Guidelines for Writing a Policy Brief | 1
Guidelines for Writing a Policy Brief
What is a Policy Brief? The Policy Brief is a “short, neutral summary of what is known about a particular issue or problem. Policy briefs are a form of report designed to facilitate policy-making” (Eisele, 2006). The main purpose is to “succinctly evaluate policy options regarding a specific issue, for a specific policy-maker audience” (Eisele, n.d.). Policy-makers need to make practical decisions under time-constraints, so the brief should provide evidence and actionable recommendations (Eisele, n.d.). The issue brief distils or synthesizes a large amount of complex detail, so the reader can easily understand the heart of the issue, its background, the players (“stakeholders”) and any recommendations, or even educated guesses about the future of the issue. It may have tables and graphs; usually, it has a short list of references, so the reader knows something about the sources on which it is based, and where to go for more information. Most of the time, the brief has its own “brief”--a one page “executive summary,” allowing the reader to quickly grasp the essence of the report (Eisele, n.d.). In short, “the purpose of the policy brief is to convince the target audience of the
urgency of the current problem and the need to adopt the preferred alternative or
course of action outlined and therefore, serve as an impetus for action” (Young & Quinn,
n.d.).
What are the components of a Policy Brief? (Lifted from Tsai, 2006)
Executive summary The executive summary aims to convince the reader further that the brief is worth in-depth investigation. It is especially important for an audience that is short of time to clearly see the relevance and importance of the brief in reading the summary. As such, a 1 to 2 paragraph executive summary commonly includes: 1. A description of the problem addressed; 2. A statement on why the current approach/policy option needs to be changed; 3. Your recommendations for action.
Context and importance of the problem The purpose of this element of the brief is to convince the target audience that a current and urgent problem exists which requires them to take action. The context and importance of the problem is both the introductory and first building block of the brief. As such, it usually includes the following: 1. A clear statement of the problem or issue in focus. 2. A short overview of the root causes of the problem 3. A clear statement of the policy implications of the problem that clearly establishes the current importance and policy relevance of the issue. It is worth noting that the length of the problem description may vary considerably from brief to brief depending on the stage on the policy process in focus, e.g. there may be a need to have a much more extensive problem description for policy at the evaluation stage than for one at the option choosing stage.
Policy Brief versus
Research Paper
(T ...
The Policy Brief1Overview The policy brief is a document.docxoreo10
The Policy Brief1
Overview
The policy brief is a document which outlines the rationale for choosing a
particular policy alternative or course of action in a current policy debate. It is
commonly produced in response to a request directly from a decision-maker or within
an organisation that intends to advocate for the position detailed in the brief.
Depending on the role of the writer or organisation producing the document, the brief
may only provide a targeted discussion of the current alternatives without arguing for
a particular one (i.e. those who adopt the role of ‘objective’ researcher). On the other
end of the scale, i.e. advocates, the brief may focus directly on providing an
argument for the adoption of a particular alternative. Nevertheless for any case, as
any policy debate is a market-place of competing ideas, the purpose of the policy
brief is to convince the target audience of the urgency of the current problem
and the need to adopt the preferred alternative or course of action outlined and
therefore, serve as an impetus for action.
As with all good marketing tools, the key to success is targeting the particular
audience for your message. The most common audience for a policy brief is the
decision-maker but, it is also not unusual to use the document to support broader
advocacy initiatives targeting a wide but knowledgeable audience (e.g. decision
makers, journalists, diplomats, administrators, researchers). In constructing a policy
brief that can effectively serve its intended purpose, it is common for a brief to be:
Focused – all aspects of the policy brief (from the message to the layout) need to
strategically focused on achieving the intended goal of convincing the target
audience. For example, the argument provided must build on what they do know
about the problem, provide insight about what they don’t know about the problem
and be presented in language that reflects their values, i.e. using ideas, evidence
and language that will convince them.
Professional, not academic –The common audience for a policy brief is not
interested in the research/analysis procedures conducted to produce the
evidence, but are very interested to know the writer’s perspective on the problem
and potential solutions based on the new evidence.
Evidence-based – The policy brief is a communication tool produced by policy
analysts and therefore all potential audiences not only expect a rational argument
but will only be convinced by argumentation supported by evidence that the
problem exists and the consequences of adopting particular alternatives.
Limited – to provide a adequately comprehensive but targeted argument within a
limited space, the focus of the brief needs to be limited to a particular problem or
area of a problem.
Succinct – The type of audiences targeted commonly do not have the time or
inclination to read an in-depth 20 page argument on a policy problem. Therefore,
...
BMIS 580Course Project Phase 2 Literature Review Assignment InsJeniceStuckeyoo
BMIS 580
Course Project Phase 2: Literature Review Assignment Instructions
Overview
Phase 1 was the Project Proposal – You already COMPLETED FOR ME
Phase 2 is the Literature Review
This phase of the course project requires you to write a Literature Review. The literature review must be at least 1,900 words of text (graphics, tables, etc. [non-textual items] can be inserted in an APA-formatted appendix), contain a minimum of 10 peer-reviewed sources (scholarly journal articles), follow current APA format, contain a title page, reference page, and an appendix section if needed for non-textual items.
Instructions
Ideally a literature review must contain 3 main sections; however, for this course you only need to focus on Section 1.
1. Tell what the research says (theory).
2. Tell how the research was carried out (methodology).
3. Tell what is missing, the “gap” that your research intends to fill.
Writing a literature review entails conducting research, but to be more specific it states the following information.
· Establishes a theoretical framework for your HCI problem/topic (subject area).
· Defines key terms, definitions and terminology.
· Identifies studies, models, case studies, etc. that support your problem/topic.
· Defines/establishes your problem or area of study.
To conduct your research you will need to review related literature to your HCI IS problem. The Jerry Falwell Library should be used to conduct your research along with this course textbook and previous course textbooks. Your peer reviewed research must lead to an appropriate IS solution to your problem and should answer the following question: what literature attempts to solve my problem? Your literature review must contain the following sections with supporting writing.
Introduction
· Establishes a theoretical framework for your problem/topic (subject area)
· Briefly state the importance of IS.
· Briefly re-state your Project Problem and Project Purpose that you wrote in Phase 1.
· Why do you need this?
· Define any key terms, definitions, and terminology that the reader may need to know before reading your literature review.
· It may be best to do this after writing the entire literature review.
Review of Literature
· Tell me what the research says (theory) about your problem.
· Finding research about your problem defines/establishes your problem or area of study (re-affirms that the problem does exist and why fixing this problem is important)
· Identify any studies, models, case studies, etc. that support your problem/topic.
Conclusion/Results
· State the literature that you found and why it attempts to solve your problem.
· How can you use this literature to help you solve your problem?
· Does the literature lead you to an appropriate IS solution for your problem?
Note: Your assignment will be checked for originality via the Turnitin plagiarism tool.
Submit your assignment to the Turnitin Draft link to check for potential issues with plagiarism. When you are ready ...
Review of Writing Effective Policy Papers HandbookMehdi ZOUAOUI
This handbook is designed to provide support to public policy writing. The audience is policy analysts, academics, and policy advisers. The guide comes along with the series of Open Society Foundation (formerly Open Society Institute) which is an international grant making network founded by George Soros. The guide is divided into 06 chapters thematically arranged as follows:
The definition of public policy community, the policy making process, an overview of the policy paper, the structural and textual elements of policy papers, dissemination of the policy paper and authorship; and concluding remarks along with recommendations.
Undoubtedly, governments and institutions are no longer depending on seating on the pants planning and management but rather they are increasingly moving toward more informed governance by deploying a wide range of resources and methods that aim to involve every related stakeholder to carry out the tasks they were assigned whether explicitly or implicitly. This will certainly make those who are still dependent on the intuition as a primary source of inspiration lag behind. A recent study carried out by Middle East Development Network [MDN] and Sabr Center has shown that 41% of MENA NGO’s have Planning and Decision-Making Support divisions. Reflecting on that, the problems we are facing nowadays are not uni-layered and cannot only be tackled through a mono-disciplinary perspective but they rather have to be dealt with multi disciplinarily mindset so to come up with more sustainable solutions and a genesis of autonomous initiatives.
Within the framework of its Research Communications Capacity Building Program, GDNet produced, in collaboration with CommsConsult, a series of handouts with the aim to help southern researchers communicate their work more effectively. This series help understand policy processes and influencing policy with research; provide some tips for writing a policy brief, explains how to communicate effectively with your target audience through different communication tools, and presenting some useful online tools for data visualization.
The Policy Brief1Overview The policy brief is a document.docxoreo10
The Policy Brief1
Overview
The policy brief is a document which outlines the rationale for choosing a
particular policy alternative or course of action in a current policy debate. It is
commonly produced in response to a request directly from a decision-maker or within
an organisation that intends to advocate for the position detailed in the brief.
Depending on the role of the writer or organisation producing the document, the brief
may only provide a targeted discussion of the current alternatives without arguing for
a particular one (i.e. those who adopt the role of ‘objective’ researcher). On the other
end of the scale, i.e. advocates, the brief may focus directly on providing an
argument for the adoption of a particular alternative. Nevertheless for any case, as
any policy debate is a market-place of competing ideas, the purpose of the policy
brief is to convince the target audience of the urgency of the current problem
and the need to adopt the preferred alternative or course of action outlined and
therefore, serve as an impetus for action.
As with all good marketing tools, the key to success is targeting the particular
audience for your message. The most common audience for a policy brief is the
decision-maker but, it is also not unusual to use the document to support broader
advocacy initiatives targeting a wide but knowledgeable audience (e.g. decision
makers, journalists, diplomats, administrators, researchers). In constructing a policy
brief that can effectively serve its intended purpose, it is common for a brief to be:
Focused – all aspects of the policy brief (from the message to the layout) need to
strategically focused on achieving the intended goal of convincing the target
audience. For example, the argument provided must build on what they do know
about the problem, provide insight about what they don’t know about the problem
and be presented in language that reflects their values, i.e. using ideas, evidence
and language that will convince them.
Professional, not academic –The common audience for a policy brief is not
interested in the research/analysis procedures conducted to produce the
evidence, but are very interested to know the writer’s perspective on the problem
and potential solutions based on the new evidence.
Evidence-based – The policy brief is a communication tool produced by policy
analysts and therefore all potential audiences not only expect a rational argument
but will only be convinced by argumentation supported by evidence that the
problem exists and the consequences of adopting particular alternatives.
Limited – to provide a adequately comprehensive but targeted argument within a
limited space, the focus of the brief needs to be limited to a particular problem or
area of a problem.
Succinct – The type of audiences targeted commonly do not have the time or
inclination to read an in-depth 20 page argument on a policy problem. Therefore,
...
BMIS 580Course Project Phase 2 Literature Review Assignment InsJeniceStuckeyoo
BMIS 580
Course Project Phase 2: Literature Review Assignment Instructions
Overview
Phase 1 was the Project Proposal – You already COMPLETED FOR ME
Phase 2 is the Literature Review
This phase of the course project requires you to write a Literature Review. The literature review must be at least 1,900 words of text (graphics, tables, etc. [non-textual items] can be inserted in an APA-formatted appendix), contain a minimum of 10 peer-reviewed sources (scholarly journal articles), follow current APA format, contain a title page, reference page, and an appendix section if needed for non-textual items.
Instructions
Ideally a literature review must contain 3 main sections; however, for this course you only need to focus on Section 1.
1. Tell what the research says (theory).
2. Tell how the research was carried out (methodology).
3. Tell what is missing, the “gap” that your research intends to fill.
Writing a literature review entails conducting research, but to be more specific it states the following information.
· Establishes a theoretical framework for your HCI problem/topic (subject area).
· Defines key terms, definitions and terminology.
· Identifies studies, models, case studies, etc. that support your problem/topic.
· Defines/establishes your problem or area of study.
To conduct your research you will need to review related literature to your HCI IS problem. The Jerry Falwell Library should be used to conduct your research along with this course textbook and previous course textbooks. Your peer reviewed research must lead to an appropriate IS solution to your problem and should answer the following question: what literature attempts to solve my problem? Your literature review must contain the following sections with supporting writing.
Introduction
· Establishes a theoretical framework for your problem/topic (subject area)
· Briefly state the importance of IS.
· Briefly re-state your Project Problem and Project Purpose that you wrote in Phase 1.
· Why do you need this?
· Define any key terms, definitions, and terminology that the reader may need to know before reading your literature review.
· It may be best to do this after writing the entire literature review.
Review of Literature
· Tell me what the research says (theory) about your problem.
· Finding research about your problem defines/establishes your problem or area of study (re-affirms that the problem does exist and why fixing this problem is important)
· Identify any studies, models, case studies, etc. that support your problem/topic.
Conclusion/Results
· State the literature that you found and why it attempts to solve your problem.
· How can you use this literature to help you solve your problem?
· Does the literature lead you to an appropriate IS solution for your problem?
Note: Your assignment will be checked for originality via the Turnitin plagiarism tool.
Submit your assignment to the Turnitin Draft link to check for potential issues with plagiarism. When you are ready ...
Review of Writing Effective Policy Papers HandbookMehdi ZOUAOUI
This handbook is designed to provide support to public policy writing. The audience is policy analysts, academics, and policy advisers. The guide comes along with the series of Open Society Foundation (formerly Open Society Institute) which is an international grant making network founded by George Soros. The guide is divided into 06 chapters thematically arranged as follows:
The definition of public policy community, the policy making process, an overview of the policy paper, the structural and textual elements of policy papers, dissemination of the policy paper and authorship; and concluding remarks along with recommendations.
Undoubtedly, governments and institutions are no longer depending on seating on the pants planning and management but rather they are increasingly moving toward more informed governance by deploying a wide range of resources and methods that aim to involve every related stakeholder to carry out the tasks they were assigned whether explicitly or implicitly. This will certainly make those who are still dependent on the intuition as a primary source of inspiration lag behind. A recent study carried out by Middle East Development Network [MDN] and Sabr Center has shown that 41% of MENA NGO’s have Planning and Decision-Making Support divisions. Reflecting on that, the problems we are facing nowadays are not uni-layered and cannot only be tackled through a mono-disciplinary perspective but they rather have to be dealt with multi disciplinarily mindset so to come up with more sustainable solutions and a genesis of autonomous initiatives.
