The document provides a comprehensive overview of parts of speech, detailing types of nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, conjunctions, and prepositions, along with examples of each category. It explains various subtypes such as common and proper nouns, transitive and intransitive verbs, and coordinating and subordinate conjunctions. Each section includes definitions and illustrative sentences to help clarify their usage in the English language.

1. Parts of Speech
Sources: https://www.gingersoftware.com/content/grammar-rules/
https://www.grammarly.com/blog/modal-verbs/
https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/writingcenter/grammar/verbs#:~:text=Some%20other%20examples%20of%20transitive,%2C%22%20an
d%20%22have.%22
https://www.citationmachine.net/resources/grammar-guides/verb/linking-action-helping/#:~:text=Examples%20of%20linking%20verbs%20in
clude,to%20sound%2C%20and%20to%20taste
.
https://www.educationtopia.net/grammar/qualitative-and-quantitative-adjectives#:~:text=Qualitative%20Adjectives%20are%20all%20those,
Positive%2C%20Comparative%20and%20Superlative%20Form
.
https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/writingcenter/grammar/articles

2. Parts of Speech
• Noun
• Pronoun
• Adjective
• Verb
• Adverb
• Conjunction
• Preposition
• Interjection
• Articles

3. Noun: A naming word
• Different types of a noun:
• Common noun: boy, girl, chair, bottle, city, road, state, pen, yard, etc (name of general items rather than specific ones)
• Proper noun: Muhammad, Minar-e-Pakistan, Univeristy of Lahore, China etc (specific one-of-a-kind items, and they
begin with capital letters)
• Countable noun: restaurants, paintings, class, book table etc (anything that can be counted)
• Uncountable noun: water, cheese, information, intelligence, equipment etc (anything that cannot be counted)
• Abstract noun: bravery, smile, wisdom, chaos, despair etc (things that are not concrete)
• Collective noun: class, herd, jury, team, crowd, mob (words for single things that are made up of more than
one person)
• Compound noun: bus stop, fireflies, blackboard, washing machine, sunrise, check-up, mother-in-law, underworld
(words for people, animals, places, things, or ideas, made up of two or more words.)
• Gerund noun: thinking, swimming, caring, writing (a word formed from a verb acting as a noun and ending in
-ing is a gerund.)
• Infinitive noun: to think, to swim, to care, to write (formed with the word to in front of a verb)
*Both gerunds and infinitives can be subjects in sentences, and both gerunds and infinitives can serve as the object of a
verb.

4. Pronoun: a word used instead of a noun
• Types of pronoun:
• Personal: I, we, he, she, it you, they, me my, our, us ours etc
• Demonstrative: this, that, these, those
• Interrogative: Who, Which, What, Whose, Whom
• Indefinite: someone, anybody, nothing, other, whoever, whichever
• Reflexive: yourselves, himself, themselves
• Emphatic/Intensive: myself, ourselves, itself
• Relative: which, that, whose
• Reciprocal: each other, one another
* Examples of each type are given in the next slide

5. Examples
• Personal Pronouns:
• Jack and David are friends. They play basketball together.
• I have more money than he
• We will be late if you don’t hurry up.
• Peter sang the song to me.
• Missing the train will cause us to be late.
• Demonstrative Pronouns:
• I prefer this.
• These are beautiful, but those belong to Danny.
• Did you see that?

6. • Interrogative
• Who will come to the party?
• Which do you prefer?
• What do you need?
• Whose are those clothes?
• Whose are these books?
• Whom did you tell?
• Indefinite
• Would anyone like a coffee?
• Take whatever you like. Jamie took one cookie and Ben took the other.
• Whoever owns this is in big trouble! I want someone to move this now.
• All was not lost.
• Such is life.
• Something tells me this won’t end well.

7. • Reflexive
• Count yourselves
• Annie only had herself to blame.
• Peter and Paul had baked themselves cakes.
• A nation speaks for itself through elections.
• Emphatic/Intensive
• I will do it myself.
• We made this pie ourselves.

