachers, professors, and news commenta-
tors sought the reasons for such apparently
conscienceless and inhumane lack of interven-
tion. Their conclusions ranged from "moral
decay," to "dehumanization produced by
the urban environment," to "alienation,"
"anomie," and "existential despair." An anal-
ysis of the situation, however, suggests that
factors other than apathy and indifference
were involved.
A person witnessing an emergency situa-
tion, particularly such a frightening and
1 This research was supported in part by National
Science Foundation Grants GS1238 and GS1239.
Susan Darley contributed materially to the design
of the experiment and ran the subjects, and she and
Thomas Moriarty analyzed the data. Richard
Nisbett, Susan Millman, Andrew Gordon, and
Norma Neiman helped in preparing the tape
recordings.
dangerous one as a stabbing, is in conflict.
There are obvious humanitarian norms about
helping the victim, but there are also rational
and irrational fears about what might happen
to a person who does intervene (Milgram &
Hollander, 1964). "I didn't want to get
involved," is a familiar comment, and behind
it lies fears of physical harm, public embar-
rassment, involvement with police procedures,
lost work days and jobs, and other unknown
dangers.
In certain circumstances, the norms favor-
ing intervention may be weakened, lead ...
Week 7 – Grading Rubric for Argumentative EssayContent and Dev.docxmelbruce90096
Week 7 – Grading Rubric for Argumentative Essay
Content and Development – 55 Points
Points Earned – 55/55
All key elements of the assignment are covered in a substantive way. To note:
· The essay is at least 1,000+ words
· The essay is written in the argumentative rhetorical mode
· The essay contains a precise, pertinent, and persuasive thesis
· The essay contains a variety of kinds of evidence/support for its argument
· The essay makes effective use of descriptive language if/when appropriate
· Inter- and intra-paragraph content is effectively organized (spatially, temporally, logically, or by order of importance) and makes use of topic sentences and appropriate transitional expressions
· The introduction and conclusion are engaging, cohesive, and appropriate to their position in the essay
The essay has been submitted to Turnitin.
A paragraph of self-reflection accompanies the essay.
Readability and Style – 10 Points
Points Earned – 10/10
The tone is appropriate to the content and assignment.
Sentences are complete, clear, and concise.
Sentences are well-constructed, with consistently strong, varied syntax.
Sentence transitions are present and maintain the flow of thought.
Mechanics – 10 Points
Points Earned – 10/10
Rules of grammar, usage, and punctuation are followed.
Mechanics are accurate.
Spelling is correct.
Total – 75 Points
Points Earned – 75/75
Overall Comments:
Week 7: Expository Essay 1 Revision: 65 points
Content and Development – 45 Points
Points Earned – 45/45
Additional Comments:
The revision is substantive and effective. To note:
0. Major revisions (i.e., noticeable changes in content and organization) are evident.
0. The revision remains in line with its assigned rhetorical mode.
0. The revision contains all the elements of a successful essay: a precise, pertinent, and persuasive thesis; effective support for that thesis; and descriptive language where and when appropriate.
0. Inter- and intra-paragraph content is effectively organized (spatially, temporally, logically, or by order of importance) and makes use of topic sentences and appropriate transitional expressions.
0. The introduction and conclusion are engaging, cohesive, and appropriate to their position in the revision.
The revision has been submitted to Turnitin. A paragraph of self-reflection and the original essay accompany the revision.
Readability and Style – 10 Points
Points Earned – 10/10
The tone is appropriate to the content and assignment.
Sentences are complete, clear, and concise.
Sentences are well-constructed, with consistently strong, varied syntax.
Sentence transitions are present and maintain the flow of thought.
Mechanics – 10 Points
Points Earned – 10/10
Rules of grammar, usage, and punctuation are followed.
Mechanics are accurate.
Spelling is correct.
Total – 65 Points
Points Earned – 65/65
Overall Comments:
Running Head: THE BYSTANDER EFFECT
PAGE
1
THE BYSTANDER EFFECT
The Bystander Effect
Expository Essa.
ElasticityUnit I introduced the benefits of markets to impEvonCanales257
Elasticity
Unit I introduced the benefits of markets to improving outcomes for producers and consumers. Unit II examined the role of costs and prices in decision-making. For this assignment, you will answer a series of questions in the form of an essay. Support your answers with research from at least three peer-reviewed journal articles
Research elasticity information for two particular goods: one with an elastic demand and one with an inelastic demand. Using elasticity information you gather, predict changes in demand. The United States Department of Agriculture website has a good resource to help with this.