Within the framework of its Research Communications Capacity Building Program, GDNet produced, in collaboration with CommsConsult, a series of handouts with the aim to help southern researchers communicate their work more effectively. This series help understand policy processes and influencing policy with research; provide some tips for writing a policy brief, explains how to communicate effectively with your target audience through different communication tools, and presenting some useful online tools for data visualization.
Class,The balanced scorecard has four categoriesquadrants, na.docxclarebernice
Class,
The balanced scorecard has four categories/quadrants, named as Perspectives, which are:
· Shareholder Value/Financial Perspective
· Customer Value Perspective
· Process or Internal Operations Perspective
· Learning and Growth (Employee) Perspective
So, the assignment asks you to define three strategic objectives, measures and quantified targets underneath each of these four Perspective categories. Things such as market share and the others listed in the syllabus are some ideas to spur your thinking. Here are some other specific thoughts that might help:
In the customer area, maybe you have a strategic objective to increase market share. The measure would be your market share percentage. The target would be what percentage you'd like to achieve by the end of the performance period (e.g., 3%, 5%, 10% whatever you think is appropriate).
In the learning area, maybe the objective might be an employee satisfaction result, measured by a questionnaire result, and the target could be the actual satisfaction figure (e.g., 95%).
The targets don't have to be percentages, it could be a dollar figure, for example, such as in the Finance area of the scorecard (e.g., a certain revenue dollar figure for the year).
This separate Balanced Scorecard chart can be included in your Word document as a table, or in a separate Excel workbook. It’s your choice.
I hope this helps.
Thanks,
Bruce
Writing policy position papers 1
W
ri
ti
n
g
p
o
lic
y
p
o
si
ti
o
n
p
a
p
e
rs
Writing policy position papers
Introduction
Influencing policy makers requires that you are able to make a compelling case.
This may not always be done through written documents, but writing a document
will help you to think about the messages and the logic, even if you only then use it
to refine a spoken argument. You may find that you are seeking to influence
through presentation and discussion, but it is good practice to support your position
with a written document.
The audience
The primary audience for your policy position paper is public sector policy makers –
who will likely comprise Ministers, influential Parliamentarians (such as Chairmen of
Parliamentary Committees) and senior civil servants. Other stakeholders, including
business and trade associations, the media, NGOs, the general public etc, may well
be interested, may support your position, and may ally with you to seek change,
but the ultimate purpose of your paper is to influence policy makers.
The purpose
In practice, policy position papers need to achieve two objectives:
They need to communicate, clearly and concisely, the position taken by your
organisation in relation to a specified policy area, which could be quite narrow
or fairly broad.
They need, also, to influence policy makers, ideally so that they act in
accordance with your wishes, but otherwise so that they adopt a position that is
close to yours (or closer than it might have been had you not attemp ...
The following resource was developed by RESYST for a research uptake workshop held in Kilifi, Kenya.
In this resource:
- Learn how to develop key messages
- Introduce policy briefs: what, who and why?
- Explore what makes a good policy brief
- Plan a policy brief: audience, messages, problem, recommendations
- Write the outline of a policy brief
- Consider what format and design to use
Find more: http://resyst.lshtm.ac.uk/resources/resource-bank-research-uptake
Project Description1. Describe the broad objective or purpo.docxpoulterbarbara
Project Description:
1. Describe the broad objective or purpose of the project.
2. Indicate which of the four culminating project options best describes your proposed project. Comment by Olabode Ayodele: Public Health Policy
4. Depending on the project option you have chosen, state your specific research questions, evaluation questions, or goals and objectives.
5. If you propose to plan a program, define your theoretical framework and discuss where the program will be implemented. Comment by Olabode Ayodele: n/a
6. Explain why you want to conduct your proposed project and describe what need your project will satisfy.
7. Finally, describe the product of the project (demonstration product)*. Comment by Olabode Ayodele: Policy brief.
Methods: Comment by Olabode Ayodele: N/A to policy brief, which is your product.
1. For secondary data analysis, describe the existing data you will use.
2. If you propose to work with quantitative data, what comparisons will you make and/or what statistical tests will you use? If you plan to work with a qualitative data, will you conduct a content analysis or perform another type of qualitative analysis?
3. If you propose to plan a program, describe where the program will be implemented.
1
POLICY BRIEFS
A guide to writing policy briefs for research uptake
Rebecca Wolfe
RESYST Research Uptake Manager
October 2013
2
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION TO POLICY BRIEFS 3
1.1 What is a policy brief? 3
1.2 Structure and content of a brief 5
1.3 Key components of an effective brief 6
2. PLANNING A POLICY BRIEF 7
2.1 Identifying target audiences 7
2.2 Developing an overarching message 8
2.3 Describing the problem 8
2.4 Identifying policy recommendations or interventions 9
2.5 Writing style: dos and don’ts 10
3. WRITING A POLICY BRIEF 11
3.1 Introduction 11
3.2 Methodology 11
3.3 Results and conclusions 11
3.4 Policy recommendations or implications 11
3.5 References and other useful resources 11
3.6 Title and executive summary 11
4. FORMAT AND DESIGN 12
4.1 Highlighting important information 12
4.2 Photographs 13
4.3 Data-visualisation 14
4.4 Logos 15
5. POLICY BRIEF CHECKLIST 16
6. DISSEMINATING A POLICY BRIEF 17
6.1 Identifying opportunities for dissemination 17
6.2 Identifying connectors – people, networks and intermediaries 17
6.3 Using websites and social media 17
1. INTRODUCTION TO POLICY BRIEFS
“Research is essentially unfinished unless the findings are synthesised and
applied in practice to improve the situation”
Public health research is aimed at change and improving population health - however,
publishing research findings in journals and reports doesn’t ultimately lead to .
### The Evolution and Impact of Cricket: A Comprehensive Analysis
#### Introduction
Cricket, a sport that began as a pastime in the fields of England, has grown into a global phenomenon that captivates millions. Its evolution from a rudimentary bat-and-ball game to a sophisticated sport played in various formats reflects the dynamic nature of its history. This essay delves into the historical development, cultural significance, economic impact, and contemporary issues facing cricket, providing a thorough understanding of this beloved sport.
#### Historical Development
##### Origins and Early Development
Cricket's origins are somewhat obscure, but it is widely accepted that the game began in the south-east of England during the 16th century. Early references to the game, then known as "creckett," suggest it was initially played by children. By the 17th century, cricket had gained popularity among adults, and village matches became common.
The 18th century marked a significant period in cricket's development. The establishment of the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) in 1787 and the formulation of the Laws of Cricket provided a structured framework that facilitated the sport's standardization and growth. These laws, albeit with numerous amendments over the centuries, still govern the game today.
##### Expansion and Globalization
The 19th century was pivotal for cricket's expansion beyond England. The British Empire played a crucial role in spreading the sport to its colonies, including India, Australia, the Caribbean, and South Africa. Cricket became a symbol of British culture, often associated with the ideals of sportsmanship and fair play.
Test cricket, the longest form of the game, emerged during this period. The first officially recognized Test match was played between England and Australia in 1877. This format established cricket as a serious and strategic sport, requiring not only physical skill but also mental resilience and tactical acumen.
The 20th century witnessed further global expansion and the birth of international competitions. The Imperial Cricket Conference (now the International Cricket Council or ICC) was founded in 1909 to oversee international cricket relations and competitions. The establishment of the ICC World Cup in 1975 introduced the One Day International (ODI) format, which significantly increased the game's appeal by offering a more concise and dynamic version of cricket.
#### Cultural Significance
##### National Identity and Unity
Cricket has played a substantial role in shaping national identities, particularly in countries where it is the dominant sport. In India, for instance, cricket transcends regional, linguistic, and religious differences, acting as a unifying force. Icons like Sachin Tendulkar and Virat Kohli are not merely sports figures but national heroes who symbolize aspiration and excellence.
In the Caribbean, cricket has been a critical element of post-colonial identity. The success of the We
El como hacer un documento de política a quien va dirigido, que hacer como incluirlo para que, sobre que temas o como se debe construir y que estructura deben tener, como se integran los graficos, recomendaciones generales, que se debe de priorizar, ser concreto, que incluir y que no para quien es necesario que nos propone.
The fight for Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis in the United Kingdom. Co.docxmehek4
The fight for Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis in the United Kingdom.
Collapse
Top of Form
Total views: 2 (Your views: 1)
The Client: The National AIDS Trust (NAT) is the United Kingdom's leading charity dedicated to transforming society's response to HIV (NAT, 2016). Founded in 1987, NAT has spent over 20 years promoting public health through effective HIV prevention and early diagnosis of HIV infection, especially when it comes to pre-exposure prophylaxis.
Problem Statement: What can be done to combat the recent decision by the National Health Service (NHS) in England to abandon its work to provide PrEP?
Stakeholders:
The National Health Service in England: Sets the priorities and direction of the NHS and encourages/informs the national debate to improve health and care (NHS, 2016). NHS England recently decided to discontinue 18 months of work which demonstrated the need, efficacy, and cost-effectiveness of PrEP.
Individuals at risk for HIV: The number and rate of new diagnoses of HIV is continuing to rise in eastern Europe, and is also rising sharply in central Europe (NAM, 2015)
Healthcare providers: As the incidence rates of HIV continue to increase, health care providers are going to find it increasingly more difficult to help these individuals without new treatments.
Public Health England: Has funded research to prove the efficacy of PrEP.
Taxpayers: Many fear funding of further research into PrEP will come out of their own pockets.
Gilead Sciences, Inc.: The pharmaceutical company responsible for developing Truvada, a known PrEP drug.
Journal:
The Journal of the International AIDS Society (JIAS) was founded in 2004 by the International AIDS Society as a platform to disseminate essential HIV research with the mission to contribute to evidence-based response to the HIV epidemic and to support research capacity building in resource-limited settings (JIAS, 2016).
JIAS has the following requirements for submitting commentary articles (focused and opinionated articles on important and timely issues). All information has been taking from the JIAS Author Guidelines resource page:
Headings: Introduction, Discussion, Conclusions.
Work Limit: 2500 words.
Abstract Limit: 350 words.
Numbers of figures and tables: 1.
Additional Files: No.
Citation Style: All external sources of information should be referenced within the text, tables and figures, and using consecutive numbering in square brackets, e.g. [1], [3-5], [3,4]. Numbers of references are unlimited and should be formatted in standard Vancouver style. Unpublished observations, personal communications, and manuscripts currently under consideration should be cited in the test in round brackets and not in the reference list.
Link to Sample References: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/bsd/uniform_requirements.html
Link to Author's Guide: http://www.jiasociety.org/index.php/jias/about/submissions#onlineSubmissions
Reference:
"About NHS England." NHS England. N.p., 2016. Web. 12 June 2016. <http://www.england. ...
Hai,this is Anusha. am looking for a help with my research.docxJeanmarieColbert3
Hai,
this is Anusha. am looking for a help with my research papers. subject is homeland security and contemporary issues and the topics are
1.Border security is key to immigration reform??
2.walls won't keep us safe
may i get it done by Thursday evening. and also lemme know the amount for both the papers. am also attaching the paper rubric here
thank you.
.
Guys I need your help with my international law class, Its a course.docxJeanmarieColbert3
Guys I need your help with my international law class, It's a course on International Law but it's not in essence a law course but part of the concentration I'm in, which is International Relations (in the School of Humanities and Social Sciences) my essay question is the following:
Are the jurisdictions of states absolute and unlimited?
.
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Class,The balanced scorecard has four categoriesquadrants, na.docxclarebernice
Class,
The balanced scorecard has four categories/quadrants, named as Perspectives, which are:
· Shareholder Value/Financial Perspective
· Customer Value Perspective
· Process or Internal Operations Perspective
· Learning and Growth (Employee) Perspective
So, the assignment asks you to define three strategic objectives, measures and quantified targets underneath each of these four Perspective categories. Things such as market share and the others listed in the syllabus are some ideas to spur your thinking. Here are some other specific thoughts that might help:
In the customer area, maybe you have a strategic objective to increase market share. The measure would be your market share percentage. The target would be what percentage you'd like to achieve by the end of the performance period (e.g., 3%, 5%, 10% whatever you think is appropriate).
In the learning area, maybe the objective might be an employee satisfaction result, measured by a questionnaire result, and the target could be the actual satisfaction figure (e.g., 95%).
The targets don't have to be percentages, it could be a dollar figure, for example, such as in the Finance area of the scorecard (e.g., a certain revenue dollar figure for the year).
This separate Balanced Scorecard chart can be included in your Word document as a table, or in a separate Excel workbook. It’s your choice.
I hope this helps.
Thanks,
Bruce
Writing policy position papers 1
W
ri
ti
n
g
p
o
lic
y
p
o
si
ti
o
n
p
a
p
e
rs
Writing policy position papers
Introduction
Influencing policy makers requires that you are able to make a compelling case.
This may not always be done through written documents, but writing a document
will help you to think about the messages and the logic, even if you only then use it
to refine a spoken argument. You may find that you are seeking to influence
through presentation and discussion, but it is good practice to support your position
with a written document.
The audience
The primary audience for your policy position paper is public sector policy makers –
who will likely comprise Ministers, influential Parliamentarians (such as Chairmen of
Parliamentary Committees) and senior civil servants. Other stakeholders, including
business and trade associations, the media, NGOs, the general public etc, may well
be interested, may support your position, and may ally with you to seek change,
but the ultimate purpose of your paper is to influence policy makers.
The purpose
In practice, policy position papers need to achieve two objectives:
They need to communicate, clearly and concisely, the position taken by your
organisation in relation to a specified policy area, which could be quite narrow
or fairly broad.
They need, also, to influence policy makers, ideally so that they act in
accordance with your wishes, but otherwise so that they adopt a position that is
close to yours (or closer than it might have been had you not attemp ...
The following resource was developed by RESYST for a research uptake workshop held in Kilifi, Kenya.
In this resource:
- Learn how to develop key messages
- Introduce policy briefs: what, who and why?
- Explore what makes a good policy brief
- Plan a policy brief: audience, messages, problem, recommendations
- Write the outline of a policy brief
- Consider what format and design to use
Find more: http://resyst.lshtm.ac.uk/resources/resource-bank-research-uptake
Project Description1. Describe the broad objective or purpo.docxpoulterbarbara
Project Description:
1. Describe the broad objective or purpose of the project.
2. Indicate which of the four culminating project options best describes your proposed project. Comment by Olabode Ayodele: Public Health Policy
4. Depending on the project option you have chosen, state your specific research questions, evaluation questions, or goals and objectives.