8. • Relative
• The table, which sits in the hallway, is used for correspondence.
• The car that crashed into the wall was blue.
• This is the woman, whose key you found.
• This is the sailor who saved my life.
• Reciprocal
• The boxers punched each other.
• The couple love one another deeply.
• My neighbor and I like each other.
• We must bear with one another.

9. Adjective: a word that describes a noun or
pronoun
• Types of Adjective with examples
• Qualitative: My sister is a beautiful girl. There are boring people in my classroom. The pickle is so sour. The
tiger roars loud in the forest. Can you stop doing rough work now? This new novel is very interesting. The
color of their dress is brown and white.
• Quantitative: The stagecoach was pulled by a team of six. He ate 23 hotdogs during the contest, and was sick
afterwards.
• Demonstrative: These books belong on that. This movie is my favorite. Please put those cookies on the blue
plate.
• Possessive: She likes your hat. I think her dog has eaten my gerbil.
• Interrogative: Which option sounds best to you? What time should we go? Whose socks are those?
• Indefinite: Do we have any peanut butter? Grandfather has been retired for many years. There are no bananas
in the fruit bowl. I usually read the first few pages of a book before I buy it. We looked at several cars before
deciding on the best one for our family.

10. VERB: An action word or a word that denotes
a state of being
• Types of Verb:
• Transitive Verb (has an object): The instructor addressed the student’s question. Miriam
borrowed the methodology book from her classmate because she forgot her copy. Can you
bring your copy of the textbook to our study group meeting? Donovan gave the gift to his
sister. The committee members will raise money for the new project.
• Intransitive Verb (does not have an object): The patient’s health deteriorated quickly.
Ahmad voted in the local election. May I sit here? Attendance increased at the weekly
study sessions as finals drew near. Susan laughed.
• Auxiliary verb: Jessica is taking John to the airport. If he doesn’t arrive on time, he’ll have
to take a later flight. Unfortunately, our dinner has been eaten by the dog. I have
purchased a new pair of shoes to replace the ones that were lost in my luggage. We hope
you don’t have an accident on your way to school. She was baking a pie for dessert. Dad
has been working hard all day. The bed was made as soon as I got up. Sarah doesn’t ski or
roller skate. Did Matthew bring coffee?

11. Types of Verb contd.
• Linking Verb: Pete is my favorite dog. That car was incredibly fast. I am
happy that I passed my math exam! The house smells like the ocean
breeze. Nancy feels a bit sick today.
• To be, to feel, and to become are linking verbs.
• Modal Verbs: Her parents must be so proud. My baby brother
should be asleep by now. Judging by the clouds, it might rain
today. She may become the youngest pro soccer player
ever. She can speak three languages, but none of them well. You
can lead a horse to water, but you can’t make it drink. May I
leave early today? Could I play too? Would you get that box off
the top shelf? Will you turn that music down?

12. Adverb: a word that modifies a verb, an
adjective, a clause, and an adverb.
• Types of Adverb
• Time: She always arrives early. Harvey forgot his lunch yesterday and again today. I have to go now.
Last year was the worst year of my life. Tomorrow our fate will be sealed.
• Manner: He drives carefully. She passed the exam easily. They walk quickly to catch the train. The
dinner party went badly. John answered the question correctly.
• Place: They go everywhere together. Oscar travelled onward to Los Angeles. Hannah looked upwards to
the heavens. The treasure lies underneath the box. The cat is sleeping on the bed. Why are you standing
in the middle of the dancefloor? There was a deli. Jane is moving far away. Carly is sitting close to me.
• Reason/Purpose: I was sick, thus didn’t go to work today. I started jogging so that I wouldn’t be late.
Because I was late, I jogged a little faster. Since it’s your birthday, I will buy you a gift.
• Degree/ Frequency: It is terribly hot. The adverb is usually placed before the main verb. I
can normally make the shot. I will always love

13. Conjunction: A joining word
• Types of Conjunction:
• Coordinating Conjunction– used to combine two independent clauses.
Examples of coordinating conjunctions are for, and, nor, but, or, yet and so.
• Alex stood first and he got a prize. Robin and Russel went to the beach. Sleep
now or you will miss the class tomorrow. Robin did not try hard so he did not
succeed. He is sad but not broken. Life is full of troubles yet none wants to
die. I went to bed for I was feeling exhausted. I was sleeping and you made a
lot of noise. I told you but you did not listen. You must listen to me or you
must leave.

