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Global Climate Change
A Policy Report
By Peter Woodhouse
POL 560
Fall 2014
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Table of contents
Introduction……………………………………………………………3
Key Legislation and Actors……………………………………..4
Elitist theoretical approach……………………………………10
Policy Recommendations………………………………………12
Conclusion…………………………………………………………….15
References…………………………………………………………….16
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The Earth’s climate ischangingandhuman influence onthe climate systemisclear. The burning
of fossil fuelsforenergyproductionand transportationemitcarbondioxide (CO2) intothe air. Industrial
and natural processesemitNitrousOxide (N2O),Methane (CH4),Ozone (O3), andwatervapor(H2O).
These gasses,cumulativelyknownasGreenhouseGases(GHGs), are absorbedintothe atmosphere,or
findtheirwayintothe ocean. Once absorbedintothe atmosphere,these GHGsretain andemitthermal
radiationcreatingthe fundamentalfoundationof the greenhouseeffectwhere heatistrapped,warming
the Earth’s surface. The higherthe concentrationof GHGs, the higherthe Earth’ssurface temperature.
The GHGs not absorbedintothe atmosphere,endupinthe oceans,causingincreasesinsea-surface
temperatures andacidification.
These increasesinsurface andsea-surface temperatureshave alarge andvaryingeffectonthe
Earth’s climate systems. All continentsandoceansof the Earth will be affectedinone wayoranother.
Highersurface temperatureswill leadtochangesinweatherpatterns,precipitation,agricultural norms
and practices,wildlife lifecycle andmigrationpatterns, ecosystemprovisioningservices,andhuman
health. The increase of sea-surface temperatureswill alteroceancurrents,meltice caps,increase sea
level,andhave seriouseffectsonfisheries.
Climate changes,suchasthose describedabove,will have adrasticandwide spreadeffecton
humanactivity. Changingweatherpatternswill pose urbanthreatstohumanhealthandwealthinthe
formof heatstress,extreme precipitation,inlandandcoastal flooding,landslides,airpollution,drought,
waterscarcity,sea level rise,andstormsurges. Rural residentscould face risksof watershortages,food
shortages,stresseson infrastructure,andchangesinagricultural productionareasandincomes.
Increasesinextreme precipitationeventspose riskstoassets(floodingrisks) andhealth(spreadsof
pathogens). Landslidespose obviousthreatstohumanwealthand airpollutionposesthreats tohuman
health. Droughtsandwaterscarcity will effectagriculture andmunicipalities alike. Farmingonmarginal
landsmay nolongerbe economicallyfeasiblewhile citiesandtownsthatrelyoncurrentlyscarce water
supplieswill be forcedtoimportwatersuppliestomaintaincurrentpopulationlevels. Sealevel riseand
storm surgeswill threatenmunicipalitieslocatedator nearthe coastor inlow lyingareas. The damage
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causedby extreme weathereventssuchasHurricane Katrinaon low lyingcitiessuchasNew Orleansis
well documentedandwill onlyincrease asthe effectsof climate change strengthen.
Farmingand huntingactivitieswill be effectedbythe change inthe Earth’s climate. Thiswill
have the greatesteffectonthose whodependonthese activitiesfortheirsubsistence,especiallyin
developingcountries. Individualsthatsurvive onfarmingmarginal landmayencounterwaterscarcity
and weatherissuesthatthreatenitsviability inthe longterm. Hunterscanalso be adverselyeffected.
Withhuman populationsgrowingandmovingintootherwiseunpopulatedareas,the abilityforlocal
hunterstofollowthe newmigrationpatternsof theirpreybecomesmore andmore difficult.
The servicesthatecosystemsprovidetohumanhealth,wealthandwell-beingare goingtobe
effectedbychangestothe climate system. Ecosystemservices,suchaswaterfiltration,andclimate and
disease regulation are negativelyaffectedasforestsare clearedtomake roomfor furtheragricultural
use or to change current landuse patterns. The practice of burning un-marketable timbertoaidin
clearingthe landacts as a double dip. The abilitytoscrubCO2 fromthe atmosphere thatthe tree
offeredisgone asthe tree is felledandsubsequentburningof the timberreleasesevenmore CO2into
the atmosphere. These ecosystemservicesprovide humanswithroughly $33trillionworthof services
everyyear(Costanza,et.al.1997), so thatdisturbancesinthese servicescanandwill cause harm to
humans.
Human healthwill be affectedbythe changingclimate aswell. Increasesinairpollution
associatedwithwarmingsurface temperatureswill exacerbatesmog-relatedandlungrelatedillnesses,
especiallyinurbanareas. Changingmicroclimateswillallow diseasestospreadtoareasoutside of their
normal range. While thissoundsasinnocuousasa differentstrainof wintercoldreachingClevelandthis
winter,pandemicssuchasEbola have truly shownlightonthe possible ramificationsof ashifting
climate,coupledwithpopulationmigration. Slightelevationsinsurface temperature cancreate robust
hostenvironmentsfordiseasesusuallykeptdownbytemperaturerestrictions.
By no meansisit impliedthatall of these effectswill occurinall locations. Some locationswill
see highertemperaturesthatincrease local agriculturalrevenues. Otherscanbenefitfromchanging
game and fishmigrationpatterns. Whatwe know will occurischange. Change can be difficultfor
humansand will be expensive. The economicrisksassociatedwithglobal climate change are enormous.
The fact that actionsto reduce these risksare beingstalledbythose thatare currentlyenjoyingthe
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fruitsof the status quois a short-sightednessthatneedstobe addressedassoonas politicallyfeasible.
Thisdisparityiswhatcreatesmy interestinthissubject.
All of the pooledofficial andunofficial actorsinvolvedinglobal climate change policydiscussion
comprise the entiretyof the humanrace. International,national,state, local,private, andnon-profit
entities andindividualsall have ahandin the creationof the problemand findingsolutionstothe
problem. Reducingthe risksassociatedwithclimate change includemitigationefforts,where GHG
emissionsare reduced,hopefullystemmingchangestothe climate,keeping futuremeansurface
temperatureslessthan2*Celsius higherthanpre-industrial meansurface temperatures. Adaptation
measuresare undertakentoprepare populationsforthe impendingchangingclimate. Thiscaninclude
changinglanduse designationssothatlow lyingareasshouldnotbe populated,andimproving
infrastructure towithstandthe newdemandsof awarmerEarth.
Official actors inthe policydebate regardingglobal climate change include those onthe
international,national,state,andlocal level. The leadinternational actoristhe Intergovernmental
Panel onClimate Change (IPCC). The IPCCwassetup as a scientificbodybythe UnitedNations(UN) in
1988 by twoUN organizations,the WorldMeteorological Organization(WMO) andthe UnitedNations
EnvironmentProgramme (UNEP) withmembershipopentoall membersof those organizations. The
IPCCcreatesreportsthat supportthe UnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimate Change’s
(UNFCCC) charge of stabilizingGHGconcentrationstolevelsthatwouldpreventhumanchange tothe
climate systemandcovers“scientific,technical,andsocio-economicinformationrelevanttothe
understandingthe scientificbasisof riskof human-inducedclimate change,itspotential impactsand
optionsforadaptationandmitigation”(IPCC,2013). The IPCC basesitsassessmentsonpublishedpeer-
reviewedliterature andtodate has publishedfive AssessmentReports(AR11990, AR2 1995, AR3 2001,
AR4 2007, AR5 2014). The latestassessmentreport,AR5focussesontransparencyinhow itgoesabout
compilingitsresearch,attemptingtoanswercriticsregardingthe science of global climate change while
outliningthe currentstate of research.
AR5 was organizedinthe same mannerof previousassessmentswiththree WorkingGroupsand
a Synthesisreport. EachWorkingGroup focusesondifferentaspectsof the climate change problem
withthe Synthesisreporttyingthe informationtogether. WorkingGroup1 focusesonthe physical
science regardingclimate change,statingthatthe climate iswarmingandconcentrationsof GHGs
emittedbyhumansare the dominantcause of these emissionsandthe subsequentwarming. Working
Group II dealswithimpacts,adaptations,andvulnerabilitiesregardingclimatechange withemphasison
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adoptingadaptationmeasurestoreduce the risksbylimitingthe rate andmagnitude of climate change.