5. If you propose to plan a program, define your theoretical framework and discuss where the program will be implemented. Comment by Olabode Ayodele: n/a
6. Explain why you want to conduct your proposed project and describe what need your project will satisfy.
7. Finally, describe the product of the project (demonstration product)*. Comment by Olabode Ayodele: Policy brief.
Methods: Comment by Olabode Ayodele: N/A to policy brief, which is your product.
1. For secondary data analysis, describe the existing data you will use.
2. If you propose to work with quantitative data, what comparisons will you make and/or what statistical tests will you use? If you plan to work with a qualitative data, will you conduct a content analysis or perform another type of qualitative analysis?
3. If you propose to plan a program, describe where the program will be implemented.
1
POLICY BRIEFS
A guide to writing policy briefs for research uptake
Rebecca Wolfe
RESYST Research Uptake Manager
October 2013
2
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION TO POLICY BRIEFS 3
1.1 What is a policy brief? 3
1.2 Structure and content of a brief 5
1.3 Key components of an effective brief 6
2. PLANNING A POLICY BRIEF 7
2.1 Identifying target audiences 7
2.2 Developing an overarching message 8
2.3 Describing the problem 8
2.4 Identifying policy recommendations or interventions 9
2.5 Writing style: dos and don’ts 10
3. WRITING A POLICY BRIEF 11
3.1 Introduction 11
3.2 Methodology 11
3.3 Results and conclusions 11
3.4 Policy recommendations or implications 11
3.5 References and other useful resources 11
3.6 Title and executive summary 11
4. FORMAT AND DESIGN 12
4.1 Highlighting important information 12
4.2 Photographs 13
4.3 Data-visualisation 14
4.4 Logos 15
5. POLICY BRIEF CHECKLIST 16
6. DISSEMINATING A POLICY BRIEF 17
6.1 Identifying opportunities for dissemination 17
6.2 Identifying connectors – people, networks and intermediaries 17
6.3 Using websites and social media 17
1. INTRODUCTION TO POLICY BRIEFS
“Research is essentially unfinished unless the findings are synthesised and
applied in practice to improve the situation”
Public health research is aimed at change and improving population health - however,
publishing research findings in journals and reports doesn’t ultimately lead to .
### The Evolution and Impact of Cricket: A Comprehensive Analysis
#### Introduction
Cricket, a sport that began as a pastime in the fields of England, has grown into a global phenomenon that captivates millions. Its evolution from a rudimentary bat-and-ball game to a sophisticated sport played in various formats reflects the dynamic nature of its history. This essay delves into the historical development, cultural significance, economic impact, and contemporary issues facing cricket, providing a thorough understanding of this beloved sport.
#### Historical Development
##### Origins and Early Development
Cricket's origins are somewhat obscure, but it is widely accepted that the game began in the south-east of England during the 16th century. Early references to the game, then known as "creckett," suggest it was initially played by children. By the 17th century, cricket had gained popularity among adults, and village matches became common.
The 18th century marked a significant period in cricket's development. The establishment of the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) in 1787 and the formulation of the Laws of Cricket provided a structured framework that facilitated the sport's standardization and growth. These laws, albeit with numerous amendments over the centuries, still govern the game today.
##### Expansion and Globalization
The 19th century was pivotal for cricket's expansion beyond England. The British Empire played a crucial role in spreading the sport to its colonies, including India, Australia, the Caribbean, and South Africa. Cricket became a symbol of British culture, often associated with the ideals of sportsmanship and fair play.
Test cricket, the longest form of the game, emerged during this period. The first officially recognized Test match was played between England and Australia in 1877. This format established cricket as a serious and strategic sport, requiring not only physical skill but also mental resilience and tactical acumen.
The 20th century witnessed further global expansion and the birth of international competitions. The Imperial Cricket Conference (now the International Cricket Council or ICC) was founded in 1909 to oversee international cricket relations and competitions. The establishment of the ICC World Cup in 1975 introduced the One Day International (ODI) format, which significantly increased the game's appeal by offering a more concise and dynamic version of cricket.
#### Cultural Significance
##### National Identity and Unity
Cricket has played a substantial role in shaping national identities, particularly in countries where it is the dominant sport. In India, for instance, cricket transcends regional, linguistic, and religious differences, acting as a unifying force. Icons like Sachin Tendulkar and Virat Kohli are not merely sports figures but national heroes who symbolize aspiration and excellence.
In the Caribbean, cricket has been a critical element of post-colonial identity. The success of the We
El como hacer un documento de política a quien va dirigido, que hacer como incluirlo para que, sobre que temas o como se debe construir y que estructura deben tener, como se integran los graficos, recomendaciones generales, que se debe de priorizar, ser concreto, que incluir y que no para quien es necesario que nos propone.
The fight for Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis in the United Kingdom. Co.docxmehek4
The fight for Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis in the United Kingdom.
Collapse
Top of Form
Total views: 2 (Your views: 1)
The Client: The National AIDS Trust (NAT) is the United Kingdom's leading charity dedicated to transforming society's response to HIV (NAT, 2016). Founded in 1987, NAT has spent over 20 years promoting public health through effective HIV prevention and early diagnosis of HIV infection, especially when it comes to pre-exposure prophylaxis.
Problem Statement: What can be done to combat the recent decision by the National Health Service (NHS) in England to abandon its work to provide PrEP?
Stakeholders:
The National Health Service in England: Sets the priorities and direction of the NHS and encourages/informs the national debate to improve health and care (NHS, 2016). NHS England recently decided to discontinue 18 months of work which demonstrated the need, efficacy, and cost-effectiveness of PrEP.
Individuals at risk for HIV: The number and rate of new diagnoses of HIV is continuing to rise in eastern Europe, and is also rising sharply in central Europe (NAM, 2015)
Healthcare providers: As the incidence rates of HIV continue to increase, health care providers are going to find it increasingly more difficult to help these individuals without new treatments.
Public Health England: Has funded research to prove the efficacy of PrEP.
Taxpayers: Many fear funding of further research into PrEP will come out of their own pockets.
Gilead Sciences, Inc.: The pharmaceutical company responsible for developing Truvada, a known PrEP drug.
Journal:
The Journal of the International AIDS Society (JIAS) was founded in 2004 by the International AIDS Society as a platform to disseminate essential HIV research with the mission to contribute to evidence-based response to the HIV epidemic and to support research capacity building in resource-limited settings (JIAS, 2016).
JIAS has the following requirements for submitting commentary articles (focused and opinionated articles on important and timely issues). All information has been taking from the JIAS Author Guidelines resource page:
Headings: Introduction, Discussion, Conclusions.
Work Limit: 2500 words.
Abstract Limit: 350 words.
Numbers of figures and tables: 1.
Additional Files: No.
Citation Style: All external sources of information should be referenced within the text, tables and figures, and using consecutive numbering in square brackets, e.g. [1], [3-5], [3,4]. Numbers of references are unlimited and should be formatted in standard Vancouver style. Unpublished observations, personal communications, and manuscripts currently under consideration should be cited in the test in round brackets and not in the reference list.
Link to Sample References: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/bsd/uniform_requirements.html
Link to Author's Guide: http://www.jiasociety.org/index.php/jias/about/submissions#onlineSubmissions
Reference:
"About NHS England." NHS England. N.p., 2016. Web. 12 June 2016. <http://www.england. ...
Hai,this is Anusha. am looking for a help with my research.docxJeanmarieColbert3
Hai,
this is Anusha. am looking for a help with my research papers. subject is homeland security and contemporary issues and the topics are
1.Border security is key to immigration reform??
2.walls won't keep us safe
may i get it done by Thursday evening. and also lemme know the amount for both the papers. am also attaching the paper rubric here
thank you.
.
Guys I need your help with my international law class, Its a course.docxJeanmarieColbert3
Guys I need your help with my international law class, It's a course on International Law but it's not in essence a law course but part of the concentration I'm in, which is International Relations (in the School of Humanities and Social Sciences) my essay question is the following:
Are the jurisdictions of states absolute and unlimited?
.
hare some memories of encounters with people who had very different .docxJeanmarieColbert3
hare some memories of encounters with people who had very different expectations of their children compared to your own (it doesn't matter if you have children or not, just think about what you would have expected in their place). We tend to think of these situations in terms of good parents and bad parents, but speculate about the possible role of culture. Are there ways to avoid problems when parents with different cultural standards mix?
.
Hacker or SupporterAnswer ONE of the following questionsQuestio.docxJeanmarieColbert3
Hacker or Supporter
Answer ONE of the following questions:
Question A
In a 2-4 page paper, critique the case of Julian Assange, who created the Web site Wikileaks. Is Assange a glorified hacker and threat to national and international security or is he a supporter for human rights and freedom of speech?
.
HA415 Unit 6Discussion TopicHealthcare systems are huge, compl.docxJeanmarieColbert3
HA415 Unit 6
Discussion Topic
Healthcare systems are huge, complex, and constantly changing as they respond to economic, technological, social, and historical factors. The availability of technology has a profound effect on the health care costs and the availability of medical care. Local, state and national policy makers have an impact on these systems. Explain what you would do to encourage and increase technological advances and availability and try to decrease costs for all the stakeholders involved.
Needs 250 -300 words paper, strictly on topic and original with a Scholar References. Please No Phagiarism!
.
HA410 Unit 7 AssignmentUnit outcomes addressed in this Assignment.docxJeanmarieColbert3
HA410 Unit 7 Assignment
Unit outcomes addressed in this Assignment:
● Identify significant standards for healthcare documentation.
● Understand important factors involved in regulations pertaining to paper and electronic health records.
Course outcomes addressed in this Assignment:
HS410-4: Compare standards and regulations for healthcare documentation.
Instructions:
Your boss is the Director of Medical Records at a large academic medical center. He is finding it difficult to monitor the ongoing legislative and policy changes related to Health Information Management. He has asked that you do the following:
1) Visit the AHIMA website (www.ahima,org) and visit the “Advocacy and Public Policy” tab.
2) From there, visit both the “Legislation” and “News and Alerts” menu options.
3) Prepare two pages report highlighting the two most important items your boss should be aware of.
4) Recommend a course of action for each.
Paper should be 600- 800 words length, strictly on topic, informative, and original with 2-3 scholar referencess. No repeatation of words. Please use and read the attached document and follow all the instructions and use the grading rubrics below to do this assignment.
NO PHARGIARIAM!!
Unit 7 Assignment Grading Rubrics:
Instructors: to complete the rubric, please enter the points the student earned in the green cells of column E. Then determine point deductions for writing, late policy, etc in the red cells to calculate the final grade.
Assignment Requirements
Points possible
Points earned by student
Student understands issues related to health information management.
0-40
Student can assess policy and news items impact health information management.
0-40
Student can make well supported recommendations to address current legislative and policy issues in health information management.
0-40
Student prepares a well-crafted report in APA format using the AHIMA website and other sources, as needed.
0-30
Total (Sum of all points)
150
0
*Writing Deductions (Maximum 30% from points earned):
Grammar/Punctuation/Spelling:
30%
Order of Ideas/Length requirement (if applicable):
30%
Format
10%
*Source citations
30%
Late Submission Deduction: (refer to Syllabus for late policy)
Adjusted total points
0
*If sources are not cited and work is plagiarized, grade is an automatic zero and further action may take place in accordance with the Academic Integrity Policy as described in the university catalog.
Final Percentage
0%
Feedback:
.
hacer oír salir suponer traer ver 1. para la clase a la.docxJeanmarieColbert3
hacer oír salir
suponer traer ver
1.
para la clase a las dos.
2.
Los fines de semana mi computadora a casa.
3.
que me gusta trabajar los sábados por la mañana.
4.
Por las mañanas, música en la radio.
5.
Cuando tengo hambre, un sándwich.
6.
Para descansar, películas en la televisión.
.
H07 Medical Coding IDirections Be sure to make an electronic c.docxJeanmarieColbert3
H07 Medical Coding I
Directions
: Be sure to make an electronic copy of your answer before submitting it to Ashworth College for grading. Unless otherwise stated, answer in complete sentences, and be sure to use correct English spelling and grammar. Sources must be cited in APA format. Your response should be two (2) to four (4) pages in length; refer to the "Assignment Format" page for specific format requirements.
Lesson 1, 2, 3, and 4 of this course has covered a wide variety of topics. Thus far, you have learned a great deal of information on health insurance, medical contracts, HIPAA, physician and hospital medical billing, and Medicare and Medicaid.
For this writing assignment, please explain why the following course objectives are important for medical billers and coder to understand:
1.
Understand the history and impact of health insurance on health care reimbursement process and recognize various types of health insurance coverage.
2.
Identify the key elements of a managed care contract and identify the role HIPAA plays in the health care industry.
3.
Recognize and explain the different components of physician and hospital billing and differentiate between the two types of services.
4.
Explain the difference between Medicare and Medicaid billing.
Please include at least 3 scholarly articles within your response. Overall response will be formatted according to APA style and the total assignment should be between 2-4 pages not including title page and reference page.
.
Guidelines1.Paper consisting of 2,000-2,250 words; however,.docxJeanmarieColbert3
Guidelines:
1.
Paper consisting of 2,000-2,250 words; however, the reference page isn’t included as any part of the word count.
2.
Provide a thesis and/or main claim that is clear and comprehensive. This is the essence of the paper.
3.
APA formatting: in-text citations, headings, correct sentence structure, paragraph transition.
4.
Please apply the attached (4) readings to this homework.
5.
Address the following in the paper:
a.
Briefly describe the company
REI
using the Baldrige Performance Excellence framework.
b.
Using the Baldrige framework, outline
REI
organization's leadership structure and practices (
innovation, communication, and diversity
) chosen to study.
c.
Describe the evidence you find to identify that organization's leadership style (
servant and authentic
) by using specific references from the research literature to support your description.
d.
As a researcher of organizational leadership, how does the Baldrige framework help assess organizational leadership?
e.
Identify any
gaps
in assessment the framework does not address, and describe them with references from other sources.
.