1. Describe how marginal analysis, by avoiding sunk costs, leads to better pricing decisions.
2. Explain the importance of opportunity costs to decision-making and how opportunity costs lead to trade.
3. Evaluate how better business decisions can benefit not just the producer but the consumer and society as a whole. In your evaluation, contrast the deontology and consequentialism approaches to ethics.
Your essay must be at least three pages in length (not counting the title and references pages) and include at least three peer-reviewed resources. Adhere to APA Style when writing your essay, including citations and references for sources used. Be sure to include an introduction. Please note that no abstract is needed
Instructions
This unit’s readings included information on pricing. You are introduced to the shutdown price, using elasticity to determine the effects of price changes, and cost-based pricing. Discuss the importance of considering elasticity in pricing decisions and the danger of relying solely on costs.
Journal entry must be at least 200 words in length. No references or citations are necessary.
Journal at Personality and Social Psycholoty
1968, Vol. 10, No. 3, 215-221
GROUP INHIBITION OF BYSTANDER INTERVENTION
IN EMERGENCIES l
BIBB LATANfi 2
Columbia University
AND JOHN M, DARLEY »
New York University
Male undergraduates found themselves in a smoke-filling room either alone,
with 2 nonreacting others, or in groups of 3. As predicted, Ss were less likely to
report the smoke when in the presence of passive others (10%) or in groups of
3 (38% of groups) than when alone (75%). This result seemed to have been
mediated by the way 5s interpreted the ambiguous situation; seeing other
people remain passive led Ss to decide the smoke was not dangerous.
Emergencies, fortunately, are uncommon
events. Although the average person may read
about them in newspapers or watch fictional-
ized versions on television, he probably will
encounter fewer than half a dozen in his life-
time. Unfortunately, when he does encounter
one, he will have had little direct personal
experience in dealing with it. And he must
deal with it under conditions of urgency, un-
certainty, stress, and fear. About all the indi-
vidual has to guide him is the secondhand
wisdom of the late movie, which is often as
useful as "Be brave" or as applic ...
PSY 3140, Social Psychology 1 Course Learning Outco.docxgertrudebellgrove
PSY 3140, Social Psychology 1
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit VI
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
3. Explain how social psychologists study human behavior.
3.1 Compare motivations underlying helping behaviors versus aggressive behaviors.
5. Analyze the conclusions of empirical research in social psychology.
5.1 Identify the circumstances and motivations that influence helping behaviors.
7. Examine how our own biases influence perceptions of various behaviors.
7.1 Describe how behaviors can be perceived as requiring help.
7.2 Discuss the application of the bystander effect to a social situation.
Course/Unit
Learning Outcomes
Learning Activity
3.1
Unit Lesson
Chapter 10, pp. 303–312, 315–318, and 320–326
Chapter 11, pp. 333–339, 342–347, and 351–361
Unit VI Scholarly Activity
5.1
Unit Lesson
Chapter 10, pp. 303–312, 315–318, and 320–326
Unit VI Scholarly Activity
7.1
Unit Lesson
Chapter 10, pp. 303–312, 315–318, and 320–326
Unit VI Scholarly Activity
7.2
Unit Lesson
Chapter 10, pp. 303–312, 315–318, and 320–326
Unit VI Scholarly Activity
Reading Assignment
Chapter 10: Helping and Prosocial Behavior, pp. 303–312, 315–318, and 320–326
Chapter 11: Aggression, pp. 333–339, 342–347, and 351–361
Unit Lesson
Helping and Prosocial Behavior
Prosocial behavior is any act done with the intention of benefiting another person or group (Heinzen &
Goodfriend, 2019). Altruism is the desire to help another person out of selfless concern for his or her well-
being. Researchers who study prosocial behavior and altruism examine whether people are born with these
behaviors or learn them. They are also interested in why people help others, even if it does not benefit them.
What do you think the difference is between prosocial behavior and altruism? Can you determine how
prosocial behavior and altruism are connected?
One explanation as to why people might help others is based on evolutionary psychology. Explaining altruistic
behavior is problematic for the theory of evolution because sometimes people act altruistically, even if it might
decrease the chance of passing their genes on to the next generation. Some people have died while helping
others, but they often do so in order to benefit their family groups more broadly. This, in turn, can ensure that
UNIT VI STUDY GUIDE
Aggression and Prosocial
Behavior
PSY 3140, Social Psychology 2
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
certain familial genetic pools are passed on through reproduction. Could this potentially mean that people
help even if it means they will not get something in return?