WorkingGroup IIIfocusesonmitigationstrategiesthatwouldloweremissionsaffectingclimatechange
inthe hopeskeepingtemperaturesbelow thresholdsof 2* Celsiuswhere humanactivitywill be
adverselyandexpensivelyaffectedsetbypreviousAssessmentReports (IPCCSummaryfor
Policymakers,2013).
A growingareaof focusof the IPCCisadaptationto climate change. Withmanyof the largest
culpritsof GHG emissions(US,China,India,amongstothers) refusingorbeingunable tocommittothe
substantial emissionreductionsneededtostemthe effectsof climate change,focusonmeasuresthat
will help humansdeal withthe newclimate now are receivinganincrease of attention. Inresponse to
thisthe UNEP has founded the Global Programme of ResearchonClimate Change Vulnerability,Impacts
and Adaptation(PROVIA). “PROVIA isaglobal initiativewhichaimstoprovide directionandcoherence
at the international levelforresearchonvulnerability,impactsandadaptation(VIA).Launchedwiththe
supportof leadingscientistsanddecision-makers,PROVIA respondstothe urgent call bythe scientific
communityfora more cohesive andcoordinatedapproach,andthe critical needtoharmonize,mobilize,
and communicate the growingknowledge-baseonVIA. Tothisend,PROVIA will actasa new and
growingnetworkof scientists,practitionersanddecision-makersworkingtowardsidentifyingresearch
gaps andmeetingpolicyneedsinclimate change vulnerability, impactandadaptationresearch”
(UNEP.org2014). Workingwithpolicyanddecision-makerstoenhance how nationsandstatesalter
theirlanduse planninginitiativesandinfrastructuredecisionscanhelpallotpreciousresourcestoallow
humansto betterdeal withthe changingclimate.
Individual nationsare alsoactorsregardingglobal climate change. How individualnationsreact
to the global change crisisoftenisdependentonthe financial concernsof the nations. Emission-centric
nationssuchas the UnitedStates,China,India,andothershave founditpoliticallyinfeasible to
implementhardandfast regulationsonGHG emissions. Othernationshave embracedthe factthat
climate change isoccurringand have startedto change national policytotry to mitigate climate change
and adaptto the newcircumstances.
The UnitedStateshas longbeena large producerof GHG emissions. The political intereststhat
desire acontinuationof the statusquoin the US include multi-national energycorporationssuchas
Exxon/Mobile,automobile manufacturerssuchasFordand General Motors,and utilitycorporations.
For a longtime,these corporationshave beenabletosell theirproductsandserviceswithoutthe costof
the emissionsof theirproductsorservices generatingpollution beingincludedintotheircost,called
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externalities. These externalitiesincludeautomobileandenergyproductionemissions of CO2and other
GHGs. While the Obamaadministrationdidmake acarbon tax (a tax levyof upwardsof $20 per metric
ton of CO2 emittedintothe atmosphere)apriority,passage of saidlaw hasbeenhampered(andto
date,beatdown) by the partisanpolitical landscape of the US. The lackof abilityof international
leaders,suchasthe US, to implementstrongemissionreductionplanshassetbackthe mitigationof
climate change globally.
While the US has failedtopassa comprehensive climatechange bill,itdoesnotmeanthatthe
federal governmenthasnotundertakenactiontoloweremissions. Aggressivelyadvocatingfor
renewable energysuchassolarand windpowerthroughrebatesandsubsidies,implementingstronger
air pollution standardsforcoal andotherfossil fuel burningenergyproductionfacilities,andapplying
strongwordinginthe re-vampingof the National FloodInsurance Acttoinclude intheircalculationsthe
future effectsof climate change are all measuresthathave beenadoptedandcarriedoutbythe Obama
Administration. These are significantvictoriesinaddressingclimate change,butstrongpolitical
opposition existsand,if the latestelectionsare aharbinger,maybe growing,regardlessof the available
science.
Individual statesalsoplayanofficialrole inclimate change policy. Some stateshave takena
more progressive stance regardingclimate change andGHG emissionsthanothers. Whilemanystates
inthe Southstill questionthe existence of climate change,statessuchasMassachusetts have passed
comprehensive climate change legislationthatallows them,andotherstates, toflex itsenvironmental
muscleswhere othersstate’smusclesatrophy. Passingacomprehensive climate change billisnotthe
onlyavenue available forastate to addressclimate change andemissionsissues. Increasingproduction
of renewableenergy,reducingthe carbonfootprintof the State throughthe purchase of alternative
energyvehicles andothermeasures,andregulationof energyandtransportationfuel pricesthrough
tariffsandtaxesall allowstatestodetermine if andhow theydeal withclimate change.
Local municipalitiescanhave a similareffectasstates,shouldtheychoose to,justona smaller
scale. Citiesand townscan implementplanningandbuildingregulationsthatdetermine where houses
are built(whichcanbe affected inthe future bysea-levelrise) andthe energyefficiencyof newlybuilt
homes(whichcanhave a drastic impactof reducingGHG emissionsinresidential energyuse). Municipal
operationscanbe convertedtorenewable energyasa wayto lowercostsand provide anexample to
residentslookingtoaidthe environmentandlowertheirbills.
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Unofficial actorsinthe global climate change policydebate range frominternational
organizationstoindividualsthatparticipate inprotests. Mediaoutlets,nonprofitorganizations,public
interestresearchgroupsandindividualsall take stands,proandcon, on bothsidesof the debate. For
example,nonprofitsthatchampionforaddressingclimatechange include SierraClub,Natural Resource
Defense Council,RainforestActionNetwork,andEnvironmental Defense Fund. NonprofitssuchasThe
HeartlandInstitute andphilanthropistssuchasthe Koch Brothers(whohave fundedover$67 millionto
groupsdenyingclimate change since 1997 (greenpeace.org,2014) stronglyrebuke climate change
science andlookto keepthe statusquo,if not lax regulationfurther. While adetailedanalysisof all of
the pertinentunofficialactorsinvolvedwithclimatechange isnotpossibleinthistreatment,muchof
the powerassociatedwithunofficial actorscomesfromwealthof resources. Atthe moment,those who
have a financial incentive tokeepthe statusquoalsoseemtohave the mostresources. Strong
pushbackagainstclimate change policieshasbeenprovided bythose with deeppocketslookingto
protect,oil,utility,andtransportationprofits(which,asstatedbefore,come whilenotincludingthe
externalityof the pollutioncreatedinthe price). Until the costsassociatedwithclimate change hit
consumersina clearerfashion,there maynotbe sufficientfinancial orsocial incentive toinduce change.
Keylegislationandtreatylawregardingglobal climatechange canbe brokendownintothe
political level thatitinfluences;International,national,state,andlocal. The primaryinternationaltreaty
affectingthe environmentandthe onlyinternational climate policywithlegitimacydue toitsglobal
membershipisthe UnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange (UNFCCC). The UNFCCC
was createdat the 1992 UnitedNationsConference onEnvironmentandDevelopment inRiode Janeiro,
Brazil,otherwise knownasthe Earth Summit. “The ultimate objective of thisConventionandany
relatedlegal instrumentsthatthe Conference of the Partiesmayadoptistoachieve,inaccordance with
the relevantprovisionsof the Convention,stabilizationof greenhousegasconcentrationsinthe
atmosphere ata level thatwouldpreventdangerousanthropogenicinterference withthe climate
system.Sucha level shouldbe achievedwithinatime-frame sufficienttoallow ecosystemstoadapt
naturallytoclimate change,toensure thatfoodproductionisnot threatenedandtoenable economic
developmenttoproceedina sustainable manner”(UNFCCC.int,1992). The treatycontainsno binding
limitsonGHG emissions, ratheritprovidesa frameworkfornegotiatingtreatiescalledprotocolsthat
thencan setbindinglimitsonemissions.