Guidelines12-point fontCambria fontSingle space50 words ma.docxJeanmarieColbert3
Guidelines
12-point font
Cambria font
Single space
50 words maximum per section summarized (Be concise. I would prefer less than 50 words)
Sections to summarize-
(50 words summary for each topic )
Genetics Versus Epigenetics
Defining Epigenetics
DNA methylation
RNAi and RNA-directed Gene Silencing
From Unicellular to Multicellular Systems
.
HA425 Unit 2 discussion- Organizational Behavior and Management in H.docxJeanmarieColbert3
HA425 Unit 2 discussion- Organizational Behavior and Management in Health Care - Discussion
Discussion Topics
1.
Discuss the role and importance of organizational culture in promoting organizational change, organizational learning, and quality of healthcare.
2. Explain how teamwork is used in the CQI process and its impact on the process.
NO PHARGIARISM!!! Paper must be 500 words, strictly on topic, well detailed and original with 2-3 scholar referencsea. No repeatation.
.
GuidelinesPaper is based on one novel , Frankenstein. We ha.docxJeanmarieColbert3
Guidelines
Paper is based on one novel ,
Frankenstein
. We have
learned that one element crucial to horror stories is a monster. After reading the
entire novel , you will write a two- to three-page paper analyzing whether Victor Frankenstein or the
creation is the true monster in the novel.
You must pick one. Then state three
reasons/actions why he is the monster.
DO NOT:
o
Claim they are both monsters
o
Claim that neither is
o
Claim that there is no monster because Victor is hallucinating, has
a split personality, is dreaming, etc.
o
Claim that the real monster is abstract/philosophical--narcissism,
society, nature vs. nurture, etc
These are all innovative and great and may make a great essay but that's not
the assignment.
You must make a claim that Victor is the true monster
OR his creation is the true monster and support your claim.
Even though it is your interpretation of who the monster is, when you write
academic essays, you are really asserting a claim and attempting to convince
readers to agree with your stance. To do this effectively, it’s best to create a
more objective tone, pulling back on personal statements and writing in terms of
what Shelley intended and how readers in general perceive/infer the information.
In other words, avoid statements like: “I think the monster is really Victor
Frankenstein.” And use statements like: “After careful analysis of Shelley’s
characters, readers agree that Victor is the true monster of the novel.” Also, a
major pitfall to avoid: Do not claim that the monster is Victor then focus on the
creation in the body of the essay and why the creation is not the monster.
Throughout the semester, I have been posing questions on the Discussion Board
that you have been responsible for. You were then required in some weeks to
respond to a peer’s answers. The purpose of this is to cultivate interaction among
peers as you are working in such solitude when in an online environment.
However, I know that it is hard to routinely read a lot of what your peers have to
say. So this second paper is the one opportunity for you to truly HEAR several
angles of a discussion, much like in a traditional classroom, and assimilate the
opinions of your classmates.
For the essay, after you first come to your own observation about who the true
monster is then read through a handful of each of the four
Frankenstein
discussion threads (Storyline Shift, Victor Frankenstein, The Creation, and
Frankenstein Finale). Find a few posts that support your observation. You do not
need to read through all of the posts for each thread but read through enough to
help inform your selection. Throughout your essay you will need to
include at
least three quotes from two different threads (one per body
paragraph/reason).
These quotes need to support your claim. In other words, if
you claim that Victor is the monster, don’t include a quote by a peer that focuses
on the monster’s compassion. Also, be.
Guidelines1.Paper word count should be 1,000-1,250. Refer.docxJeanmarieColbert3
Guidelines:
1.
Paper word count should be 1,000-1,250. Reference page should not be counted in the word count.
2.
Following issues to be addressed in the paper:
a.
Discuss the conceptual differences between Transformational-Transactional Leadership and the visions of future developments in leadership Warren Bennis was predicting.
b.
Using the guidance of both leadership theorists and applied behavioral scientists, compose your basic definition of organizational leadership that is functional in organizations you know.
c.
Drawing from tenets of the Christian worldview related to organizational leadership, compare the key points of that guidance with two key elements (leadership and integrity) of organizational leadership.
d.
Support your comparisons with substantive documentation for each of the two key elements of current theories.
3.
Due date: No later than Wednesday, October 12, 2016 at noon (EST)
.
Guided Response Respond to at least two of your classmates. Ch.docxJeanmarieColbert3
Guided Response:
Respond to at least two of your classmates. Choose posts that address a different developmental period than you chose. Determine if the selected activity and toy is appropriate to the age group and is tied to Piaget’s theory. Provide feedback and suggestions for improvement.
Melissa Pieringer
An activity for the adolescent room: hypothetical problem solving
According to Piaget’s theory children 12 and over are in the formal operations stage of cognitive development. This is the final stage of cognitive development that takes place prior to adulthood. Children at this stage are developing abstract reasoning, deductive reasoning, and hypothetical thinking skills. Children at this stage are able to use hypothetico-deductive reasoning which involves forming a hypothesis, predicting a possible or likely outcome for a given scenario, and taking into consideration various factors that may influence the outcome (Mossler, 2014). At the formal operations stage children also develop the ability to think abstractly and weigh multiple potential outcomes for a given situation (Mossler, 2014). According to the Jean Piaget Society (2016), one of the best ways to promote the development of abstract thinking skills is to explore hypothetical topics, global issues, political issues, or social issues and allow children to come up with potential creative solutions to the problem (The Jean Piaget Society, 2016). A suggested hypothetical scenario to explore could be how humans could live in outer space (The Jean Piaget Society, 2016). Other present day issues to explore could include global warming, pollution, limited resources, war, poverty, famine, etc.
A toy or object for the adolescent room: art and crafting supplies
It is suggested that educators working with children at this stage use visual models such as charts, illustrations, and diagrams to keep children engaged in learning (The Jean Piaget Society, 2016). Furthermore, children should be encouraged to work creatively with a variety of materials. Art and crafting supplies could be used to create illustrations, diagrams, or posters demonstrating the solutions that they come up with to the topic or issue being explored. Therefore, I would request that a variety of art and crafting supplies be given to the adolescent room. Some ideas for materials could include the following:
· Poster paper or boards
· Paint
· Markers
· Colored pencils
· Crayons
· Scissors
· Glue or glue sticks
· Construction paper
· Old magazines
· Stencils
· Rulers
· String
References
Mossler, R. (2014).
Child and Adolescent Development
(2
nd
ed.) [Electronic ed.]. Retrieved
from:
https://content.ashford.edu/
The Jean Piaget Society. (2016). Educational implications of Piaget’s theory. Retrieved from:
http://piaget.weebly.com/educational-implications--activities.html
Christina Gutierrez
Cognitive De.
Guided ResponseReview the philosophies of education that your.docxJeanmarieColbert3
Guided Response:
Review the philosophies of education that your classmates chose and write a minimum 150-word response to at least two of them. Comment on whether you agree or disagree with their philosophies of education and their rational for them. Suggest additional ways in which the theories they have chosen could be applied to educational environments.
By:
Melissa
I have been in the classroom for over 12 years, and every day I learn something new. Every day I encounter a new student or discover something new about a student in my class that has been there the whole year. Every encounter is different, every child is different, and not one child thinks the same or learns the same. I discovered this early on in my teaching career, but I am constantly reminded how we cannot take for granted streamlined teaching in the classroom.
Teachers are not the only ones who teach in the classroom, the students in your classroom teach each other and teach you the teacher how to explain something differently and view things differently and reach the same destination to answer the same question correctly. I believe that being an effective teacher one must get to know students on a personal level. Not by reading their folders at the beginning of the year, but by asking open ended questions, listening to how they respond and how they express themselves either verbally or written expression. Teachers need to listen to their students not just hear them and move on, but take the child as a whole and help them reach another level in their education journey.
Special education is more than just accommodations; it is accommodating children to their needs and finding what works for them. Some need verbal cues to know that they are doing well and motivate them to keep working towards success, while others need positive written expression to push them over the hump and work to accomplish their goals. Most children with learning disabilities suffer from low self esteem and act up or become the class clown are constantly in trouble. They become the trouble makers or the ones always in trouble for not completing homework assignments, and because teachers only see this on the surface they push them off to one side of the classroom. What most general education teachers don’t see is how much they are asking for help.
Education should be used to empower every student and every teacher. Being an educator is more than just teaching to a test, it is planting the seed of enjoying the love for learning. We need to remember that we are educating our future.
By:
Katrina
Children learn best in an environment where they feel safe, especially younger children in an early childhood program. For toddlers the progressivism philosophy is one that works best. Toddlers cannot sit still for long periods of time and they need things that are developmentally appropriate. They need activities that allow them to use all of their senses. As they are touching and seeing while list.
Guided Response When responding to your peers, suggest ways to.docxJeanmarieColbert3
Guided Response:
When responding to your peers, suggest ways to continue to strengthen the contribution listed, so that this influence remains strong in our education system today. Describe why you believe this contribution should continue to be a part of our current education system. Respond to at least two peers.
BY: Tiffany Futch
Improved teaching means teachers were taught to teach on more of a professional level by actual people qualified to teach. Normal schools broadened their curricula to the training of secondary school teachers, requirement of the completion of high school to be admitted to college for teacher training, teachers must have a bachelor’s degree. “High school completion was seldom required for admission, and the majority of instructors did not hold a college degree themselves.” (Diener, 2008). Society has come a long way when it comes to teaching, and who is qualified to teach. Higher education is required more than ever in today’s society, and all of these examples have helped with the success of the way teachers complete their degrees today.
When it comes to teaching in the 21
st
century, full time teachers are required to have a minimum of a four year bachelor’s degree. Technology helps play a role in the success of teachers and students in and out of the classroom. Like the rest of the class we are all completing our degree in an online program. When it comes to teaching in the classroom teachers can use computers and other devices to help children excel, and outside of the classroom, the students can utilize the internet to help them with projects, and even communicate with other students to help with projects.
Webb. L. D. (2014). History of American education: Voices and perspectives. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education, Inc.
BY:Christine Rodriguez
Teacher training is very important for teachers because they should be able to teach multiple subjects and be qualified in what they are teaching. Strengthening of the normal school curriculum and standards was needed in order for the school system to get better. In the 1900's schools exploded from 50 to almost 350, but with the low academic levels, teacher and students were not able to teach or learn at a college level. Teachers did not have, at this point, a college degree themselves. As the population kept increases and there was a higher demand for education, everyone began to need a high school diploma to be admitted for a college degree.
University enter teacher training: "Teacher training at the college or university level, typically consisted of one or two courses in the "science and art" of teaching, had been offered at a limited number of institutions as early as the 1830s, and the universities had always been institutions for the education of those who taught in the Latin grammar schools, academies, and high schools" (Webb, 2014).
This did not qualify them as teachers when they took these courses, but it did make them becom.
Guided Response As you read the responses of your classmates, con.docxJeanmarieColbert3
Guided Response:
As you read the responses of your classmates, consider how their negative educational experience could have been changed to support student learning. Respond to at least two of your classmates’ posts. Provide additional suggestions for them in creating their own positive, stimulating learning environment. Be sure to respond to any queries or comments posted by your instructor.
Melissa Cagno
The biggest negative experience that I have had is with a previous employer, and it was my first day as a preschool teacher in a facility nearby. On my first day, I walked into a situation that made a huge impact on the way I viewed this facility. When I started that day, I was told that I would not be in “my classroom” that I would be filling in for a teacher that was out that day. I didn’t have an issue with that fact and was actually up for the challenge. But when I entered the classroom I noticed there were no rules, no structure, no lesson plans and the classroom was complete chaos. I managed to create some spur of the moment lessons and engaged in music as much as possible. Then when it was time for lunch, and I went to serve it, it was pure sugar and very unhealthy. I left for the day feeling defeated, tired, frustrated and stressed and nowhere to turn. I expressed my concerns throughout the day along with a lot of severe health issues to the owner and was brushed off. I care a lot about the children’s safety and their learning environment, and I felt like I was drowning. Needless to say, I ended up moving on from that position because I felt helpless and without a direction to improve anything.
I have had several positive experiences throughout my educational background. The classrooms were always welcoming, warm and inviting and it showed that the teachers cared about their classrooms and their students. Those classrooms made me excited about becoming a teacher and gave me something to work towards in the future.
“The foundation for successful learning and a safe and secure classroom climate is the relationship that teachers develop with their students (Sousa, Tomlinson, 2011)”. The teacher-student relationship is something that should be built on from day one. If the students do not trust or know you, they will feel uneasy and unsafe in the classroom environment. It is so important to form the relationship with your students to ensure communication and safety of your students. Another way to provide a positive learning environment is with your attitude. If you have a positive and fun attitude, it will show through your lessons and your students will enjoy being in your class every day which will affect how they learn. Lastly, the organization is a big key to a positive and stimulating learning environment. If your classroom is packed full of stuff or the students, do not know where materials are it can cause frustrations for you and your students.
I firmly believe there are no stupid questions! I want to ensure my stude.
Guided ResponseReview several of your classmates’ posts and res.docxJeanmarieColbert3
Guided Response:
Review several of your classmates’ posts and respond to at least two of your peers original posts. Please keep in mind that this assignment can be a sensitive subject and that people’s past experiences may have shaped their views. Choose one point from your peer’s post that made an impact on you and explain why this particular comment resonated with you. Share your thoughts on the disadvantages and advantages of segregation with your peers.
BY:
Tiffany
Bradley
When preparing for this week’s discussion post I was a little at awe, I personally had never heard of the little rock nine. And I’m not that far from Arkansas. The Little Rock Nine was a group of nine African American students that were enrolled in Little Rock Central High School in 1957. However, their enrollment was engaged by the Little Rock Crisis. Which the students were initially prevented from entering the racially segregated school by Orval Faubus, the Governor of Arkansas. When President Dwight D. Eisenhower done an intervention, the students were then allowed to attend the school. The nine students were Ernest Green, Elizabeth Eckford, Jefferson Thomas, Terrance Roberts, Thelma Mothershed, and Melba Pattillo Beals. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Rock_Nine)
Personally, if I was in the situation that these nine students experienced I would have been lost, afraid, and felt like something was wrong with me. A child of any race should not have to be put in this situation to feel unwanted or that they are unwelcome because they are of a different color. Many times however that is not the case. And this was the case for these nine children. My reaction would have been a sense of sadness, and anger. I don’t believe I would not have made a seen, simply out of fear of being hurt. I would have wanted to stand up for myself as well as my peers of the same color. Nowadays, if the situation would arise that an African American child was not allowed into a while school, yes I would stand up. And voice my opinion. It should not matter the color of a child’s skin. They should be allowed to receive the proper education. Without first having to go through turmoil. This situation I’m sure was emotionally devastating for these nine children. Who simply just wanted to get an education. (Webb. L. D. (2014). History of American education: Voices and perspectives. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education, Inc.)