Why do you help others? Is it because you expect to be helped in the future? Recall from Chapter 7 that the
norm of reciprocity suggests that we do things to help others with the expectation of an increased likelihood
for them to help us in the future (Heinzen & Goodfriend, 2019). According to this norm, sociobiologi ...
Mental Illness Stigma and the Fundamental Components ofSuppo.docxandreecapon
Mental Illness Stigma and the Fundamental Components of
Supported Employment
Patrick W. Corrigan, Jonathon E. Larson, and Sachiko A. Kuwabara
Illinois Institute of Psychology
Purpose/Objective: The success of supported employment programs will partly depend on the endorse-
ment of stigma in communities in which the programs operate. In this article, the authors examine 2
models of stigma—responsibility attribution and dangerousness—and their relationships to components
of supported employment—help getting a job and help keeping a job. Research Method/Design: A
stratified and randomly recruited sample (N � 815) completed responses to a vignette about “Chris,” a
person alternately described with mental illness, with drug addiction, or in a wheelchair. Research
participants completed items that represented responsibility and dangerousness models. They also
completed items representing 2 fundamental aspects of supported employment: help getting a job or help
keeping a job. Results: When participants viewed Chris as responsible for his condition (e.g., mental
illness), they reacted to him in an angry manner, which in turn led to lesser endorsement of the 2 aspects
of supported employment. In addition, people who viewed Chris as dangerous feared him and wanted to
stay away from him, even in settings where people with mental illness might work. Conclusions/
Implications: Implications for understanding supported employment are discussed.
Keywords: stigma, supported employment, discrimination
The disabilities of serious mental illness can block people from
obtaining important life goals, including a good job. Several kinds
of vocational rehabilitation programs have emerged to address
work-related disabilities. Some of these approaches are known as
train-place strategies (Corrigan & McCracken, 2005). Through an
education-based strategy, in train-place programs, participants
must learn prevocational and work readiness skills before they are
placed in work settings. These work settings are often sheltered;
that is, the job is “owned” by a rehabilitation agency, which can
protect participants from stressors (Corrigan, 2001). Alternatively,
supported employment is place-train in orientation. People are
placed in real-world work and subsequently provided training and
support to address problems as they emerge, thereby helping a
person to maintain a regular job. The latter group has dominated
recent supported employment models for people with psychiatric
disabilities (Bond et al., 2001; Bond, Becker, Drake, & Vogler, 1997).
Some forms of supported employment recommend rapid placement
of people in work settings of interest to them (Becker & Drake, 2003).
Unlike train-place programs, supported employment does not
try to protect people with disabilities from the work world (Cor-
rigan, 2001; Corrigan & McCracken, 2005). Instead, providers
offer direct support in vivo. This kind of approach is more suc-
cessful in communities where the intent of supported ...
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
Students, digital devices and success - Andreas Schleicher - 27 May 2024..pptxEduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents at the OECD webinar ‘Digital devices in schools: detrimental distraction or secret to success?’ on 27 May 2024. The presentation was based on findings from PISA 2022 results and the webinar helped launch the PISA in Focus ‘Managing screen time: How to protect and equip students against distraction’ https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/managing-screen-time_7c225af4-en and the OECD Education Policy Perspective ‘Students, digital devices and success’ can be found here - https://oe.cd/il/5yV
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
How to Split Bills in the Odoo 17 POS ModuleCeline George
Bills have a main role in point of sale procedure. It will help to track sales, handling payments and giving receipts to customers. Bill splitting also has an important role in POS. For example, If some friends come together for dinner and if they want to divide the bill then it is possible by POS bill splitting. This slide will show how to split bills in odoo 17 POS.
Overview on Edible Vaccine: Pros & Cons with Mechanism
Helping behaviour
1. Psychology 1B www.prevos.net
Monash University 3 January 2006
Explanation Models for the Bystander Effect in Helping Behaviour
Peter Prevos
Monash University
Previous research indicates that the likelihood of receiving help decreases as the number of
bystanders increases. Two possible explanations to explain the bystanders effect are diffusion
of responsibility among bystander and a social norms explanation. To investigate which model
explains the bystander effect a naturalistic study was undertaken in which subjects were ex-
pected to provide help in a minor emergency. The results show an increase in helping behaviour
when a bystander is present and a further increase if the bystander models the expected helping
behaviour. The results contradict the often empirically shown bystander effect and support a
social norms explanation of helping behaviour.