Membernationshave metannuallysince 1995 to assessprogressregardingclimate change in
meetingscalledthe Conference of Parties (COP). In1997, the Kyotoprotocol,wasadopted,setting
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legallybindingobligationsformember-nationstoreduce GHG emissions. Unfortunately,many
emissionsheavy countries,includingthe US, China, andIndia, didnot ratifythe protocol andit expired in
2012. The 2010 Cancun agreementsfocuson cappingfuture temperaturesat 2.0* C above pre-industrial
levels. This2*C thresholdisseenasimportantinmitigatingmanyof the mostdangerousforeseen
outcomesof climate change. The twentiethConference of Parties,orCOP20,takesplace in December
2014 inLima, Peruand lookstofocuson the increase of awarenessregardingclimatechange science
and adaptationmeasuresdesignedtoreduce the financial,social,andhealthriskto humansfrom
climate change.
The US, underthe Barak Obamaadministration,hasattemptedsweepingclimatechange
legislationoverthe last5-7 years,withlittle success. The 111th
Congress,spurredbyPresidentObama’s
firsttermdesire thata comprehensiveclimateandenergybill be onthe topof hislegislative wishlist,
saw the House of RepresentativespassHouse Resolution2454, the AmericanCleanEnergyandSecurity
Act of 2009. The Senate wasunable topass itsownbill andup until now,there have notbeensufficient
votesinthe Senate (afterthe mostrecentelection,sufficientvotesinthe House wouldbe lackingas
well) toevenbringthe motiontoa vote. Withthe political viabilityof comprehensive legislationlacking,
Congresshasscaledback the numberandbreadthof climate change legislation. In2011-2012, 113
climate specificbillswereintroducedintoCongress. Thisnumberisdownfrom263 in2009-2010, and
253 in2007-2008. Political interestinthe USregardingclimate change seemstobe waningand
oppositiontoregulationattemptingtostemclimate change seemstobe growing. 48% of the bills
introducedin2011-2012 wouldhave blockedorhinderedclimateactions. These rangedfromtaking
emissionscontrol authorityawayfromthe EnvironmentalProtectionAgencytoremovingregulations
fromthe CleanAirAct(c2es.org,2014). All of the billsfailed,butagrowingdissatisfactionwith
regulationmayleadtoan increase of climate change science and policy applicationdissatisfaction
amongpro-businessconstituents.
Whetherstateshave takenanactive participatoryrole regardingclimate change usually
dependsonthe political inclinationof the constituency. WashingtonState andMassachusetts (two
notoriouslyliberal andgreenstates), forexample, have passedcomprehensive climatechange
legislation,whilemuchof the nationisstill miredinthe argumentof whetherclimate change exists. The
Massachusettslegislation,EnvironmentalBondBill (H4375) allots$2.2 Billionforenvironmental and
energyinitiativesthroughoutthe state,including$62 millionforcleanenergyandenergyefficiency
(mass.gov,2014) and isby far the largestenvironmental bondbill inthe state’shistory. Itaddresses
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issuessuchas renewableenergy, landuse planning,infrastructure investmentsandsea-level rise,
amongstothers,through2018.
Citiesandtownscan choose toimplementlesscomprehensiveclimatechange legislationbased
on the inclinationof residents. Environmentallymotivatedconstituenciescanseektoreduce their
carbon footprintbyimplementingrenewable energysolutionsintothe municipality,orothergreen
activities. Oftenthese local initiativesare inconjunctionwithlocal nonprofitentitiesseekingtoreduce
the effects climate change. The DartmouthSolarChallenge(partof the widerSouthCoastEnergy
Challenge)offershome energyaudits(designedtohelpresidentsdecreasetheirenergyusage andbills),
and solaroptionstoresidentswhose homesreceive enough sunlightthroughapartnershipwiththe
Townof Dartmouthand the nonprofitSouthCoastEnergyChallenge.
In myopinion,global climatechange fallsmostcommonlyintothe “elitist”approachasdefined
inChapter4 of Peters,thoughthe “pluralist”approachcould alsobe applied. The “elitist”approach
“assumesthatthere isa powerelite thatdominatespublicdecisionmakingandwhose interestsare
servedinthe policymakingprocess”(Peters,2012 pg. 69). In the US, and in manycountriesabroad,
environmental andenergypolicyisdominatedbythe lobbyingarmof these twoeconomicsectors. The
US political systemposesnolimitsonthe amountof moneythatPolitical ActionCommittees (PACs),in
the name of private corporations, candonate tothe re-electioneffortsof politicians. Thissystemhas
ledto a systemof entrenchmentwhenitcomestoclimate change regulations(amongstothers).
Electedpoliticiansoftenowetheirpositions inoffice tothe fundsfunneledtothembyPACs. Without
these funds,politicianswouldnotbe able tosaturate voterswithpropagandasuchas television
advertisements. Inturn,politicianswhoreceive these fundslistenmore intentlytothe desiresof these
interestedpartiesandoftenhelpsetthe agendaof whattype of policyisgoingtobe addressed.
Due to the profitwieldingpowerof large energyandindustrialentitiesinthe US(mostly
multinationalcorporations) puttingclimate change regulationonthe decisionmakingagendahaslagged
behindotherpolitical entitiessuchasthe EuropeanUnion. To the corporationsandthe politicians,the
threatof lostrevenuesandprofitsposedbyclimate change regulationoutweighthe longtermeffectof
climate change. Consideringthe currentstate of affairs,thisisnotsurprising. Energyandoil companies
do notfactor in the emissionscausedbythe use of theirproducts,because currentlythose costsare not
associatedwiththeiruse. Thistype of economicmarketfailuretoencompassall costsof consumptionis
calledanexternality. Thismeansthatpart of the costof usingthe product(emissionsandthe costthey
incurin the case of the energyindustry) are notincludedinthe price of the product. These costsare
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passedonto the populationasawhole,tobe dealtwithcommunally. Due tothe fact that these costs
are notcurrentlyincludedinthe price of energyservices,energyproducingcompaniesfighttoothand
nail to keepthe statusquo. If priceswere raisedtoreflectthe costsactuallyassociatedwithenergyuse,
energycompanieswouldbe forcedtoraise prices. Raisingpriceswouldreduceconsumptionand
decrease profitsdue tothe fact thatall of the burdenwouldnotbe able to be placedontothe consumer
(Regardlessof whatenergycorporationswouldlike to believe,energycostsare notcompletelyinelastic.
Consumerswill reacttochangesinprice,evenif notat the rate theydo to othergoods). Thisprospect
has ledenergyandotheremission-intensiveindustriestofightanypolicythatwouldbringthis
externalityintothe free-marketfold,asitwouldseriouslyaffecttheirprofits,futures,andwayof doing
business
Thistype of approachcouldbe counteredbya “pluralist”approach. The “pluralist”approach
“statedbriefly…assumesthatpolicymakingingovernmentisdividedintoanumberof separate arenas
and that the interestsandindividualswhohave powerinone arenadonotnecessarilyhave powersin
others”(Peters2012. Pg. 68). Thistype of approach can come intoplay if the effectsof climate change
start to have negative consequencesonthe population.
As the effectsof projectedclimate change come tofruition,the USpopulationmaybe less
inclinedtosupportthe economicsuccessesof corporations,deferringtotheirowneconomicutility
instead. Whenfacedwithfloodinsurance billstwice the previousrate,skyrocketingelectricityand
energyratesandfoodand watershortages,the populationasa whole willbe facedwitheconomic
decisionsthataffectthemdirectlyratherthanindirectly. The profitsof large multinational corporations
no longerwill be whatconstituentsmostconcernthemselveswith,supplantedbytheirownfinancial
well-being. Whenthisoccurs,the “pluralist”approach,describedbyPeters, maycome tothe forefront.
While itwill take time,once climate change comestodirectlyaffectconsumerbehavior,a
“pluralist”approach coulddefine howfuture actionistaken. Interestswill nolongerbe definedby
nebulousargumentsposedbycorporations,butbythe decisions individualsface ineverydaylife.