De facto segregation, I believe does not have a detrimental effect on students nowadays. Some adults that were raised to racial, still are. But if children are taught not to be that way. Then most of the time children learn to except another student of a different minority. Where I live we have a lot of white and minority students. Which none are treated differently. They are all in school for the same reason to get an education. My own personal beliefs are we are all children of God, and just because we are different races, does not mean.
Guided ResponseYou must reply to at least one classmate. As y.docxJeanmarieColbert3
Guided Response:
You must reply to at least one classmate
. As you reply to your classmates, attempt to extend the conversation by examining their claims or arguments in more depth or by responding to the posts that they make to you. Keep the discussion on target and try to analyze things in as much detail as you can. For instance, you might consider sharing additional ways that information literacy skills can help them be critical consumers of information. Discuss similarities in how you and your classmates connected with the infographic or article
.
Guided ResponseRespond to at least one classmate that has been .docxJeanmarieColbert3
Guided Response:
Respond to at least one classmate that has been assigned a different position from you and offer a rebuttal. Be sure to provide evidence from the literature to support your opposition. Also, respond to your original post and provide your own opinion of inclusion based on the evidence from the research and the responses of your classmates. Did your thinking change after reading your classmates’ viewpoints? Share your concerns about working with students with special needs in the regular classroom.
BY:
Mallory Johnson
What is inclusion?
Inclusion is an educational environment in which all students are grouped together in the same classroom regardless of their intelligence level hence the phrase used, “Least Restrictive Environment”. This practice means that an increasing number of regular classroom teachers are called upon to teach exceptional children in regular classrooms, sometimes also termed inclusive classrooms (LeFrançois, G. 2011).
IDEA was established for children with learning disabilities and has been mandated as a part of every educational facility.
As defined by the American Psychological Association, “The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) ensures that all children with disabilities are entitled to a free appropriate public education to meet their unique needs and prepare them for further education, employment, and independent living.”
Not every student learns equally; however, every student should be given the equal opportunity to do so regardless of their learning abilities. With that, inclusion provides an environment where not only students will learn together, but regular students will respect and build friendships with students with learning disabilities. While I never had the change to experience this firsthand, this type of environment will enhance friendships and students helping one another. I think that when a child is included in something, their self confidence improves and they will strive to work harder.
Second, inclusion allows students to understand one another and learn from each other as far as customs and courtesies and attitudes. Students are vulnerable to imitate what they see whether it be good or bad. According to the text, one of the benefits of inclusion is the learning of socially appropriate behaviors by students with disabilities as a result of modeling the behavior of other students.
Lastly, inclusive classrooms provide students with learning disabilities access to general learning like the rest of their peers. They will learn the same information instead of the curriculum being adjusted which may omit valuable information. In this case, these students may be learning information that could be too easy depending on where they stand knowledge wise. For others, the adjustment may hinder learning more challenging information some could be ready for.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). (n.d.). Retrieved July 17, 2016, from http://www.apa.org/about/.
Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology:
Ethnobotany in herbal drug evaluation,
Impact of Ethnobotany in traditional medicine,
New development in herbals,
Bio-prospecting tools for drug discovery,
Role of Ethnopharmacology in drug evaluation,
Reverse Pharmacology.
Students, digital devices and success - Andreas Schleicher - 27 May 2024..pptxEduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents at the OECD webinar ‘Digital devices in schools: detrimental distraction or secret to success?’ on 27 May 2024. The presentation was based on findings from PISA 2022 results and the webinar helped launch the PISA in Focus ‘Managing screen time: How to protect and equip students against distraction’ https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/managing-screen-time_7c225af4-en and the OECD Education Policy Perspective ‘Students, digital devices and success’ can be found here - https://oe.cd/il/5yV
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
How to Create Map Views in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
The map views are useful for providing a geographical representation of data. They allow users to visualize and analyze the data in a more intuitive manner.
We all have good and bad thoughts from time to time and situation to situation. We are bombarded daily with spiraling thoughts(both negative and positive) creating all-consuming feel , making us difficult to manage with associated suffering. Good thoughts are like our Mob Signal (Positive thought) amidst noise(negative thought) in the atmosphere. Negative thoughts like noise outweigh positive thoughts. These thoughts often create unwanted confusion, trouble, stress and frustration in our mind as well as chaos in our physical world. Negative thoughts are also known as “distorted thinking”.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
The Art Pastor's Guide to Sabbath | Steve ThomasonSteve Thomason
What is the purpose of the Sabbath Law in the Torah. It is interesting to compare how the context of the law shifts from Exodus to Deuteronomy. Who gets to rest, and why?
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Overview on Edible Vaccine: Pros & Cons with Mechanism
Guidelines for Writing a Policy Brief 1 Guidelines for
1. Guidelines for Writing a Policy Brief | 1
Guidelines for Writing a Policy Brief
What is a Policy Brief? The Policy Brief is a “short, neutral
summary of what is known about a particular issue or problem.
Policy briefs are a form of report designed to facilitate policy-
making” (Eisele, 2006). The main purpose is to “succinctly
evaluate policy options regarding a specific issue, for a specific
policy-maker audience” (Eisele, n.d.). Policy-makers need to
make practical decisions under time-constraints, so the brief
should provide evidence and actionable recommendations
(Eisele, n.d.). The issue brief distils or synthesizes a large
amount of complex detail, so the reader can easily understand
the heart of the issue, its background, the players
(“stakeholders”) and any recommendations, or even educated
guesses about the future of the issue. It may have tables and
graphs; usually, it has a short list of references, so the reader
knows something about the sources on which it is based, and
where to go for more information. Most of the time, the brief
has its own “brief”--a one page “executive summary,” allowing
the reader to quickly grasp the essence of the report (Eisele,
n.d.). In short, “the purpose of the policy brief is to convince
the target audience of the
urgency of the current problem and the need to adopt the
preferred alternative or
course of action outlined and therefore, serve as an impetus for
action” (Young & Quinn,
n.d.).
2. What are the components of a Policy Brief? (Lifted from Tsai,
2006)
Executive summary The executive summary aims to convince
the reader further that the brief is worth in-depth investigation.
It is especially important for an audience that is short of time to
clearly see the relevance and importance of the brief in reading
the summary. As such, a 1 to 2 paragraph executive summary
commonly includes: 1. A description of the problem addressed;
2. A statement on why the current approach/policy option needs
to be changed; 3. Your recommendations for action.
Context and importance of the problem The purpose of this
element of the brief is to convince the target audience that a
current and urgent problem exists which requires them to take
action. The context and importance of the problem is both the
introductory and first building block of the brief. As such, it
usually includes the following: 1. A clear statement of the
problem or issue in focus. 2. A short overview of the root
causes of the problem 3. A clear statement of the policy
implications of the problem that clearly establishes the current
importance and policy relevance of the issue. It is worth noting
that the length of the problem description may vary
considerably from brief to brief depending on the stage on the
policy process in focus, e.g. there may be a need to have a much
more extensive problem description for policy at the evaluation
stage than for one at the option choosing stage.
Policy Brief versus
Research Paper
(Tsai, 2006)
Some might say that a policy brief is more “professional”
because it is geared towards readers who have a limited amount
of time to make a practical decision, while a research paper is
3. more “academic” because it pays more attention to the scholarly
roots of particular arguments and judges their merit on
intellectual and logical criteria.
Front-loaded!
Policy briefs are front-loaded: the
conclusions are on
the front page! The front page needs an executive summary,
providing a concise (1 or 2 paragraphs) overview of the
brief’s aim and core recommendations (Kopenski, 2010).
Guidelines for Writing a Policy Brief | 2
Critique of policy option(s) The aim of this element is to detail
shortcomings of the current approach or options being
implemented and therefore, illustrate both the need for change
and focus of where change needs to occur. In doing so, the
critique of policy options usually includes the following: 1. A
short overview of the policy option(s) in focus 2. An argument
illustrating why and how the current or proposed approach is
failing. It is important for the sake of credibility to recognize
all opinions in the debate of the issue.
Policy recommendations The aim of the policy
recommendations element is to provide a detailed and
convincing proposal of how the failings of the current policy
approach need to change. As such this is achieved by including:
1. A breakdown of the specific practical steps or measures that
need to be implemented 2. Sometimes also includes a closing
paragraph re-emphasizing the importance of action.
Appendices Although the brief is a short and targeted document,
authors sometimes decide that their argumen t needs further
support and so include an appendix. Appendices should be
included only when absolutely necessary.
4. What a persuasive Policy Brief should be (Lifted from Young
and Quinn, n.d.) As with all good marketing tools, the key to
success is targeting the particular audience for your message.
The most common audience for a policy brief is the decision-
maker but, it is also not unusual to use the document to support
broader advocacy initiatives targeting a wide but knowledgeable
audience (e.g. decision makers, journalists, diplomats,
administrators, researchers). In constructing a policy brief that
can effectively serve its intended purpose, it is common for a
brief to be:
FOCUSED All aspects of the policy brief (from the message to
the layout) need to strategically focused on achieving the
intended goal of convincing the target audience. For example,
the argument provided must build on what they do know about
the problem, provide insight about what they don’t know about
the problem and be presented in language that reflects their
values, i.e. using ideas, evidence and language that will
convince them.
PROFESSIONAL, NOT ACADEMIC The common audience for
a policy brief is not interested in the research/analysis
procedures conducted to produce the evidence, but are very
interested to know the writer’s perspective on the problem and
potential solutions based on the new evidence.
EVIDENCED-BASED The policy brief is a communication tool
produced by policy analysts and therefore all potential
audiences not only expect a rational argument but will only be
convinced by argumentation supported by evidence that the
problem exists and the consequences of adopting particular
alternatives.
LIMITED To provide adequately comprehensive but targeted
argument within a limited space, the focus of the brief needs to
be limited to a particular problem or area of a problem.
5. Do’s and Dont’s
(Kopenski, 2010)
Avoid technical, legalistic, economic or academic jargon!
Presentation needs to be professional as suits a public
document. Use correct grammar and spelling, and appropriate
spacing, font, point, headings and sub-headings. Facilitate
readability through images, catch-phrases, layout choices, and
the provision of data as graphs or charts.
Guidelines for Writing a Policy Brief | 3
SUCCINT The type of audiences targeted commonly do not
have the time or inclination to read an in-depth 20 page
argument on a policy problem. Therefore, it is common that
policy briefs do not exceed 6 – 8 pages in length (i.e. usually
not longer than 3,000 words).
UNDERSTANDABLE This not only refers to using clear and
simple language (i.e. not the jargon and concepts of an
academic discipline) but also to providing a well explained and
easy to follow argument targeting a wide but knowledgeable
audience.
ACCESSIBLE The writer of the policy brief should facilitate
the ease of use of the document by the target audience and
therefore, should subdivide the text using clear descriptive titles
to guide the reader.
PROMOTIONAL The policy brief should catch the eye of the
potential audience in order to create a favourable impression
(e.g. professional, innovative etc) In this way many brief
writers many of the features of the promotional leaflet (use of
colour, use of logos, photographs, slogans, illustrative quotes
etc).
PRACTICAL AND FEASIBLE The policy brief is an action-
oriented tool targeting policy practitioners. As such the brief
6. must provide arguments based on what is actually happening in
practice with a particular policy and propose recommendations
which seem realistic to the target audience
6 Steps for a compelling Policy Brief (Lifted from Young and
Quinn, n.d.) 1. Issue: examine the issue you will be dealing
with. Answer these questions: is the issue general or specific?
How general/specific? 2. Audience: take your primary audience
into serious consideration. Your brief should be tailored to the
needs of your audience. It makes a fundamental difference for
how you must frame your analysis and your recommendation. Is
your audience an individual (i.e. Prime Minister) or an
organization (i.e. the Government as a whole)? 3. Actors:
identify the relevant actors for the issue you are dealing with.
This is an essential step, since you will have to analyze their
interests in order to make sensible and viable policy
recommendations. Identifying the relevant actors is also
essential to produce a good assessment of the context and of the
interests that are plug into the issue. 4. Interests: once you have
identified the relevant actors, it is necessary to analyze their
interests. What are the actors' interests? Which of the relevant
actors have similar interests to your audience? Which ones have
different interests? How different? This step is important both
for the context part of your brief and for the critique of policy
options/policy recommendations. Without a clear identification
of the actors involved in the issue and their interests, your brief
will result vague, and therefore not useful. 5.
Recommendations: your policy recommendations should reflect
the above analysis. Remember that, according to the issue and
the audience, your recommendation(s) might not suggest the
best policy, but instead the most viable one. This should not
limit your recommendation to just compromise policies. If you
want to recommend radical change, you can; remember though
that such radical action has to be implemented in some ways. 6.
7. How-To: the last step is to suggest your audience the way to
'sell' the policy to its public (the public could be other members
of the organizations, voters, other parties, etc.). This last step
helps your audience build support/consensus to implement the
policy you recommended.
Guidelines for Writing a Policy Brief | 4
Online Resources
You can check the following policy briefs online to serve as
your guides in writing
your own policy briefs:
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Policy Brief on the 2007-08 Rice Price Crisis:
http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/am172e/am172e00.pdf The
Poverty and Economic Policy Policy Briefs on Food and Fuel
Crises on Cambodia, Ghana and the Philippines:
http://portal.pep-net.org/documents/download/id/16735
http://portal.pep-net.org/documents/download/id/16736
http://portal.pep-net.org/documents/download/id/16737 The
Poverty and Economic Policy Brief on Effects of the GFC in the
Philippines: http://portal.pep-
net.org/documents/download/id/16739 The Royal Children’s
Hospital Policy Brief on Evidence-Based Practice:
http://www.rch.org.au/emplibrary/ccch/Policy_Brief_21_-
_Evidence_based_practice_final_web.pdf
Submission Guidelines: 1. All submissions should be in MS
Word Format (.doc, .docx), 2 pages in length and should be in a
2-column form. 2. Images, tables, charts and graphs present in
the layout of the Policy Brief should be submitted separately,
i.e., all .jpg, .png, .bmp, .gif, .psd, etc., should be submitted
individually. 3. Check policy briefs from the Poverty and
Economic Policy (PEP) Website (www.pep-net.org),
8. particularly those from the Community-Based Monitoring
System (CBMS) to serve as guides in preparing your policy
briefs.