In 1964, Kitty Genovese was murdered outside her home in in a positive mood, stimulated by music. Wegner & Crano
New York, while 38 witnesses did nothing to save her. This (1975) found that that skin colour can also be a determinant
incident sparked a public outcry and was the catalyst for a for helping behaviour.
considerable amount of research into what motivates people Many studies demonstrated that the presence of other ob-
to help others in obvious need or what prevents them from servers reduces the likelihood that any one person will dis-
helping (Brehm & Kassin, 1996). The common sense expla- play a helping response (Latané & Nida, 1981). Contrary to
nation for this seeming lack of compassion are vague con- common sense, there does not seem to be safety in numbers
cepts such as ‘alienation’ and ‘apathy’. These explanations as the victim appears to have a greater likelihood of receiv-
stem from the idea that our moral actions are determined by ing help when there is a single witness rather than a group.
character traits. This explanation of morality has, however, Two possible psychological explanations proposed to explain
been contradicted by results from contemporary research in the bystander effect are diffusion of responsibility among by-
social psychology (Harman, 1999). standers and a social norms explanation.
Most research on helping behaviour has used experimen- Diffusion of Responsibility
tal methodologies to study situations in which someone has
Latané & Darley (1970, cited in Brehm & Kassin, 1996)
a sudden need for help. Factors such as clarity, urgency of
developed a model that bystanders follow to decide if they
the need, skin colour, gender, age or handicap of the ‘vic-
will provide help or not. According to this model, a by-
tim’, how many potential helpers are present and the rela-
stander goes through a five step decision tree before help is
tionship between victim and subject have been manipulated
provided. Helping responses can, however, be inhibited at
(Piliavin, 2001). Researchers have, for example, compared
any stage of the process and subsequently no help is pro-
helping in rural and urban areas, consistently finding that
vided:
helping strangers is more likely in less dense areas around the
1. The bystander needs to notice that an event is taking
world (Piliavin, 2001). North, Tarrant & Hargreaves (2004)
place, but may fail to do so and not provide help;
found that participants are more likely to help when they are
2. The bystander needs to identify the event as some form
of emergency. The situation may be ambiguous, preventing
from help being given;
Paper written as a requirement for the Psychology 1B course
(PSY12) at Monash University, Melbourne. Correspondence re- 3. The bystander needs to take responsibility for helping,
garding this article should be addressed to peter@prevos.net. but might avoid taking responsibility by assuming that some-
1
2. 2 PETER PREVOS
body else will (diffusion of responsibility); bystanders are present compared to when no bystanders are
4. The bystander needs to decide on the appropriate help- present. The social norms explanation predicts that helping
ing response, but may not believe themselves to be competent behaviour is increased when a bystander offers help as com-
to do so; pared to when no bystanders are present.
5. The bystander needs to implement that response, but
this may be against their interest to do so, specially in dan- Method
gerous situations.
In the diffusion of responsibility in stage 3, each bystander Participants
notices the event and recognises that help is required, but
The study consisted of a task where a naive subject had
fails to act because they assume that somebody else will take
an opportunity to help the experimenter in a non-emergency
responsibility. This can be viewed as a means of reducing
situation. All subjects were selected randomly, when the cir-
the psychological cost of not helping. The cost (e.g. embar-
cumstances were suitable for undertaking the experiment. A
rassment and guilt) are shared among the group, reducing the
confederate was used to act as a helping or non-helping by-
likelihood of intervention (Latané & Nida, 1981).
stander in the experiment.
Social Norms The experiment consisted of 135 trials in total. The data
was obtained from 75 trials on four Monash University cam-
Bryan & Test (1967) have shown that the bystander effect
puses and 47 responses were obtained by distance educa-
does not seem to appear if a helping response is first mod-
tion students working in the general community (Fraser &
elled by another observer, which seems to contradict the dif-
Walker, 2005). The data was appended with 13 observations
fusion of responsibility concept. Bryan & Test suggest that
by the author obtained in a municipal park in central Victoria.
this behaviour can be explained by a process of conformity to
social norms. The social norms explanation holds that people Materials & Procedure
use actions from others as cues to decide what an appropriate
response to specific situations should be, as demonstrated by The experimenter looked for a person standing alone in
Asch’s conformity experiments (Asch, 1995). Cialdini, Reno a public place, with no other person within 10 metres. The
& Kallgren (1990) conducted five experiments to determine subject was not be participating in any specific activity to
how social norms influence littering in public places and con- ensure they notice the event. The experimenter ‘accidently’
cluded that norms have a considerable impact on behaviour dropped a pile of 50–100 loose pages from a manila folder,
(Cialdini et al., 1990). close to the subject. The subject was defined as helping if he
The methodology employed by Bryan & Test (1967) is, or she picked up one or more pages within 30 seconds from
however, not fully comparable with the traditional helping the drop. In cases where a third person started helping, or the
model as described by Latané & Nida (1981). The study by subject was not able to help, the trial was not included in the
Bryan & Test involved two separate events — the driver first results.