14. • For: Explains a Reason
• I go to the park every Sunday, for I long to see his face.
• Juanita eats healthy, for she wants to stay in shape.
• My husband sent me flowers, for he loves me.
• Let’s not fight about the past, for today is a new day.
• And: Joins Two Ideas
• I like to read, and I write in my journal every night.
• You should invite Mario and Estefan to the party.
• Melody looks beautiful and grown-up in her prom dress.
• The puppies run and jump when their owner comes home.

15. • Nor: Presents a Second Negative Idea
• My sister doesn’t like to study, nor does she take notes in class.
• Our family hasn’t been to New York, nor have we been to Florida.
• Braxton didn’t do his chores, nor did he finish his homework.
• King Henry was not the ruler of France, nor did he reign over Spain.
• But: Introduces an Opposing Idea
• Television is a wonderful escape, but it interferes with my writing.
• We would love to attend the birthday party, but we have plans that day.
• I was going to earn an A in Math, but I failed the final test.
• My grandfather earned an award, but he never got to accept it.
When “but” is used for the same meaning as “except” (as in “Everyone but me
was invited”), it’s a preposition, not a conjunction. “But” is only a conjunction
when the clauses on either side express opposite ideas.

16. • Or: Shows an Alternative
• Would you rather read a book or watch a good TV show?
• I can’t decide if I should study economics or political science.
• We could have dinner before the movie, or we could grab a bite afterward.
• Do you prefer to go to bed early or to stay up late?
• Yet: Adds a Contrasting Idea
• I always take a book to the beach, yet I never seem to turn a single page.
• I really want a kitten, yet my mom says we have too many cats.
• The students like their teacher, yet they wish he graded more fairly.
• Pearl would like to make pasta, yet she’s also in the mood for a sandwich.
“But” and “yet” seem interchangeable, and they almost are. “But” brings a tone of finality into a
sentence (“I’d love to ice skate, but I don’t know how”) while “yet” implies that an action may be
able to change in the future (“I’d love to ice skate, yet I don’t know how.”). Grammatically, you can
use one for the other, but the shift in tone makes it worth your time to choose the right word.

17. • So: Indicates a Result or Effect
• I like to read, so I didn’t mind the long reading assignment.
• The grocery store was closed, so we went to the farmer’s market
instead.
• Our car won’t start, so we called a mechanic.
• A baby bird fell out of its nest, so we took care of it.
• “So” can also be used as an adverb, as in “I am so tired.” But
it’s not linking two words or ideas together in this case; it’s
modifying the word “tired.” Make sure you know how the word
is functioning in a sentence before determining its part of
speech.

18. • Subordinating conjunctions – used to combine an independent clause and a dependent clause. Examples of
subordinating conjunctions are if, although, though, after, before, because, as if, unless, until, when, while, etc.
• As Sherri blew out the candles atop her birthday cake, she caught her hair on fire. Sara begins to sneeze
whenever she opens the window to get a breath of fresh air. When the doorbell rang, my dog Skeeter barked
loudly. (joins an independent clause to a dependent clause)
• Correlative conjunctions are used to combine two phrases or parts of the sentence which have
equal importance within a sentence. Examples of correlative conjunctions are not only…but also,
either…or, neither…nor, whether…or, rather…or, if…then, etc.
• She is both intelligent and beautiful.
• I will either go for a hike or stay home and watch TV.
• Jerry is neither rich nor famous.
• He is not only intelligent, but also very funny.
• Would you rather go shopping or spend the day at the beach?