Guidelines for Writing a Policy Brief | 5
References: Eisele, F (n.d.). Preparing a Policy Brief Issue
[PDF Document]. Retrieved from
10. DOI: 10.1177/1046496410397382
http://sgr.sagepub.com
Creativity in Virtual
Work: Effects
of Demographic
Differences
Luis L. Martins1
and Christina E. Shalley2
Abstract
Organizations are increasingly using virtual teams, in which
individuals
work with their teammates across distance and differences,
using a
variety of information and communication technologies. In this
study,
the authors examined how demographic differences (i.e.,
differences
in race, sex, age, and nationality) between individuals working
virtually
affected their collective creativity. Specifically, the authors
examined how
demographic differences interacted with the nature of
interaction processes
(establishment of rapport, participation equality, and process
conflict) and
difference in technical experience, to affect creativity in short-
term virtual
work interactions. Differences in age interacted with the
processes and
with differences in technical experience to affect creativity.
Differences in
11. nationality had a strong negative direct effect and interacted
with differences
in technical experience to affect creativity. Differences in sex
and race did
not significantly affect creativity. Implications of findings for
managing virtual
teams are discussed.
Keywords
creativity, demographic differences, virtual teams
1The University of Texas at Austin, USA
2Georgia Institute of Technology, USA
Corresponding Author:
Luis L. Martins, University of Texas at Austin, McCombs
School of Business,
1 University Station, B6300, Austin, TX 78712-0210
Email: [email protected]
http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1177%2F10464964
10397382&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2011-02-28
Martins and Shalley 537
With an increase in global competition, companies have been
looking to cre-
ativity and innovation to give them a competitive edge
(Amabile, 1988;
Magadley & Birdi, 2009). Thus, effectively utilizing knowledge
resources
wherever they may reside in the organization has become an
important stra-
tegic priority for organizations (e.g., Dew & Hearn, 2009).
12. Until recently,
much of organizational knowledge was locked within
individuals and units
separated by various boundaries. However, with advances in
information and
communication technologies, organizations are increasingly
using virtual
teams to break down boundaries and connect employees
regardless of their
geographic location and subunit affiliation, so that they can
combine their
knowledge and perspectives to produce creative solutions to
various business
problems (e.g., McDonough, Kahn, & Barczak, 2001;
Townsend, DeMarie, &
Hendrickson, 1998). Indeed, increased creativity and innovation
have been
touted as among the primary benefits of using virtual teams
(e.g., Zakaria,
Amelinckx, & Wilemon, 2004). Thus, for example, consulting
firms such as
Bain and Company and McKinsey and Company use information
technology
(e.g., e-mail, instant messaging, and databases with the contact
information
and areas of expertise of every consultant) and other
communication tools to
enable consultants to reach peers in the company’s globally
distributed work-
force to work collaboratively on client problems as the needs
arise, which
contributes to their organizations’ ability to provide innovative
solutions to
their clients (Hansen, Nohria, & Tierney, 1999).
A natural consequence of the increase in the prominence of
13. global virtual
teams is that individuals are increasingly working virtually with
others who
are demographically different from themselves (Griffith &
Neale, 2001;
Griffith, Sawyer, & Neale, 2003). The extant literature on
creativity has gen-
erally proposed that demographic differences have the potential
to be benefi-
cial for creativity because demographically different individuals
working
together are able to bring to the task different perspectives and
approaches
(e.g., Milliken & Martins, 1996). On the other hand, researchers
have found
that, in the short run, demographic differences make it harder
for team mem-
bers to work together, thus potentially reducing their creative
performance
(e.g., see van Knippenberg & Schippers, 2007, for a recent
review). Whereas
there is a growing literature on the effects of demographic
differences on
creativity in more traditional face-to-face teams (e.g., Hoffman
& Maier,
1961; Nemeth, 1986), the effects have not been examined much
in virtual
teams. This study addresses this gap in the literature by
examining how
demographic differences interact with group process and input
conditions to
affect creativity in short-term virtual work interactions.
538 Small Group Research 42(5)
14. Of the variety of approaches that can be used to study dynamics
in virtual
teams, we focused on dyadic interactions within virtual teams
(i.e., on virtual
collaborations between any two members of a team). Although
there are
groupware systems that enable whole groups to interact at the
same time, much
of the interaction in virtual teams involves two team members at
any one time
collaborating virtually on a component of their team’s task
(e.g., Majchrzak,
Malhotra, Stamps, & Lipnack, 2004). Thus, though meetings of
whole virtual
teams occur episodically, their members’ day-to-day
interactions are typically
dyadic. For example, it is typical for a knowledge worker based
in the United
States to work with a colleague in Spain, one in Ireland, and
one in India, at
different times on different parts of the same task or project.
Indeed, Dew and
Hearn (2009) found that aggregating the creativity of pairs of
collaborators
within teams produced similar results as for the whole team,
leading them to
suggest that “structuring innovation teams into networked,
nominal pairs may
be just as productive as purely nominal group structures” (p.
521). Further-
more, the limited examination of the role played by
demographic differences
in dyadic interactions has been pointed out as a deficiency in
the literature on
diversity in teams in general (e.g., Tsui, Xin, & Egan, 1995) and
15. in virtual
teams in particular (Martins, Gilson, & Maynard, 2004).
Our examination of how the interactions of demographic
differences with
group process and input conditions affect creativity in virtual
collaborations
contributes to the literature in several ways. Whereas there is a
strong interest
among managers in using virtual teams to enhance creativity in
their organi-
zations, very few studies have empirically examined creativity
in a virtual
work context (e.g., Nemiro, 2002; Ocker, 2005), and fewer still
have looked
at how demographic differences affect creativity or innovation
in virtual con-
texts (e.g., Giambatista & Bhappu, 2010; Gibson & Gibbs,
2006). Recently,
researchers have argued that most work in organizations is now
virtual to a
greater or lesser extent, depending on the amount of time the
employees
spend working together on a task, the extent to which they use
technology to
support their interactions, and their geographic and temporal
separation (e.g.,
Griffith & Neale, 2001; Martins et al., 2004). Therefore, these
researchers
have suggested that we need to move beyond comparing virtual
to face-to-
face teams and, instead, empirically examine variation in
behavioral phe-
nomena within virtual teams. The moderated effects examined
in this study
advance understanding of the circumstances affecting the ability
16. of virtual
collaborators to leverage their knowledge resources, which prior
researchers
(e.g., Martins et al., 2004; Ocker, 2005) have suggested is an
important area
in need of further research. Specifically, the examination of
moderated effects
Martins and Shalley 539
enriches theory on the relationships between demographic
differences and
creativity by investigating how various process conditions and
an input fac-
tor determine whether demographic differences benefit or hurt
creativity in
virtual work (van Knippenberg, De Dreu, & Homan, 2004; van
Knippenberg &
Schippers, 2007).
Theory and Hypotheses
It is important to specify the boundary conditions of the model
we develop
and test in this study, as has been recommended in both the
diversity and the
virtual team literatures (Martins et al., 2004; Webber &
Donahue, 2001). Our
unit of analysis was dyadic interactions, which comprise most
of the day-to-
day work dynamics within virtual teams. The demographic
differences we
focused on were differences in race, sex, age, and nationality,
which are among
the major dimensions of demographic difference examined in
17. prior research
(e.g., Tsui & O’Reilly, 1989). The virtual working technology
we focused on
was computer-mediated communication (CMC; specifically,
electronic chat
room), which forms a large component of virtual work,
particularly among
geographically and temporally distributed individuals (Griffith
et al., 2003).
In addition, we focused on short-term dyadic collaborations
aimed at solving
immediate managerial problems. This short-term time
perspective was chosen
for a few reasons. First, virtual interactions for short-term
problem solving are
prevalent in virtual teams (Martins et al., 2004). In addition,
virtual teams
have been found to have a shorter lifecycle than face-to-face
teams, as they
are brought together as needed to work on specific tasks
(Jarvenpaa & Leidner,
1999). Finally, since membership in virtual work groups is often
fluid, dyadic
interactions with any one team member often are of a one-time
or short-term
nature (Zakaria et al., 2004). Finally, we looked at variation
within virtual
work, as has been recommended by researchers (e.g., Griffith et
al., 2003),
rather than comparing virtual to face-to-face work.
Effects of Demographic Differences on Creativity
Creativity is defined as the production of novel, potentially
useful ideas about
work products, practices, services, or procedures (Amabile,
1996; Shalley,
18. 1995). It is a major part of work quality and effectiveness and is
increasingly
valued for a variety of tasks, occupations, and industries
(Amabile, 1988). In
collaborative work, creativity requires the pooling together and
effective
integration of different perspectives, knowledge, skills, and
abilities on a
540 Small Group Research 42(5)
task (Hargadon & Bechky, 2006; Taggar, 2002; Woodman,
Sawyer, &
Griffin, 1993).
Research on diversity suggests two opposing expectations
regarding the
effects of demographic differences on creativity, based on the
contrasting
predictions of what have been termed the information/deci sion-
making per-
spective and the social categorization and similarity/attraction
perspective
(Williams & O’Reilly, 1998). Using the information/decision-
making per-
spective, researchers have proposed that differences in
perspective and expe-
riences underlying demographic differences should result in a
greater range
of information, ideas, and approaches to a problem being
generated and,
in turn, improved creative problem solving (e.g., Nemeth, 1986;
Pelled,
Eisenhardt, & Xin, 1999). Also, they have found that working
19. with different
others may stimulate consideration of nonobvious alternatives
that could
potentially lead to higher creativity (McLeod & Lobel, 1992).
Similarly, the
group brainstorming literature (see Paulus, 2000) has found that
differences
may be beneficial for the generation of more novel ideas. For
example,
McLeod and Lobel found that ethnically diverse groups
produced higher-
quality ideas. Also, culturally heterogeneous groups were found
to generate
more alternatives in the long run (Watson, Kumar, &
Michaelsen, 1993). Thus,
this perspective suggests that demographic differences have the
potential to
contribute to creativity by increasing the number of unique
ideas brought to
bear on a task (Milliken, Bartel, & Kurtzberg, 2003).
On the other hand, using the social categorization and
similarity/attraction
perspective, the literature suggests that demographic differences
can lead to
a variety of process losses leading to negative effects on team
performance.
This expectation is based on a variety of sociocognitive
theories, especially
the argument that individuals are attracted to those who they
perceive to be
demographically similar to themselves (Byrne, 1971) and those
who they
categorize as belonging to the same social category as
themselves (Tajfel,
1981). Social categorization and stereotyping based on
20. demographic charac-
teristics are particularly prevalent when teams are first formed
or in short-
lived teams, since individuals tend to use these cognitive
mechanisms to
make sense of other team members until their stereotypes are
invalidated
through extended positive interactions (e.g., Allport, 1954).
Thus, in the short
term, demographic differences within teams have been found to
result in
greater conflict, communication difficulties, and other negative
processes, as
well as lower cohesion and social integration (e.g., Harrison,
Price, & Bell, 1998;
Pelled et al., 1999), and consequently, lower creative
performance (Ancona &
Caldwell, 1992).
Martins and Shalley 541
Depending on what theoretical and process foundations are
used, demo-
graphic differences can both help and hurt performance (for
reviews, see
Milliken & Martins, 1996; van Knippenberg & Schippers, 2007;
Williams &
O’Reilly, 1998). Commenting on this conundrum, van
Knippenberg and
Schippers noted that these competing predictions and findings
are primarily
caused by focusing on main effects instead of potential
moderators. Consis-
tent with some prior work (e.g., Jackson & Joshi, 2004;
21. Milliken & Martins,
1996; Williams & O’Reilly, 1998), they argue for models that
are more com-
plex and that consider moderator variables in explaining the
effects of diver-
sity. We examine the moderating effects of processes and input
factors that
are likely to determine the extent of cognitive elaboration and
combination of
various perspectives on a collaborative task, which are critical
to translating
the potential benefits of demographic differences into actual
performance
benefits (e.g., van Knippenberg et al., 2004). We argue that in
order for the
potential creativity benefits due to differing perspectives to be
realized, it
is important that interactions among demographically different
individuals
enable the surfacing, pooling together, and integration of their
differing
perspectives (Gilson & Shalley, 2004; Milliken et al., 2003;
Shalley &
Perry-Smith, 2008).
Demographic Differences and Creativity:
Moderation by Processes and Inputs
The literature (e.g., Ocker, 2005) suggests that input and
process factors that
facilitate positive exchanges and the building of a positive
relationship are
important in determining the quality of interactions in virtual
teams. This is
particularly true for problem solving, which benefits from
multiple perspec-
tives but requires collaborators to work through their
22. differences in attitudes
and values to arrive at a consensus on solutions (Straus &
McGrath, 1994).
For instance, Taggar (2002) found that a team’s creativity-
relevant process
moderated the relationship between the average creativity of its
members and
the team’s creative output. Therefore, processes and inputs that
facilitate
information elaboration may be the key to reducing the negative
effects and
accentuating the benefits of demographic differences in virtual
interactions
(van Knippenberg, et al., 2004). For example, a team’s process
skills have
been found to be important to leveraging its members’ creative
resources
(e.g., Stroebe & Diehl, 1994). Also, Payne (1990) found that
communication
patterns in research teams had critical effects on their creative
performance.
The nature of the interaction process in virtual collaborations
also may affect
how members approach a task as well as affect their attention to
the heuristic
542 Small Group Research 42(5)
aspects of the task. The specific process factors we examined as
moderators
of the effects of demographic differences on creativity are the
degree to
which virtual collaborators spend time establishing rapport (i.e.,
bonding
23. through informal conversation) before beginning work on the
task, equality
of participation in their task-related discussions, and degree of
experienced
process conflict. The input factor we examined as a moderator
is the differ-
ence in technical experience between collaborators, which prior
research has
found to be one of the most influential inputs affecting the
quality of virtual
interactions (Sarker & Sahay, 2002). Difference in technical
experience
refers to the difference between virtual collaborators in their
experience with
using the information and communication technologies required
to collaborate
virtually.