Eliminatingeconomicexternalitieswillforce individualstomake decisionsonthe entiretyof theiruse
(raisesinenergyandtransportationpriceswillcause decreasesinconsumption,solelybasedon
economicanddisposable incomefactors). Corporate donationstopoliticianswill be lessof importwhen
re-electionwill be more basedonhowthe politicianrespondstovoterconcernsoverenergyand
transportationcosts,thancorporationslookingtocontinue theircurrentprofitstream. Until these
factors can be broughtto the forefront,throughbroadbasedcarbontaxesor emissioncap-andtrade-
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regimes,there isseriousdoubtasto the efficacyof the “pluralist”approach. Whenthisscenarioof
constituentshavingto deal withthe entiretyof theirenergyandtransportationuse occurs,itisnodoubt
that individualswill vote withtheirpersonalsituationratherthanwiththe whimsandconcernsof
profitable corporations.
There are manyrecommendationsthatcouldaddressclimate change,butfew are politically
feasible (atleastinthe US) rightnow. Institutingabroad-basedcarbontax or an effectivecap-and-
trade-regime onGHGemissionsare seenasthe mosteffectivewayof mitigatingthe risksassociated
withglobal climate change,butdue tothe reasonshighlightedabove,are notpoliticallyfeasible inthe
US. Carbon taxesseektoput a price (usuallybetween$10-50 per metrictonof CO2 emitted) onCO2
emissions. Carbontaxesare seenasa Pigouviantax,ora tax that factors in negative externalities
otherwise notincludedinthe marketprice fora productor service creatinga situationwhere the costof
a product or service isbelowsocial cost,orprivate costplusexternalities. Pigouviantaxesbringcosts
intoline withwhattrulyisoccurringwithinthe entiretyof the market. Cap-and-traderegimesonGHGs
consistof marketbasedincentivesthatlooktocontrol emissionsbycappingemissionsatacertain
thresholdandonlyallowsincreasesof emissions byentitiespurchasingthemonthe openmarket.
Corporationscurrentlyholdtoomuchpowertohave these measuresenactedorevenputonthe
agendafor consideration.
Otherthan forcingcorporationstoacknowledge the negativeexternalitiesassociatedwiththeir
productsor services,there are recommendationsthatcouldprovide promiseinreducingGHG
emissions. One suchoptionisreducingresidential energyconsumption(REC). LoweringRECisseenas
one of the mostcost effectiveandtimelywaysof reducingGHGemissions. Currently,RECaccountsfor
up to 35% of energyuse inindustrializedcountriesand21% of GHG emissions(Abrahamse,2005). This
energyuse isdependentonthe energyefficiencyof applianceswithinahouseholdandthe behaviorsof
householdmembers. Thisconsumptionpatternprovidesatwo-prongedavenue forreducingenergy
consumptionandtherefore GHGemissionsrelatedtocreatingsaidenergy. Implementingregulationsor
incentivesforusingenergyefficientappliancessuchashot waterheaters,furnaces,andrefrigerators
can be seentohave a large impact onREC, due to the factthat measurestoinstall energyefficient
appliancesare seentohave a longerlastingeffectonREC thancurtailmentmeasures(measures
designedtochange RECbehaviors). Mandatingorofferingincentivesforthe installationof energy
efficientappliancescanhelpreduce GHGemissionswithouthavingtochange anyend-userconsumption
rates(an attractive optionconsideringthe large variance amonghouseholdsrelatingtoREC).
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AffectingbehaviorsinRECisalsoseenas a timelyandcost-effective measure. Behaviorsof end
usersdo differwildly. Since there issuchhigh variabilityinREC,bringingREC ratesdown,especiallyin
comparisontolike end-users, seemsaviable optionforreducingRECwithoutthe needfortax andcap
measures. This variability canbe attributedtothe lack of clearand concise feedbackmechanisms
affordedend-users. Mosthouseholdshave onlyanelectrical orgas metertogauge theirREC. Since
these metersonlyprovideinformationonthe total energyused,notwhenandwhatappliancesusedthe
energy,householdsare notprovidedthe informationneededtoreduce REC. Withouta mechanismto
define whenandhowenergyisused,there isdis-connectbetweenuse andthe costof use. Thisdis-
connectinhibitshouseholdsfromimplementingappliance andbehavioral changesthatwouldhelp
reduce energyconsumptionandthe ensuing energy bills. While anoption,changestoRECcan alsobe
seenasdifficultdue to entrenchedbehaviorthatwill be difficulttounseat
Withcarbon taxes,cap-and-price regimes,andseeminglychangesinRECbeingtoopolitically
and socially unfeasible,strategiesregardingadaptationshouldandwill now take centerstage.
Adaptationmeasuresinclude thoseactionsthatseektoreduce the riskof the effectsof climate change
on the humanpopulation. Inotherwords,we cannotcurrentlystopemissionsleadingtoclimate
change,so effortstodecrease the risktohumansfromclimate change shouldbe considered.
Adaptationstoclimate change are as varied asthe effectsof climate change. Alteringlanduse
planningregulations totake intoaccountclimate change isa viable consideration. Fortoo long,(atleast
inthe US) individualshave beengiventhe right,bystatesormunicipalities,tobuildhousesinareas
prone to natural disasterssuchas flooding,andlandslides. Thisallowshomeownerstopopulate areas
that are notsafe and to receive federal insurance forthe possiblelossestheymightincurbecause of
theirself-madedecisions. The costof these lossesare transferredtothe tax-payingpublic(flood
insurance inthe US has beena publicventure since privateinsurancecompanies nolongersaw profitin
the coverage,onlyloss inthe 1940’s). Re-aligninglanduse policieswiththe impendingclimate change
will reduce costsoverthe long-termandalleviate the needforcostly(financiallyandsocially) eminent
domainlitigation(wherethe state “takes”apropertyinthe bestinterestof the public). Thiscanbe seen
as solvingaclimate change problembefore itposesanissue,bothfinanciallyandsocially. Itmay be
financiallyunfeasible forgovernmentstopurchase currentat-riskproperties throughthe processof
eminentdomain. Thisisdue to the highvalue placedoncoastal propertiesmostatriskfrom seachange
and the political toxicityof tellingvoterstheyhave toleave theirhomes. Changinglanduse planning
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regulationsfornewconstructionwill notalleviatethe risksposedtoexistingatriskhomes,butwill
eliminatethe issue overtime asat-riskhomessuccumbtothe risingtide.
The policyrecommendationthatIconsiderthe bestwouldbe tofocus onimprovementsto
efficiency andinfrastructure. Efficiencymeasurescanbe comprisedof technological improvementsand
behavioral curtailmentefforts. Behavioral curtailmenteffortsare notoriouslydifficulttoimplement
overa large scale. When all componentsof motivationalign,affectinga behavioral seachange is
possible,butcreatingthatscenariobydesignhasprovenaverydifficulttask. Focusingontechnological
efficiencyallowsreductionsof emissionsandfuel use throughthe longterm. Raisingthe average MPG
of automobilesispossible throughanumberof measures. Makingenginesmore fuelefficient,
incorporatinghybridtechnologysuchaselectricpower,andincorporating otherrenewable sourcesof
fuel toaugmentgasoline use are justa few optionsforaddressingone of the largestculpritsof GHG
emissions. Thiswill notbe aneasypolitical pill toswallow,butoffering consumersthe same driving
experience while usinglessfuel andgeneratingfeweremissionswill enable reductionstobe met
withoutthe oneroustaskof tryingto change humanbehaviors. Increasingwaterconservationmeasures
inagriculture andmunicipalitiesare waysinwhichwaterscarcityeventscanbe alleviatedbefore they
come to fruition. There isa culture of disposabilityandwaste pervasiveinthe UnitesStates. There are
a multitude of efficiencymeasuresthatcanbe adoptedinthe fieldsof energy,transportation,water
resourcesandagriculture. Havingthe publicadoptanefficiencymindsetwouldaidthiseffortgreatly.
Increasingthe capacityand faulttolerance of publicinfrastructure isthe secondhalf of my
preferredpolicyrecommendation. There is goingtobe higherdemandforelectricitydue toextreme
heatand coldevents. Increasedpopulationisgoingtoincrease demandfortransportation,
transportationfuels,water,andalmosteveryotherresource usedbyman. Ensuringthatthe
infrastructure thathelpstransportandmanage those resourcescanhandle the largerloadwill stave off
scarcity eventsthatcan have seriouseffectsonhumanhealth,wealth,well-beingandsecurity. Takinga
page from the Boy Scoutsof America…Be Prepared.