sees a driver in need being helped by somebody and a while In the control condition only the subject and the experi-
later sees another driver in need that is not being helped. menter were present. In the test conditions a confederate was
Separating these two moments eliminates the possibility of standing nearby and the papers where dropped equidistant
diffusion of responsibility as there are no bystanders in the between the subject and the confederate. In one condition
second situation and the subject is alone in his or her car. the confederate did not help, while in the other condition the
The objective of this study is to test whether the diffusion confederate started helped picking up the papers, providing a
of responsibility or the social norms explanation is applicable model for the appropriate behaviour. The helping behaviour
to helping behaviour in a non-emergency situation. If the dif- of the confederate bystander was the independent variable
fusion of responsibility explanation is correct, then the num- and the percentage of subjects helping to pick up the papers
ber of people providing help will be less when non-helping the dependent variable.
3. EXPLANATION MODELS FOR THE BYSTANDER EFFECT IN HELPING BEHAVIOUR 3
Results the social norms explanation as there is a statistically signif-
icant increase in helping behaviour when first modelled by
The raw data shows an increase in helping behaviour another bystander.
in those scenarios where a confederate is present, as sum-
Although Latané & Nida (1981) have shown that the by-
marised in figure 1. In the control situation, 41% (n=44) of
stander effect has been replicated in many studies in many
the subjects provided help. With a non-helping bystander
different circumstances, it has not occurred in 100% of the
present the helping behaviour of subjects increased to 46%
cases. It is unlikely that all these studies suffer from the same
(n=48) and for a helping bystander the percentage of helping
internal validity problems as this study. There could thus also
subjects was increased to 56% (n=43).
be theoretical reasons for the anomalous results. Both the
Figure 1. Results of helping behaviour experiment diffusion of responsibility explanation and the social norms
explanation can be true simultaneously as the diffusion of
responsibility is extinguished by a bystander who models the
appropriate behaviour. Further research is required to entan-
gle the relationship between the diffusion of responsibility
mechanism and social norms as determinants for helping be-
haviour.
Methodology
The study suffers from some methodological problems,
weakening its internal validity. Subject variables, such as
gender and age, were not controlled, nor where they noted in
the results. The data can thus not be tested for any significant
effects of subject variables. There is also some doubt whether
the methodology has been consistent, because the experi-
A χ2 test for goodness of fit at a 5% confidence level was ment consists of groups of trials by different experimenters.
undertaken to compare the results with the control situation. There are also situational nuisance variables, such as weather
The presence of a non-helping confederate resulted in an in- conditions, location and time of day the experiment was held,
crease of helping compared to the control situation (41% vs. which were not controlled because of the fragmented execu-
46%), albeit not significant: χ2 (1, n = 48) = 0.48, p = 0.488. tion of the experiment. On a windy day, for example, the
The presence of a helping confederate resulted in a signif- need to help picking up the papers is much more apparent to
icant increase over the control situation (41% vs. 56%), any bystander. Situational variables can also influence mood,
χ2 (1, n = 43) = 3.95, p = 0.047. as shown by North et al. (2004), which in turn can influence
helping behaviour. The increase in helping behaviour in the
Discussion non-helping bystander condition has most likely been con-
founded by any of these uncontrolled variables.
The results show an increase in helping behaviour when
a bystander is present, failing to support the diffusion expla-
Practical Application
nation, which predicts a decrease in helping behaviour. The
results do, however, not provide a firm ground to reject the Latané & Nida (1981) are pessimistic about the possibil-
diffusion explanation, as the increase is not statistically sig- ity of generating practical outcomes of the helping behaviour
nificant. The social norms explanation predicts that helping experiments. The significance of these experiments are of
behaviour is increased when a bystander offers help as com- a more philosophical than practical nature. One important
pared to when no bystanders are present. The results support aspect of the helping behaviour research is that it shows that
4. 4 PETER PREVOS
our moral behaviour is not governed by moral virtues or char-
acter traits, but by much more mundane social mechanisms
(Harman, 1999). When things go wrong, it is usually the
bystander who is being blamed for failing to act morally.
We attribute these failures, like in the Genovese case, to ex-
pressions of bad character traits. Experiments in helping be-
haviour are valuable in that they can provide a greater under-
standing of why people fail to do what is morally expected
and thus lead to a greater tolerance and understanding of oth-
ers (Harman, 1999).
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