Establishment of rapport. Whether individuals spend time
establishing
rapport with each other before working on their task can be
important for the
development of a good working relationship in virtual
collaborations (Coutu,
1998; Saunders, 2000). For example, by spending a few minutes
with intro-
ductions and discussing how they should approach working on
the task,
virtual collaborators can establish a bond of trust that may make
it easier
for them to work together effectively (Jarvenpaa & Leidner,
1999). Such
an establishment of rapport may create a psychologically safe
environment
(Edmondson, 1999) in which demographically different virtual
team members
24. are comfortable raising and discussing their differing
perspectives on a
problem without feeling interpersonally threatened (Griffith &
Neale, 2001).
In keeping with this argument, prior research has found that
virtual teams
whose members spend time at the onset of their work getting to
know each other
experience greater trust among members down the road, which
facilitates the
overall effectiveness of their working together (Jarvenpaa &
Leidner, 1999;
Suchan & Hayzak, 2001). This also should help them to
overcome the interaction
difficulties in working virtually. Therefore, we expect that
demographically
different virtual collaborators who establish rapport to a greater
degree will
be better able to surface, discuss, and integrate differing
perspectives, which
in turn enhances creativity. In contrast, when demographically
different virtual
collaborators do not establish rapport, they may find that their
differences
in perspective lead to difficulties in working together, which in
turn diminishes
creativity.
Hypothesis 1: The relationship between demographic
differences and
creativity will be positive when there is greater establishment of
rap-
port in virtual collaborations and negative when there is less
estab-
lishment of rapport.
25. Martins and Shalley 543
Participation equality. Participation equality reflects the extent
to which
each member of a dyad engaged in virtual collaboration
participates equally
in task interactions. In a diverse group, participation equality
may enable
“cognitive elaboration and information exchange within work
groups, draw-
ing out the different knowledge and skills represented” (Webber
& Donahue,
2001, p. 158). Thus, more equal participation enables better
surfacing and
discussion of different ideas, resulting in greater creativity
(Taggar, 2002).
For example, Kruempel (2000) found that, in order for effective
knowledge
production to occur in a virtual team, the perspectives of all
team members
needed to be raised and debated. Also, Gilson and Shalley
(2004) found that
teams that valued participation by all members were more
creative.
Consideration of the variety of views and ideas represented by
demo-
graphically different collaborators should lead to an expanded
source of
knowledge to use in decision making. Also, the intellectual
stimulation of
considering others’ ideas should encourage exploratory
thinking, which
results in greater creativity. However, effective collaboration
26. and participa-
tion are necessary for virtual teams to successfully integrate
various team
members’ ideas and perspectives (Sarker, Lau, & Sahay, 2001).
Thus, when
demographically different virtual collaborators do achieve
equality of par-
ticipation they may be better able to leverage their diversity of
perspectives
to generate creative solutions. In contrast, when
demographically different
virtual collaborators have unequal inputs they will be less likely
to be work-
ing with a broad range of information and perspectives, which
diminishes
their collective creativity.
Hypothesis 2: The relationship between demographic
differences and
creativity will be positive when there is greater participation
equal-
ity in virtual collaborations and negative when there is less
partici-
pation equality.
Process conflict. Process conflict is defined as “controversies
about aspects
of how task accomplishment will proceed” (Jehn & Mannix,
2001, p. 239;
italics in original). Greater process conflict increases
uncertainty and reduces
the ability of groups working on a task to pool together their
ideas effectively
to come up with collective solutions to problems (Jehn &
Mannix, 2001).
Thus, for demographically different virtual collaborators, a high
27. level of
process conflict between them may worsen the interaction
difficulties caused
by their demographic differences and virtual interaction, which
leads to process
losses (Montoya-Weiss, Massey, & Song, 2001). This argument
is consistent
with Griffith and Neale’s (2001) observation that “more virtual
environments
544 Small Group Research 42(5)
require more attention to procedural matters for success” (p.
401). The greater
the process conflict, the greater the increase in process losses,
which
negatively affects the joint creativity of demographically
different virtual
collaborators. In contrast, based on the diversity literature (e.g.,
Pelled et al.,
1999; Williams & O’Reilly, 1998), when virtual collaborators
do not
experience a great deal of process conflict they may be better
able to reduce
the interaction difficulties caused by their demographic
differences and
virtual interaction, and therefore, enhance effective discussion
and integration
of differing perspec tives to arrive at creative solutions.
Consistent with this
argument, creativity researchers have found that effective
collaboration is a
key determinant of creativity and innovation in teams (Pirola-
Merlo & Mann,
28. 2004). Thus, virtual collaborators who have effective processes
for
integrating their efforts for productive teamwork may be better
able to
overcome the low media richness of virtual work technologies
and to
integrate the differing perspectives on a task resulting from
their
demographic differences, in order to produce creative outcomes.
Hypothesis 3: The relationship between demographic
differences and
creativity will be negative when there is greater process conflict
in
virtual collaborations and positive when there is less process
conflict.
Differences in technical experience. Individuals collaborating
virtually may
be expected to differ in their extent of experience in using the
technologies
needed to interact virtually. Prior research has found that teams
whose
members all have high levels of competence in using virtual
work technologies
perform better than those in which some members are more
proficient in
using the technologies than others (Kayworth & Leidner, 2000;
Sarker &
Sahay, 2002). Similarities in technical experience may thus
create a positive
context for demographically different collaborators to surface
and discuss
their differing perspectives. Differences in technical experience,
on the other
hand, may create communication and interaction problems, as
29. individuals
with stronger technical abilities may feel frustrated or limited in
their virtual
collaborations with others who are not as proficient in using
virtual working
technologies. These difficulties would exacerbate any
interaction diffi-
culties due to demographic differences and the low media
richness of
virtual communication technologies. Thus, differences in
technical experience
between virtual collaborators may create process barriers to
effective virtual
interaction, causing frustration and miscues that reduce
creativity. Similar
levels of technical experience, on the other hand, may provide a
common platform
that establishes the nature of the interaction between virtual
collaborators
Martins and Shalley 545
(i.e., both individuals will face the same difficulties if they both
have low
technical experience or may have the same level of proficiency
if they both
have high technical experience). Therefore, when there are wide
differences
between virtual collaborators in their technical expertise, they
may have
greater difficulty in operating effectively in a virtual context. In
such a
circumstance, it may be expected that they will have difficulties
in establishing
30. interactions that surface and utilize differing perspectives,
which diminishes
their creativity.
Hypothesis 4: The relationship between demographic
differences and
creativity will be negative when there is greater difference in
tech-
nical experience between virtual collaborators and positive
when
there is less difference in technical experience.
Method
Sample, Task, and Procedures
The sample consisted of 94 MBA students in an organizational
behavior
course at a medium-sized urban university in the United States.
As part of
their normal course curriculum, the class worked on a virtual
work project.
The students were asked to volunteer to participate in this
research by filling
out a survey; all did. The sample was demographically diverse:
33% were
women, 45% international (representing 24 countries), and 36%
nonwhite.
The participants were in the age range of 23 to 42 years (M =
27.6 years,
median = 27 years). All participants were proficient in spoken
and written
English; the average TOEFL score for international students
was 637 (out of
a possible 677).
We used a complex heuristic task for which responses were
31. open ended,
did not have correct answers, and required participants to “seek
consensus on
a preferred alternative” (Straus & McGrath, 1994) that has been
used in a num-
ber of prior creativity studies (e.g., Shalley, 1991; Shalley &
Perry-Smith,
2001; Zhou, 1998). Participants were asked to generate
solutions to various
human resource problems (e.g., employee theft, motivating the
sales force)
that typically arise within organizations and that managers need
to be able to
effectively solve. The participants were told that we were
particularly inter-
ested in creative solutions, so they should try to think of unique
ways to solve
the problems that also would work well in the company.
Participants were randomly assigned a partner to collaborate
with, which
yielded 47 dyads engaged in virtual collaboration. Members of
59.57% of the
546 Small Group Research 42(5)
dyads were of different races, 53.19% were of different sexes,
and 63.83%
were of different nationalities. The difference in age between
virtual collabo-
rators ranged from 0 to 16 years (M = 3.89 years). The
participants were only
allowed to communicate with their partner in an electronic chat
room.
32. Participants were given instructions on how to log on to their
assigned chat
room to connect with their partner to work on the task, were
briefly introduced
to their partner face to face (they could see each other, but
could not speak),
and were given 60 min to work on the collaborative task. Before
working on
the task, they were asked to complete a brief survey that
collected informa-
tion on demographics and extent of prior technical experience
with computer-
based interaction (e.g., chat rooms, bulletin boards, and e-mail).
Measures
Demographic differences. All participants were asked to
indicate their race,
sex, age, and nationality. As has been done in previous research
on demo-
graphic differences (Tsui & O’Reilly, 1989), we used
dichotomous mea-
sures for differences in race, sex, and nationality (with 0
indicating no
difference, and 1 indicating a difference in the respective
characteristic) and
computed difference in age as the squared difference between
the ages of
the two collaborators.
Creativity. According to Amabile (1996), a product is creative
if observers
independently agree that it is novel and appropriate. Two
graduate research
assistants independently rated the creativity of all solutions
33. generated on a
7-point scale (1 = not at all creative to 7 = extremely creative).
Interrater reli-
ability was assessed using rWG. The mean rWG(j) for the
creativity ratings was
.96, which is well above the commonly used cutoff of .70. Thus,
the overall
creativity score for each pair of virtual collaborators was
computed as the
average of the two raters’ creativity ratings for the solutions
generated by the
collaborators. Since there may be an association between the
number of solu-
tions provided and the overall level of creativity, we tested the
number of
problems solved as a potential control variable. However, since
it was not
significant as a control, it was excluded from the analyses.
Virtual interaction process factors. We retained a transcript of
the interac-
tions within each chat room as the virtual collaborators worked,
so that we
could code aspects of their interaction process. Two raters
independently
coded the following factors on a 7-point scale: establishment of
rapport,
equality of participation in problem solving, and extent of
process conflict.
The factors were defined for both raters, and their
understanding of the defi-
nitions was ascertained. Establishme nt of rapport was defined as
spending
34. Martins and Shalley 547
time at the start of the virtual collaboration discussing non-task-
related issues
that served to create a positive working relationship (e.g.,
spending time
briefly getting to know each other, reassuring each other about
the upcoming
virtual collaboration). Equality of participation was coded as
the extent to which
each of the virtual collaborators had an equal amount of input
and influence
over the task. Process conflict was defined as the extent of
disagreement
between the virtual collaborators in how the task should be done
(e.g., dis-
agreement was high if one person wanted to read all the memos
before com-
mencing discussion and the other wanted to tackle them one by
one). As was
done with the creativity ratings, interrater agreement for the
three factors was
assessed using rWG. The mean rWG for the process ratings was
.94 for estab-
lishment of rapport, .91 for equality of participation, and .86 for
extent of
process conflict. Thus, for each of the three process factors, the
ratings
assigned by the two raters were averaged to obtain overall
scores.
Virtual interaction input factor. For technical experience,
respondents were
asked to indicate on a 5-point scale (1 = none to 5 = a great
deal) their degree
of experience with using e-mail, chat rooms, bulletin boards,
35. and any other
electronic collaboration technologies (e.g., document sharing).
Responses
were averaged across the four items (alpha = .71). For each set
of collabora-
tors, difference in technical experience was computed as the
variance between
the scores of its members.
Results
Correlations and descriptive statistics are reported in Table 1.
The hypothe-
ses were tested using hierarchical regression analysis
(significant findings
are reported in Table 2). Due to sample size constraints, we ran
separate
regressions for differences in age and nationality and for
differences in race
and sex. Also, we entered each moderator variable separately.
The limita-
tions of the separate tests for the dimensions of difference and
moderator
variables are noted in the discussion section below. The
variables were
entered into the hierarchical regression equation in four steps.
In the first set
of analyses, difference in age and difference in nationality were
entered in the
first step (Table 2, Model 1a-d), the respective moderator
variable was entered
in the second step (Table 2, Models 2a-d), the interaction term
for difference
in age and the respective moderator was entered in the third step
(Table 2,
Models 3a-d), and the interaction term for difference in
nationality and the
36. respective moderator was entered in the fourth step (Table 2,
Models 4a-d).
The second set of analyses repeated the process, but with
differences in race
and sex as the demographic difference variables. A centering
procedure was
548
T
a
b
le
1
.
D
es
cr
ip
ti
ve
s
an
d
C
o
rr
53. ty
w
as
r
at
ed
o
n
a
7-
po
in
t
sc
al
e.
Martins and Shalley 549
Table 2. Results of Hierarchical Regression Analyses
Model 1a 2a 3a 4a
Step 1: Independent variables
Difference in age -.11 -.07 .03 .03
Difference in nationality -.42*** -.41*** -.40*** -.40***
54. Step 2: Moderator
Establishment of rapport — .30** .39*** .39***
Steps 3 & 4: Interaction terms
Establishment of rapport ×
Difference in age
— — .32** .31**
Establishment of
Rapport × Difference in
Nationality
— — — -.03
R2 .17 .26 .34 .34
Adj. R2 .13 .20 .28 .26
F 4.26** 4.79*** 5.28*** 4.13***
R2 change — .09** .09** .00
Model 1b 2b 3b 4b
Step 1: Independent variables
Difference in age -.11 -.07 -.02 -.01
Difference in nationality -.42*** -.36** -.34** -.35**
Step 2: Moderator
Participation equality — .27** .20 .17
Steps 3 & 4: Interaction terms
Participation Equality ×
Difference in Age
— — .29** .32**
Participation Equality ×
Difference in Nationality
— — — .14
55. R2 .17 .24 .31 .33
Adj. R2 .13 .18 .24 .24
F 4.26** 4.34*** 4.58*** 3.87***
R2 change — .07** .07** .02
Model 1c 2c 3c 4c
Step 1: Independent variables
Difference in age -.11 -.09 -.18 -.18
Difference in nationality -.42*** -.40*** -.34** -.35**
Step 2: Moderator
Process conflict — -.15 -.08 -.08
Steps 3 & 4: Interaction terms
Process Conflict ×
Difference in Age
— — -.38*** -.38***
Process Conflict ×
Difference in Nationality
— — -.01
R2 .17 .19 .32 .32
Adj. R2 .13 .13 .25 .23
F 4.26** 3.21** 4.74*** 3.70***
R2 change — .02 .13*** .00
(continued)
550 Small Group Research 42(5)
followed in the computation of interaction terms (Aiken, West,
56. & Reno,
1991). All significant moderated effects found were examined
further, using
recommended procedures (Aiken et al., 1991).