The changingclimate will alsocreate more dangerousweathereventssuchasfloods,high
winds,lightning,andotherstormrelatedstresses(EPA.gov) thatcouldinhibitthe provisionof needed
services. Preparingroadways,electrical facilities,sewersandwatertreatmentplants,andfuel storage
facilitiestobe able towithstandmore dangerousweatherevents shouldbecomeapriority. Redundant
computerandpowersupplysystemsthatincrease the faulttolerance of vital humanservicescan
15
eliminateinterruptions of service that,asstatedabove,canhave adverse effectsonsociety. These
fortificationswillrequirecapital inputbutthe investmentwillpayforitself inthe longrun.
Global climate change isgoingto be one of the mostpressingissuesfacingthe humanrace over
the next100 years. If consumptionandemissionrates continue togrow at currentlevels,the human
experience will be alteredformuchof the global population. Effectsonhumanhealth,security,and
overall well-beingwill be pervasive. Acknowledgingthe science,implementingmitigationstrategies,
and adaptingtothe comingchangesare all actionsthat needto be taken. Unfortunately,manyofficial
and unofficial actorsare recalcitranttoaccept the science andaddressthe issuesheadon. Separating
corporate self-interestfromthe publicinterestisnecessarytomove societyawayfromthe statusquo
and start changingthe contextinwhichthese decisionsare made.
16
References Cited
Abrahamse,Wokje,etal. 2005. "A review of interventionstudiesaimedathouseholdenergy
conservation." Journalof environmentalpsychology 25.3, 273-291.
CenterforClimate andEnergySolutions.2014 “Climate Debate inCongress”
http://www.c2es.org/federal/congress/112 (accessedDecember3,2014)
Costanza,Robert;Ralphd’Arge,Rudolf de Groot,StephenFarberk,MonicaGrasso,Bruce Hannon,Karin
LimburgI , ShahidNaeem,RobertV.O’Neill,Jose Paruelo,RobertG.Raskin,Paul Suttonkk&Marjan van
denBelt(15 May 1997)."The value of the world'secosystemservicesandnatural capital".Nature387:
253–260. .
IntergovernmentalPanel onClimateChange. 2013 “PrinciplesGoverningIPCCWork”
http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/ipcc-principles/ipcc-principles.pdf (accessedDecember1,2014)
Intergovernmental Panel onClimate Change. 2013. “Understandingthe Climate SystemanditsRecent
Changes” Summary forPolicymakers(finalized version)
Official Website of the Governorof Massachusetts,Deval Patrick. 2014 “GovernorPatrickSigns
InvestmentBillContinuingUnprecedentedGrowthinEnergyandEnvironmental Protection”
http://www.mass.gov/governor/pressoffice/pressreleases/2014/0813-gov-signs-environmental-
protection-investment-bill.html (accessedNovember27,2014)
Peters,B.Guy. 2012. American PublicPolicy: Promiseand Performance.CqPress.
UnitedNationsEnvironmental Programme. 2014 “What isProvia”
http://www.unep.org/provia/ABOUT/WhatisPROVIA/tabid/55216/Default.aspx (accessedDecember2,
2014
UnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimate Change. 2014 “Full Textof the Convention”
http://unfccc.int/essential_background/convention/background/items/1353.php (accessedDecember
2, 2014
UnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency. 2014 “AdaptationOverview”
http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/impacts-adaptation/adapt-overview.html (accessedDecember5,
2014)

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Global Climate Change

  • 1. 1 Global Climate Change A Policy Report By Peter Woodhouse POL 560 Fall 2014
  • 2. 2 Table of contents Introduction……………………………………………………………3 Key Legislation and Actors……………………………………..4 Elitist theoretical approach……………………………………10 Policy Recommendations………………………………………12 Conclusion…………………………………………………………….15 References…………………………………………………………….16
  • 3. 3 The Earth’s climate ischangingandhuman influence onthe climate systemisclear. The burning of fossil fuelsforenergyproductionand transportationemitcarbondioxide (CO2) intothe air. Industrial and natural processesemitNitrousOxide (N2O),Methane (CH4),Ozone (O3), andwatervapor(H2O). These gasses,cumulativelyknownasGreenhouseGases(GHGs), are absorbedintothe atmosphere,or findtheirwayintothe ocean. Once absorbedintothe atmosphere,these GHGsretain andemitthermal radiationcreatingthe fundamentalfoundationof the greenhouseeffectwhere heatistrapped,warming the Earth’s surface. The higherthe concentrationof GHGs, the higherthe Earth’ssurface temperature. The GHGs not absorbedintothe atmosphere,endupinthe oceans,causingincreasesinsea-surface temperatures andacidification. These increasesinsurface andsea-surface temperatureshave alarge andvaryingeffectonthe Earth’s climate systems. All continentsandoceansof the Earth will be affectedinone wayoranother. Highersurface temperatureswill leadtochangesinweatherpatterns,precipitation,agricultural norms and practices,wildlife lifecycle andmigrationpatterns, ecosystemprovisioningservices,andhuman health. The increase of sea-surface temperatureswill alteroceancurrents,meltice caps,increase sea level,andhave seriouseffectsonfisheries. Climate changes,suchasthose describedabove,will have adrasticandwide spreadeffecton humanactivity. Changingweatherpatternswill pose urbanthreatstohumanhealthandwealthinthe formof heatstress,extreme precipitation,inlandandcoastal flooding,landslides,airpollution,drought, waterscarcity,sea level rise,andstormsurges. Rural residentscould face risksof watershortages,food shortages,stresseson infrastructure,andchangesinagricultural productionareasandincomes. Increasesinextreme precipitationeventspose riskstoassets(floodingrisks) andhealth(spreadsof pathogens). Landslidespose obviousthreatstohumanwealthand airpollutionposesthreats tohuman health. Droughtsandwaterscarcity will effectagriculture andmunicipalities alike. Farmingonmarginal landsmay nolongerbe economicallyfeasiblewhile citiesandtownsthatrelyoncurrentlyscarce water supplieswill be forcedtoimportwatersuppliestomaintaincurrentpopulationlevels. Sealevel riseand storm surgeswill threatenmunicipalitieslocatedator nearthe coastor inlow lyingareas. The damage
  • 4. 4 causedby extreme weathereventssuchasHurricane Katrinaon low lyingcitiessuchasNew Orleansis well documentedandwill onlyincrease asthe effectsof climate change strengthen. Farmingand huntingactivitieswill be effectedbythe change inthe Earth’s climate. Thiswill have the greatesteffectonthose whodependonthese activitiesfortheirsubsistence,especiallyin developingcountries. Individualsthatsurvive onfarmingmarginal landmayencounterwaterscarcity and weatherissuesthatthreatenitsviability inthe longterm. Hunterscanalso be adverselyeffected. Withhuman populationsgrowingandmovingintootherwiseunpopulatedareas,the abilityforlocal hunterstofollowthe newmigrationpatternsof theirpreybecomesmore andmore difficult. The servicesthatecosystemsprovidetohumanhealth,wealthandwell-beingare goingtobe effectedbychangestothe climate system. Ecosystemservices,suchaswaterfiltration,andclimate and disease regulation are negativelyaffectedasforestsare clearedtomake roomfor furtheragricultural use or to change current landuse patterns. The practice of burning un-marketable timbertoaidin clearingthe landacts as a double dip. The abilitytoscrubCO2 fromthe atmosphere thatthe tree offeredisgone asthe tree is felledandsubsequentburningof the timberreleasesevenmore CO2into the atmosphere. These ecosystemservicesprovide humanswithroughly $33trillionworthof services everyyear(Costanza,et.al.1997), so thatdisturbancesinthese servicescanandwill cause harm to humans. Human healthwill be affectedbythe changingclimate aswell. Increasesinairpollution associatedwithwarmingsurface temperatureswill exacerbatesmog-relatedandlungrelatedillnesses, especiallyinurbanareas. Changingmicroclimateswillallow diseasestospreadtoareasoutside of their normal range. While thissoundsasinnocuousasa differentstrainof wintercoldreachingClevelandthis winter,pandemicssuchasEbola have truly shownlightonthe possible ramificationsof ashifting climate,coupledwithpopulationmigration. Slightelevationsinsurface temperature cancreate robust hostenvironmentsfordiseasesusuallykeptdownbytemperaturerestrictions. By no meansisit impliedthatall of these effectswill occurinall locations. Some locationswill see highertemperaturesthatincrease local agriculturalrevenues. Otherscanbenefitfromchanging game and fishmigrationpatterns. Whatwe know will occurischange. Change can be difficultfor humansand will be expensive. The economicrisksassociatedwithglobal climate change are enormous. The fact that actionsto reduce these risksare beingstalledbythose thatare currentlyenjoyingthe