19. Prepositions
• A preposition is a word or group of words used before a noun,
pronoun, or noun phrase to show direction, time, place, location,
spatial relationships, or to introduce an object. Some examples of
prepositions are words like "in," "at," "on," "of," and "to.“
• Prepositions of Direction
To refer to a direction, use the prepositions "to," "in," "into," "on," and
"onto."
• She drove to the store.
• Don’t ring the doorbell. Come right in(to) the house.
• Drive on(to) the grass and park the car there.

20. Prepositions of Time
To refer to one point in time, use the prepositions "in," "at," and "on."
• Use "in" with parts of the day (not specific times), months, years, and
seasons.
• He reads in the evening.
• The weather is cold in December.
• She was born in 1996.
• We rake leaves in the fall.

21. • Use "at" with the time of day. Also use "at" with noon, night, and
midnight.
• I go to work at 8:00.
• He eats lunch at noon.
• She often goes for a walk at night.
• They go to bed at midnight.
• Use "on" with days.
I work on Saturdays.
He does laundry on Wednesdays.

22. To refer to extended time, use the prepositions "since," "for," "by," "during,"
"from…to," "from…until," "with," and "within."
• I have lived in Minneapolis since 2005. (I moved there in 2005 and still live there.)
• He will be in Toronto for 3 weeks. (He will spend 3 weeks in Toronto.)
• She will finish her homework by 6:00. (She will finish her homework sometime
between now and 6:00.)
• He works part time during the summer. (For the period of time throughout the
summer.)
• I will collect data from January to June. (Starting in January and ending in June.)
• They are in school from August until May. (Starting in August and ending in May.)
• She will graduate within 2 years. (Not longer than 2 years.)

23. Prepositions of Place
• To refer to a place, use the prepositions "in" (the point itself), "at"
(the general vicinity), "on" (the surface), and "inside" (something
contained).
• They will meet in the lunchroom.
• She was waiting at the corner.
• He left his phone on the bed.
• Place the pen inside the drawer.

24. • To refer to an object higher than a point, use the prepositions "over"
and "above." To refer to an object lower than a point, use the
prepositions "below," "beneath," "under," and "underneath."
• The bird flew over the house.
• The plates were on the shelf above the cups.
• Basements are dug below ground.
• There is hard wood beneath the carpet.
• The squirrel hid the nuts under a pile of leaves.
• The cat is hiding underneath the box.

25. • To refer to an object close to a point, use the prepositions "by,"
"near," "next to," "between," "among," and "opposite."
• The gas station is by the grocery store.
• The park is near her house.
• Park your bike next to the garage.
• There is a deer between the two trees.
• There is a purple flower among the weeds.
• The garage is opposite the house.

26. Prepositions of Location
• To refer to a location, use the prepositions "in" (an area or volume),
"at" (a point), and "on" (a surface).
• They live in the country. (an area)
• She will find him at the library. (a point)
• There is a lot of dirt on the window. (a surface)

27. Prepositions of Spatial Relationships
• To refer to a spatial relationship, use the prepositions "above," "across,"
"against," "ahead of," "along," "among," "around," "behind," "below,“
"beneath," "beside," "between," "from," "in front of," "inside," "near,"
"off," "out of," "through," "toward," "under," and "within."
• The post office is across the street from the grocery store.
• We will stop at many attractions along the way.
• The kids are hiding behind the tree.
• His shirt is off.
• Walk toward the garage and then turn left.
• Place a check mark within the box.

28. Interjection: a word that shows emotion
• An interjection is a short word or phrase that shows
emotion. It often stands alone, unconnected to a sentence.
• Hey! Don't be so lazy!
• Well, let's think about it.
• Ouch! That hurts!
• Lima is the capital of...er...Peru.