Hypothesis 1 stated that there would be a positive relationship
between
demographic differences and creativity when there was high
establishment of
rapport and a negative relationship when there was low
establishment of rap-
port. This hypothesis was supported (p < .05) for differences in
age (Table 2,
Model 3a; F = 5.28, p < .01) but not for differences in
nationality, race, or
sex. Difference in age was positively related to creativity when
there was
more establishment of rapport but was negatively related to
creativity when
there was less rapport established.
Hypothesis 2 stated that there would be a positive relationship
between
demographic differences and creativity when there was more
equal participation
by both virtual collaborators and a negative relationship when
there was less
equal participation. This hypothesis was supported (p < .05) for
differences
in age (Table 2, Model 3b; F = 4.58, p < .01) but not for
differences in nation-
ality, race, or sex. Difference in age was positively related to
creativity when
there was relatively equal participation in the virtual w ork
interaction but was
negatively related when there was less equal participation.
57. Table 2. (continued)
Model 1d 2d 3d 4d
Step 1: Independent variables
Difference in age -.11 -.12 -.11 -.13
Difference in nationality -.42*** -.49*** -.47*** -.55****
Step 2: Moderator
Difference in technical
experience
— .25* .17 .22
Steps 3 & 4: Interaction terms
Difference in Technical
Experience × Difference
in Age
— — –.28** -.35***
Difference in Technical
Experience × Difference
in Nationality
— — — -.33**
R2 .17 .22 .29 .39
Adj. R2 .13 .17 .23 .32
F 4.26** 3.98** 4.26*** 5.14****
R2 change — .06* .07** .10**
Note: N = 47.
*p < .10. **p < .05. ***p < .01. ****p < .001.
58. Martins and Shalley 551
Hypothesis 3 stated that there would be a negative relationship
between
demographic differences and creativity when there was high
process conflict
and a positive relationship when there was low process conflict.
This hypothe-
sis was supported (p < .01) for differences in age (Table 2,
Model 3c; F = 4.74,
p < .01), but not for differences in nationality, race, or sex.
Difference in age
was negatively related to creativity when there was high process
conflict in
the virtual interaction but was positively related to creativity
when there was
low process conflict.
Hypothesis 4 stated that there would be a negative relationship
between
demographic differences and creativity when there was a larger
difference in
technical experience between virtual collaborators and a
positive relationship
when there was a smaller difference in technical experience.
This hypothesis
was supported (p < .05) for differences in age (Table 2, Model
3d; F = 4.26,
p < .01), and to some extent for differences in nationality
(Table 2, Model 4d;
F = 5.14, p < .01), but not for differences in race or sex.
Difference in age was
negatively related to creativity when there was a large
difference in technical
59. experience between virtual collaborators but was slightly
positively related
when there was a smaller difference in technical experience.
Difference in
nationality was more negatively related to creativity when there
was a greater
difference in technical experience than when there was a
smaller difference.
Discussion
The pattern of our findings is relatively consistent when looked
at from the
perspective of the various dimensions of difference we
examined. We found
that our hypotheses were consistently supported for differences
in age. The
effect of the difference in age between virtual collaborators on
creativity was
contingent on various aspects of their interaction and on their
difference in
technical experience. All the interaction process factors we
examined moder-
ated the effects of age difference on creativity. We found that a
difference in
age led to greater creativity when virtual collaborators had
spent some time
establishing rapport, when they had equal participation in the
discussion, and
when process conflict was low. These findings support the idea
that when
demographically different virtual collaborators are able to
utilize effective
processes, they are better able to deal with interaction
difficulties that may
arise from their differences and virtual interaction, and thus,
benefit from the
60. differences in perspectives associated with their age
differences. In contrast,
when such processes are not in place, the interaction difficulties
caused by
age differences and virtual interactions may lead to lower
creative perfor-
mance. We found that the difference in technical experience
between virtual
552 Small Group Research 42(5)
collaborators was an important moderator of the effects of
difference in age
on creativity, such that it exacerbated the negative effect of
difference in age
on creativity. Difference in technical experience likely cr eated
communica-
tion problems that further increased the difficulty of interaction
beyond that
already caused by a difference in age and the virtual interaction
medium,
thereby reducing creativity. Overall, our findings for age
differences are consis-
tent with the suggestion in prior research that contextual
conditions may be
important in determining the effects of age differences on
outcomes (Ferris,
Judge, Chachere, & Liden, 1991; Shore, Cleveland, & Goldberg,
2003).
Given the strong effects for age differences in our model, we
conducted
post hoc analyses to examine alternative explanations for our
findings. To
61. determine whether the effects of differences in age were really
due to differ-
ences in experience between virtual collaborators, we reran the
regression
analyses using difference in work experience in place of
difference in age.
We found that whereas difference in work experience
functioned similarly in
the analysis to difference in age, the results were much stronger
for differ-
ence in age. This suggests that difference in work experience
may explain the
effects of difference in age to a large extent but that other
factors associated
with difference in age may also play a part in generating the
effects obtained.
Another argument that can be made to explain the effect of age
difference is
that the older of the virtual collaborators brought to the task
greater life and
work experience, thus increasing the creativity of the
collaborative product.
However, we found that creativity did not correlate significantly
with the
virtual collaborators’ average age (r = -.07, p = ns) or average
amount of
work experience (r = .02, p = ns). Taken together, our post hoc
analyses sug-
gest that the effects we found were more likely due to
differences between
the ages of the two collaborators (which partly reflects
difference in work
experience) rather than due to higher- or lower-average age of
the two virtual
collaborators.
62. For differences in nationality, we found only one significant
interaction
effect, and that was not entirely in the predicted direction.
Essentially, for vir-
tual collaborators from different nationalities, even relatively
equal technical
experience did not produce a positive effect of difference in
nationality on
creativity, though it did reduce the strength of the negative
effect experienced
by the virtual collaborators with unequal technical experience.
In addition,
though we did not predict a direct effect of a difference in
nationality on
creativity, we did find a relatively strong direct effect. The
finding is consis-
tent with prior research that has found that national differences
create com-
munication problems in cross-national teams (e.g., Kayworth &
Leidner,
2000) and points out that these problems may be amplified by
differences in
Martins and Shalley 553
technical experience between employees working virtually.
Furthermore, the
negative effect for difference in nationality on creativity was
not moderated
by the interaction processes we examined. This lack of
moderation suggests
that the interaction difficulties encountered in cross-national
virtual teams
may not be easily overcome in short-term virtual interactions,
63. such as those
examined in this study. Given that short-term problem-solving
interactions
among globally distributed employees are becoming
increasingly common in
organizations, our finding suggests that much more research
needs to be con-
ducted in order to understand and manage such interactions.
For differences in race and sex we did not find any significant
effects. In
general, the effects of demographic differences hinge on the
cognitive avail-
ability of demographic characteristics that feed into social
categorization
processes (e.g., van Knippenberg et al., 2004). Since virtual
communication
technologies are low in the richness of information carried, this
reduces the
cognitive availability of demographic differences in virtual
interactions (e.g.,
Nowak, 2003; Sproull & Kiesler, 1986). Thus, rather than react
to surface-
level characteristics using social category stereotypes,
demographically dif-
ferent collaborators may instead focus on differences in virtual
interaction
patterns that may accompany their demographic differences.
Furthermore,
since researchers have found that there are no readily detectable
differences
in the behavior of men and women in a virtual context, such as
in the extent
of interaction (Gefen & Straub, 1997), it is understandable that
there were no
significant effects for difference in sex.
64. In contrast, differences in age and nationality have been found
to affect
interaction patterns in virtual teams. Individuals from different
nationalities
may encounter difficulties in interacting virtually due to cross -
national dif-
ferences in communication styles and differences in word
connotations even
when communicating in the same language (e.g., Maznevski &
Chudoba,
2000; Zakaria et al., 2004). Furthermore, difficulties may arise
in virtual
interactions between individuals from different nationalities due
to differ-
ences in reliance on body language, facial expressions, gestures,
and physical
distance in communication in their respective countries (Farmer
& Hyatt,
1994). Also, national differences in usage of the English
language may cause
difficulties in communication in virtual teams (e.g., Zakaria et
al., 2004). In
a similar vein, prior research has found that an individual’s age
affects his or
her attitude toward, and comfort with the use of, information
technologies
such as e-mail (e.g., Agarwal & Prasad, 1999; Burton-Jones &
Hubona,
2005). Also, individuals of different ages may communicate
differently, in
terms of the formalness of their communication style, their use
of slang or
65. 554 Small Group Research 42(5)
certain terms, and norms regarding communication in general
(e.g., Lancaster
& Stillman, 2002).
Limitations, Directions for Future
Research, and Contributions
An obvious limitation of this study is the sample size, which
was largely a
consequence of the logistical and financial difficulty in setting
up a large
number of virtual collaborations with the type of students we
used in the
study—graduate business school students—and coding hour-
long chat logs.
As a consequence, we were unable to examine all demographic
differences
and moderator variables together in the same regression
equation. Although
the small sample may reduce confidence in the nonsignificant
findings, it
does make us more confident about the significant effects we
found. In addi-
tion, it is possible that the context in which our study was
conducted (an MBA
program) may have made differences in age salient. However,
given that the
participants on average had more than 5 years of work
experience, this con-
cern is mitigated to some extent. But the effects we found
should be tested in
other samples, in particular in field settings, to establish
broader generaliz-
ability of the findings.
66. Since the effects of demographic diversity can be different
depending on
time and the type of task, future research should examine these
effects using
different types of tasks that vary in complexity and need for
consensus, as
well as examine these effects over the entire lifecycle of a team.
Also, we
focused on short-lived virtual interactions, which can contribute
to our under-
standing of short-term virtual teams as well as early interactions
in longer-
term virtual teams. On average, virtual teams tend to have a
shorter lifecycle
than face-to-face teams (Jarvenpaa & Leidner, 1999); therefore,
our findings
should apply well to the average virtual team. However, future
research
should examine longer lifecycle virtual teams that will enable
an examina-
tion of different stages in a team’s lifecycle; such an
examination is impor-
tant because how demographic differences affect outcomes may
vary by the
amount of time that a team has spent working together (Harrison
et al., 1998).
In addition, we looked at only two-party virtual collaborations.
If more peo-
ple were involved, the need for effective processes would be
expected to be
even stronger, but this remains an empirical question. Finally, it
should be
pointed out that we examined the effect of demographic
differences on cre-
ativity for CMC exclusively. Although this medium represents a
large part of
67. virtual work, other ways of working virtually also need to be
examined.
Martins and Shalley 555
This study contributes to research and practice in several ways.
It is one
of the first studies to examine how process and input factors
influence the
relationship between demographic differences and creativity in
a virtual
work context. As such, it contributes to research on creativity,
virtual work,
and diversity. Shalley, Zhou, and Oldham (2004), in their
integration of the
creativity literature, called for more research on team creativity
since prior
research on creativity had tended to focus on individual
creativity, with
only a few studies having examined team creativity (Gilson &
Shalley,
2004; Taggar, 2002). Furthermore, since most employees are
now working
virtually, at least to some extent in their collaboration with
coworkers on
projects (Griffith & Neale, 2001), research is needed that
explores what
aspects are most important for creativity in virtual teams
(Martins et al.,
2004). In this study we start to address this topic by providing
insights into
how demographic differences may affect the performance of
team members
working together virtually on a problem-solving task. In
68. addition, our study
contributes to developing an understanding of the circumstances
(i.e., mod-
erators) that enable demographically different coworkers to
overcome
interaction difficulties resulting from their differences and from
the limita-
tions of virtual collaboration, and consequently, to improve the
quality of
their performance.
Our findings indicate that demographic differences can be
effectively
used to tease out creative contributions as long as organizations
focus on
important team input and process factors. Given that working
virtually
requires a certain level of technical expertise, attention should
be paid on the
front end to making sure that employees are comfortable with
the technology
and can easily use it to interact with others in their team. This is
particularly
important, as our findings indicate that for virtual teams that are
working
across national boundaries differences in technical abilities may
cause inter-
action difficulties that worsen the interaction difficulties teams
face while
working across nationalities. Also, developing routines that
encourage the
formation of rapport early on in virtual interactions may benefit
performance
when there are large age differences between individuals
working together
virtually. This could be done by encouraging employees to
69. initially make
time in a virtual interaction to chat and get to know each other.
Finally,
knowledge of our results can lead to the design of process
interventions to
improve creativity. For example, when individuals work
virtually, managers
should pay attention to facilitating the process by providing
training up front
in communication and process management skills. Overall, our
findings also
suggest that developing more elaborate research models is
necessary in order
to better understand the dynamics and outcomes of virtual
teams.
556 Small Group Research 42(5)
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interests with
respect to the authorship
and/or publication of this article.
Financial Disclosure/Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research
and/or authorship of this
article.
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Bios
Luis L. Martins is an associate professor at the McCombs
School of Business, Uni-
versity of Texas at Austin, USA. He received his PhD from the
82. Stern School of
Business, New York University. His research examines the
dynamics of diversity,
particularly in the context of virtual teams and global virtual
work.
Christina E. Shalley is the Thomas R. Williams-Wachovia and
ADVANCE profes-
sor at the College of Management at the Georgia Institute of
Technology, USA. She
received her PhD in business administration from the University
of Illinois, Urbana–
Champaign. Her research examines the effects of social and
contextual factors on
creativity and innovation.
Research Alternative Assignment:
This option involves writing a review and critique of an
academic research article. A review should include:
· A statement in your own words of what you thought the author
hoped to discover.
· A brief description of the research approach that was used
including the nature of the sample, the way key variables were
measured, and the type of analysis used.
· A summary of the key results of the study.
· A description of what you think the results of the article
suggest for how organizations and/or their managers might
change the way they operate in the future.
· Your overall evaluation of the article. What did you like about
the article? Why? What did you not like? Why?