  • 5. 5 fruitsof the status quois a short-sightednessthatneedstobe addressedassoonas politicallyfeasible. Thisdisparityiswhatcreatesmy interestinthissubject. All of the pooledofficial andunofficial actorsinvolvedinglobal climate change policydiscussion comprise the entiretyof the humanrace. International,national,state, local,private, andnon-profit entities andindividualsall have ahandin the creationof the problemand findingsolutionstothe problem. Reducingthe risksassociatedwithclimate change includemitigationefforts,where GHG emissionsare reduced,hopefullystemmingchangestothe climate,keeping futuremeansurface temperatureslessthan2*Celsius higherthanpre-industrial meansurface temperatures. Adaptation measuresare undertakentoprepare populationsforthe impendingchangingclimate. Thiscaninclude changinglanduse designationssothatlow lyingareasshouldnotbe populated,andimproving infrastructure towithstandthe newdemandsof awarmerEarth. Official actors inthe policydebate regardingglobal climate change include those onthe international,national,state,andlocal level. The leadinternational actoristhe Intergovernmental Panel onClimate Change (IPCC). The IPCCwassetup as a scientificbodybythe UnitedNations(UN) in 1988 by twoUN organizations,the WorldMeteorological Organization(WMO) andthe UnitedNations EnvironmentProgramme (UNEP) withmembershipopentoall membersof those organizations. The IPCCcreatesreportsthat supportthe UnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimate Change’s (UNFCCC) charge of stabilizingGHGconcentrationstolevelsthatwouldpreventhumanchange tothe climate systemandcovers“scientific,technical,andsocio-economicinformationrelevanttothe understandingthe scientificbasisof riskof human-inducedclimate change,itspotential impactsand optionsforadaptationandmitigation”(IPCC,2013). The IPCC basesitsassessmentsonpublishedpeer- reviewedliterature andtodate has publishedfive AssessmentReports(AR11990, AR2 1995, AR3 2001, AR4 2007, AR5 2014). The latestassessmentreport,AR5focussesontransparencyinhow itgoesabout compilingitsresearch,attemptingtoanswercriticsregardingthe science of global climate change while outliningthe currentstate of research. AR5 was organizedinthe same mannerof previousassessmentswiththree WorkingGroupsand a Synthesisreport. EachWorkingGroup focusesondifferentaspectsof the climate change problem withthe Synthesisreporttyingthe informationtogether. WorkingGroup1 focusesonthe physical science regardingclimate change,statingthatthe climate iswarmingandconcentrationsof GHGs emittedbyhumansare the dominantcause of these emissionsandthe subsequentwarming. Working Group II dealswithimpacts,adaptations,andvulnerabilitiesregardingclimatechange withemphasison
  • 6. 6 adoptingadaptationmeasurestoreduce the risksbylimitingthe rate andmagnitude of climate change. WorkingGroup IIIfocusesonmitigationstrategiesthatwouldloweremissionsaffectingclimatechange inthe hopeskeepingtemperaturesbelow thresholdsof 2* Celsiuswhere humanactivitywill be adverselyandexpensivelyaffectedsetbypreviousAssessmentReports (IPCCSummaryfor Policymakers,2013). A growingareaof focusof the IPCCisadaptationto climate change. Withmanyof the largest culpritsof GHG emissions(US,China,India,amongstothers) refusingorbeingunable tocommittothe substantial emissionreductionsneededtostemthe effectsof climate change,focusonmeasuresthat will help humansdeal withthe newclimate now are receivinganincrease of attention. Inresponse to thisthe UNEP has founded the Global Programme of ResearchonClimate Change Vulnerability,Impacts and Adaptation(PROVIA). “PROVIA isaglobal initiativewhichaimstoprovide directionandcoherence at the international levelforresearchonvulnerability,impactsandadaptation(VIA).Launchedwiththe supportof leadingscientistsanddecision-makers,PROVIA respondstothe urgent call bythe scientific communityfora more cohesive andcoordinatedapproach,andthe critical needtoharmonize,mobilize, and communicate the growingknowledge-baseonVIA. Tothisend,PROVIA will actasa new and growingnetworkof scientists,practitionersanddecision-makersworkingtowardsidentifyingresearch gaps andmeetingpolicyneedsinclimate change vulnerability, impactandadaptationresearch” (UNEP.org2014). Workingwithpolicyanddecision-makerstoenhance how nationsandstatesalter theirlanduse planninginitiativesandinfrastructuredecisionscanhelpallotpreciousresourcestoallow humansto betterdeal withthe changingclimate. Individual nationsare alsoactorsregardingglobal climate change. How individualnationsreact to the global change crisisoftenisdependentonthe financial concernsof the nations. Emission-centric nationssuchas the UnitedStates,China,India,andothershave founditpoliticallyinfeasible to implementhardandfast regulationsonGHG emissions. Othernationshave embracedthe factthat climate change isoccurringand have startedto change national policytotry to mitigate climate change and adaptto the newcircumstances. The UnitedStateshas longbeena large producerof GHG emissions. The political intereststhat desire acontinuationof the statusquoin the US include multi-national energycorporationssuchas Exxon/Mobile,automobile manufacturerssuchasFordand General Motors,and utilitycorporations. For a longtime,these corporationshave beenabletosell theirproductsandserviceswithoutthe costof the emissionsof theirproductsorservices generatingpollution beingincludedintotheircost,called
  • 7. 7 externalities. These externalitiesincludeautomobileandenergyproductionemissions of CO2and other GHGs. While the Obamaadministrationdidmake acarbon tax (a tax levyof upwardsof $20 per metric ton of CO2 emittedintothe atmosphere)apriority,passage of saidlaw hasbeenhampered(andto date,beatdown) by the partisanpolitical landscape of the US. The lackof abilityof international leaders,suchasthe US, to implementstrongemissionreductionplanshassetbackthe mitigationof climate change globally. While the US has failedtopassa comprehensive climatechange bill,itdoesnotmeanthatthe federal governmenthasnotundertakenactiontoloweremissions. Aggressivelyadvocatingfor renewable energysuchassolarand windpowerthroughrebatesandsubsidies,implementingstronger air pollution standardsforcoal andotherfossil fuel burningenergyproductionfacilities,andapplying strongwordinginthe re-vampingof the National FloodInsurance Acttoinclude intheircalculationsthe future effectsof climate change are all measuresthathave beenadoptedandcarriedoutbythe Obama Administration. These are significantvictoriesinaddressingclimate change,butstrongpolitical opposition existsand,if the latestelectionsare aharbinger,maybe growing,regardlessof the available science. Individual statesalsoplayanofficialrole inclimate change policy. Some stateshave takena more progressive stance regardingclimate change andGHG emissionsthanothers. Whilemanystates inthe Southstill questionthe existence of climate change,statessuchasMassachusetts have passed comprehensive climate change legislationthatallows them,andotherstates, toflex itsenvironmental muscleswhere othersstate’smusclesatrophy. Passingacomprehensive climate change billisnotthe onlyavenue available forastate to addressclimate change andemissionsissues. Increasingproduction of renewableenergy,reducingthe carbonfootprintof the State throughthe purchase of alternative energyvehicles andothermeasures,andregulationof energyandtransportationfuel pricesthrough tariffsandtaxesall allowstatestodetermine if andhow theydeal withclimate change. Local municipalitiescanhave a similareffectasstates,shouldtheychoose to,justona smaller scale. Citiesand townscan implementplanningandbuildingregulationsthatdetermine where houses are built(whichcanbe affected inthe future bysea-levelrise) andthe energyefficiencyof newlybuilt homes(whichcanhave a drastic impactof reducingGHG emissionsinresidential energyuse). Municipal operationscanbe convertedtorenewable energyasa wayto lowercostsand provide anexample to residentslookingtoaidthe environmentandlowertheirbills.