29. Articles
• Articles are words that define a noun as specific or
unspecific.
• There are two types of articles: Indefinite (a, an) and Definite (the).
• The articles "a" and "an" are indefinite articles. They are used with a
singular countable noun when the noun referred to is nonspecific or
generic.
• The article "the" is a definite article. It is used to show specific
reference and can be used with both singular and plural nouns and
with both countable and uncountable nouns.

30. Use of Indefinite Articles
• "A" and "an" are used with singular countable nouns when the noun is
nonspecific or generic.
• I do not own a car.
• She would like to go to a university that specializes in teaching.
• I would like to eat an apple.
• "A" is used when the noun that follows begins with a consonant sound.
• a book
• a pen
• a uniform
• "An" is used when the noun that follows begins with a vowel sound.
• an elephant
• an American
• an MBA

31. • Sometimes "a" or "an" can be used for first mention (the first time the
noun is mentioned). Then, in subsequent sentences, the article "the"
is used instead.
• He would like to live in a large house. The house should have at least three
bedrooms and two bathrooms.

32. Use of Definite Article
• "The" is used with both singular and plural nouns and with both countable and uncountable
nouns when the noun is specific.
• The" is used in the following categories of proper nouns:
• Museums and art galleries: the Walker Art Center, the Minneapolis Institute of Art
• Buildings: the Empire State Building, the Willis Tower
• Seas and oceans: the Mediterranean Sea, the Atlantic Ocean
• Rivers: the Mississippi, the Nile
• Deserts: the Sahara Desert, the Sonora Desert
• Periods and events in history: the Dark Ages, the Civil War
• Bridges: the London Bridge, the Mackinac Bridge
• Parts of a country: the South, the Upper Midwest
• In general, use "the" with plural proper nouns.
• the Great Lakes
• the French
• the Rockies (as in the Rocky Mountains)

33. • "The" is often used with proper nouns that include an “of” phrase.
• the United States of America
• the University of Minnesota
• the International Swimming Hall of Fame
• Use "the" when the noun being referred to is unique because of our
understanding of the world.
• The Earth moves around the sun.
• Wolves howl at the moon.
• Use "the" when a noun can be made specific from a previous mention in the
text. This is also known as second or subsequent mention.
• My son bought a cat. I am looking after the cat while he is on vacation.
• I read a good book. The book was about how to use articles correctly in English.

34. • "The" is used with superlative adjectives, which are necessarily
unique (the first, the second, the biggest, the smallest, the next,
the only, etc.).
• It was the first study to address the issue.
• She was the weakest participant.
• He was the only person to drop out of the study.

35. No Article or Zero Article
• Writers sometimes struggle with the choice to include an article
or to leave it out altogether. Keep in mind that if the noun is
singular, countable, and nonspecific or generic (e.g., book,
author), the articles "a" and "an" may be used. However, if the
noun is countable and plural (e.g.., "research studies") or
uncountable (e.g., "information") and it is being used in a
nonspecific or generic way, no article is used.

36. • No article is used when a plural countable noun is generic or
nonspecific.
• I bought new pens and pencils at the store. (general, not specific ones)
• Cats have big eyes that can see in the dark. (cats in general, all of them)
• Babies cry a lot. (babies in general, all of them)
• No article is used when a noncount noun is generic or nonspecific.
• I bought milk and rice at the store. (generic reference)
• We were assigned homework in this class. (generic reference)
• There has been previous research on the topic. (generic reference)

37. Articles in Phrases and Idiomatic Expressions
• Sometimes article usage in English does not follow a specific rule. These expressions
must be memorized instead.
• Here are some examples of phrases where article usage is not predictable:
• Destinations: go to the store, go to the bank, but go to school, go to church, go to bed, go home
• Locations: in school, at home, in bed, but in the hospital (in American English)
• Parts of the day: in the morning, in the evening, but at night
• Chores: mow the lawn, do the dishes, do the cleaning
• There are also numerous idiomatic expressions in English that contain nouns. Some of
these also contain articles while others do not.
• Here are just a few examples:
• To give someone a hand
• In the end
• To be on time