  • 8. 8 Unofficial actorsinthe global climate change policydebate range frominternational organizationstoindividualsthatparticipate inprotests. Mediaoutlets,nonprofitorganizations,public interestresearchgroupsandindividualsall take stands,proandcon, on bothsidesof the debate. For example,nonprofitsthatchampionforaddressingclimatechange include SierraClub,Natural Resource Defense Council,RainforestActionNetwork,andEnvironmental Defense Fund. NonprofitssuchasThe HeartlandInstitute andphilanthropistssuchasthe Koch Brothers(whohave fundedover$67 millionto groupsdenyingclimate change since 1997 (greenpeace.org,2014) stronglyrebuke climate change science andlookto keepthe statusquo,if not lax regulationfurther. While adetailedanalysisof all of the pertinentunofficialactorsinvolvedwithclimatechange isnotpossibleinthistreatment,muchof the powerassociatedwithunofficial actorscomesfromwealthof resources. Atthe moment,those who have a financial incentive tokeepthe statusquoalsoseemtohave the mostresources. Strong pushbackagainstclimate change policieshasbeenprovided bythose with deeppocketslookingto protect,oil,utility,andtransportationprofits(which,asstatedbefore,come whilenotincludingthe externalityof the pollutioncreatedinthe price). Until the costsassociatedwithclimate change hit consumersina clearerfashion,there maynotbe sufficientfinancial orsocial incentive toinduce change. Keylegislationandtreatylawregardingglobal climatechange canbe brokendownintothe political level thatitinfluences;International,national,state,andlocal. The primaryinternationaltreaty affectingthe environmentandthe onlyinternational climate policywithlegitimacydue toitsglobal membershipisthe UnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange (UNFCCC). The UNFCCC was createdat the 1992 UnitedNationsConference onEnvironmentandDevelopment inRiode Janeiro, Brazil,otherwise knownasthe Earth Summit. “The ultimate objective of thisConventionandany relatedlegal instrumentsthatthe Conference of the Partiesmayadoptistoachieve,inaccordance with the relevantprovisionsof the Convention,stabilizationof greenhousegasconcentrationsinthe atmosphere ata level thatwouldpreventdangerousanthropogenicinterference withthe climate system.Sucha level shouldbe achievedwithinatime-frame sufficienttoallow ecosystemstoadapt naturallytoclimate change,toensure thatfoodproductionisnot threatenedandtoenable economic developmenttoproceedina sustainable manner”(UNFCCC.int,1992). The treatycontainsno binding limitsonGHG emissions, ratheritprovidesa frameworkfornegotiatingtreatiescalledprotocolsthat thencan setbindinglimitsonemissions. Membernationshave metannuallysince 1995 to assessprogressregardingclimate change in meetingscalledthe Conference of Parties (COP). In1997, the Kyotoprotocol,wasadopted,setting
  • 9. 9 legallybindingobligationsformember-nationstoreduce GHG emissions. Unfortunately,many emissionsheavy countries,includingthe US, China, andIndia, didnot ratifythe protocol andit expired in 2012. The 2010 Cancun agreementsfocuson cappingfuture temperaturesat 2.0* C above pre-industrial levels. This2*C thresholdisseenasimportantinmitigatingmanyof the mostdangerousforeseen outcomesof climate change. The twentiethConference of Parties,orCOP20,takesplace in December 2014 inLima, Peruand lookstofocuson the increase of awarenessregardingclimatechange science and adaptationmeasuresdesignedtoreduce the financial,social,andhealthriskto humansfrom climate change. The US, underthe Barak Obamaadministration,hasattemptedsweepingclimatechange legislationoverthe last5-7 years,withlittle success. The 111th Congress,spurredbyPresidentObama’s firsttermdesire thata comprehensiveclimateandenergybill be onthe topof hislegislative wishlist, saw the House of RepresentativespassHouse Resolution2454, the AmericanCleanEnergyandSecurity Act of 2009. The Senate wasunable topass itsownbill andup until now,there have notbeensufficient votesinthe Senate (afterthe mostrecentelection,sufficientvotesinthe House wouldbe lackingas well) toevenbringthe motiontoa vote. Withthe political viabilityof comprehensive legislationlacking, Congresshasscaledback the numberandbreadthof climate change legislation. In2011-2012, 113 climate specificbillswereintroducedintoCongress. Thisnumberisdownfrom263 in2009-2010, and 253 in2007-2008. Political interestinthe USregardingclimate change seemstobe waningand oppositiontoregulationattemptingtostemclimate change seemstobe growing. 48% of the bills introducedin2011-2012 wouldhave blockedorhinderedclimateactions. These rangedfromtaking emissionscontrol authorityawayfromthe EnvironmentalProtectionAgencytoremovingregulations fromthe CleanAirAct(c2es.org,2014). All of the billsfailed,butagrowingdissatisfactionwith regulationmayleadtoan increase of climate change science and policy applicationdissatisfaction amongpro-businessconstituents. Whetherstateshave takenanactive participatoryrole regardingclimate change usually dependsonthe political inclinationof the constituency. WashingtonState andMassachusetts (two notoriouslyliberal andgreenstates), forexample, have passedcomprehensive climatechange legislation,whilemuchof the nationisstill miredinthe argumentof whetherclimate change exists. The Massachusettslegislation,EnvironmentalBondBill (H4375) allots$2.2 Billionforenvironmental and energyinitiativesthroughoutthe state,including$62 millionforcleanenergyandenergyefficiency (mass.gov,2014) and isby far the largestenvironmental bondbill inthe state’shistory. Itaddresses
  • 10. 10 issuessuchas renewableenergy, landuse planning,infrastructure investmentsandsea-level rise, amongstothers,through2018. Citiesandtownscan choose toimplementlesscomprehensiveclimatechange legislationbased on the inclinationof residents. Environmentallymotivatedconstituenciescanseektoreduce their carbon footprintbyimplementingrenewable energysolutionsintothe municipality,orothergreen activities. Oftenthese local initiativesare inconjunctionwithlocal nonprofitentitiesseekingtoreduce the effects climate change. The DartmouthSolarChallenge(partof the widerSouthCoastEnergy Challenge)offershome energyaudits(designedtohelpresidentsdecreasetheirenergyusage andbills), and solaroptionstoresidentswhose homesreceive enough sunlightthroughapartnershipwiththe Townof Dartmouthand the nonprofitSouthCoastEnergyChallenge. In myopinion,global climatechange fallsmostcommonlyintothe “elitist”approachasdefined inChapter4 of Peters,thoughthe “pluralist”approachcould alsobe applied. The “elitist”approach “assumesthatthere isa powerelite thatdominatespublicdecisionmakingandwhose interestsare servedinthe policymakingprocess”(Peters,2012 pg. 69). In the US, and in manycountriesabroad, environmental andenergypolicyisdominatedbythe lobbyingarmof these twoeconomicsectors. The US political systemposesnolimitsonthe amountof moneythatPolitical ActionCommittees (PACs),in the name of private corporations, candonate tothe re-electioneffortsof politicians. Thissystemhas ledto a systemof entrenchmentwhenitcomestoclimate change regulations(amongstothers). Electedpoliticiansoftenowetheirpositions inoffice tothe fundsfunneledtothembyPACs. Without these funds,politicianswouldnotbe able tosaturate voterswithpropagandasuchas television advertisements. Inturn,politicianswhoreceive these fundslistenmore intentlytothe desiresof these interestedpartiesandoftenhelpsetthe agendaof whattype of policyisgoingtobe addressed. Due to the profitwieldingpowerof large energyandindustrialentitiesinthe US(mostly multinationalcorporations) puttingclimate change regulationonthe decisionmakingagendahaslagged behindotherpolitical entitiessuchasthe EuropeanUnion. To the corporationsandthe politicians,the threatof lostrevenuesandprofitsposedbyclimate change regulationoutweighthe longtermeffectof climate change. Consideringthe currentstate of affairs,thisisnotsurprising. Energyandoil companies do notfactor in the emissionscausedbythe use of theirproducts,because currentlythose costsare not associatedwiththeiruse. Thistype of economicmarketfailuretoencompassall costsof consumptionis calledanexternality. Thismeansthatpart of the costof usingthe product(emissionsandthe costthey incurin the case of the energyindustry) are notincludedinthe price of the product. These costsare
  • 11. 11 passedonto the populationasawhole,tobe dealtwithcommunally. Due tothe fact that these costs are notcurrentlyincludedinthe price of energyservices,energyproducingcompaniesfighttoothand nail to keepthe statusquo. If priceswere raisedtoreflectthe costsactuallyassociatedwithenergyuse, energycompanieswouldbe forcedtoraise prices. Raisingpriceswouldreduceconsumptionand decrease profitsdue tothe fact thatall of the burdenwouldnotbe able to be placedontothe consumer (Regardlessof whatenergycorporationswouldlike to believe,energycostsare notcompletelyinelastic. Consumerswill reacttochangesinprice,evenif notat the rate theydo to othergoods). Thisprospect has ledenergyandotheremission-intensiveindustriestofightanypolicythatwouldbringthis externalityintothe free-marketfold,asitwouldseriouslyaffecttheirprofits,futures,andwayof doing business Thistype of approachcouldbe counteredbya “pluralist”approach. The “pluralist”approach “statedbriefly…assumesthatpolicymakingingovernmentisdividedintoanumberof separate arenas and that the interestsandindividualswhohave powerinone arenadonotnecessarilyhave powersin others”(Peters2012. Pg. 68). Thistype of approach can come intoplay if the effectsof climate change start to have negative consequencesonthe population. As the effectsof projectedclimate change come tofruition,the USpopulationmaybe less inclinedtosupportthe economicsuccessesof corporations,deferringtotheirowneconomicutility instead. Whenfacedwithfloodinsurance billstwice the previousrate,skyrocketingelectricityand energyratesandfoodand watershortages,the populationasa whole willbe facedwitheconomic decisionsthataffectthemdirectlyratherthanindirectly. The profitsof large multinational corporations no longerwill be whatconstituentsmostconcernthemselveswith,supplantedbytheirownfinancial well-being. Whenthisoccurs,the “pluralist”approach,describedbyPeters, maycome tothe forefront. While itwill take time,once climate change comestodirectlyaffectconsumerbehavior,a “pluralist”approach coulddefine howfuture actionistaken. Interestswill nolongerbe definedby nebulousargumentsposedbycorporations,butbythe decisions individualsface ineverydaylife. Eliminatingeconomicexternalitieswillforce individualstomake decisionsonthe entiretyof theiruse (raisesinenergyandtransportationpriceswillcause decreasesinconsumption,solelybasedon economicanddisposable incomefactors). Corporate donationstopoliticianswill be lessof importwhen re-electionwill be more basedonhowthe politicianrespondstovoterconcernsoverenergyand transportationcosts,thancorporationslookingtocontinue theircurrentprofitstream. Until these factors can be broughtto the forefront,throughbroadbasedcarbontaxesor emissioncap-andtrade-
  • 12. 12 regimes,there isseriousdoubtasto the efficacyof the “pluralist”approach. Whenthisscenarioof constituentshavingto deal withthe entiretyof theirenergyandtransportationuse occurs,itisnodoubt that individualswill vote withtheirpersonalsituationratherthanwiththe whimsandconcernsof profitable corporations. There are manyrecommendationsthatcouldaddressclimate change,butfew are politically feasible (atleastinthe US) rightnow. Institutingabroad-basedcarbontax or an effectivecap-and- trade-regime onGHGemissionsare seenasthe mosteffectivewayof mitigatingthe risksassociated withglobal climate change,butdue tothe reasonshighlightedabove,are notpoliticallyfeasible inthe US. Carbon taxesseektoput a price (usuallybetween$10-50 per metrictonof CO2 emitted) onCO2 emissions. Carbontaxesare seenasa Pigouviantax,ora tax that factors in negative externalities otherwise notincludedinthe marketprice fora productor service creatinga situationwhere the costof a product or service isbelowsocial cost,orprivate costplusexternalities. Pigouviantaxesbringcosts intoline withwhattrulyisoccurringwithinthe entiretyof the market. Cap-and-traderegimesonGHGs consistof marketbasedincentivesthatlooktocontrol emissionsbycappingemissionsatacertain thresholdandonlyallowsincreasesof emissions byentitiespurchasingthemonthe openmarket. Corporationscurrentlyholdtoomuchpowertohave these measuresenactedorevenputonthe agendafor consideration. Otherthan forcingcorporationstoacknowledge the negativeexternalitiesassociatedwiththeir productsor services,there are recommendationsthatcouldprovide promiseinreducingGHG emissions. One suchoptionisreducingresidential energyconsumption(REC). LoweringRECisseenas one of the mostcost effectiveandtimelywaysof reducingGHGemissions. Currently,RECaccountsfor up to 35% of energyuse inindustrializedcountriesand21% of GHG emissions(Abrahamse,2005). This energyuse isdependentonthe energyefficiencyof applianceswithinahouseholdandthe behaviorsof householdmembers. Thisconsumptionpatternprovidesatwo-prongedavenue forreducingenergy consumptionandtherefore GHGemissionsrelatedtocreatingsaidenergy. Implementingregulationsor incentivesforusingenergyefficientappliancessuchashot waterheaters,furnaces,andrefrigerators can be seentohave a large impact onREC, due to the factthat measurestoinstall energyefficient appliancesare seentohave a longerlastingeffectonREC thancurtailmentmeasures(measures designedtochange RECbehaviors). Mandatingorofferingincentivesforthe installationof energy efficientappliancescanhelpreduce GHGemissionswithouthavingtochange anyend-userconsumption rates(an attractive optionconsideringthe large variance amonghouseholdsrelatingtoREC).
  • 13. 13 AffectingbehaviorsinRECisalsoseenas a timelyandcost-effective measure. Behaviorsof end usersdo differwildly. Since there issuchhigh variabilityinREC,bringingREC ratesdown,especiallyin comparisontolike end-users, seemsaviable optionforreducingRECwithoutthe needfortax andcap measures. This variability canbe attributedtothe lack of clearand concise feedbackmechanisms affordedend-users. Mosthouseholdshave onlyanelectrical orgas metertogauge theirREC. Since these metersonlyprovideinformationonthe total energyused,notwhenandwhatappliancesusedthe energy,householdsare notprovidedthe informationneededtoreduce REC. Withouta mechanismto define whenandhowenergyisused,there isdis-connectbetweenuse andthe costof use. Thisdis- connectinhibitshouseholdsfromimplementingappliance andbehavioral changesthatwouldhelp reduce energyconsumptionandthe ensuing energy bills. While anoption,changestoRECcan alsobe seenasdifficultdue to entrenchedbehaviorthatwill be difficulttounseat Withcarbon taxes,cap-and-price regimes,andseeminglychangesinRECbeingtoopolitically and socially unfeasible,strategiesregardingadaptationshouldandwill now take centerstage. Adaptationmeasuresinclude thoseactionsthatseektoreduce the riskof the effectsof climate change on the humanpopulation. Inotherwords,we cannotcurrentlystopemissionsleadingtoclimate change,so effortstodecrease the risktohumansfromclimate change shouldbe considered. Adaptationstoclimate change are as varied asthe effectsof climate change. Alteringlanduse planningregulations totake intoaccountclimate change isa viable consideration. Fortoo long,(atleast inthe US) individualshave beengiventhe right,bystatesormunicipalities,tobuildhousesinareas prone to natural disasterssuchas flooding,andlandslides. Thisallowshomeownerstopopulate areas that are notsafe and to receive federal insurance forthe possiblelossestheymightincurbecause of theirself-madedecisions. The costof these lossesare transferredtothe tax-payingpublic(flood insurance inthe US has beena publicventure since privateinsurancecompanies nolongersaw profitin the coverage,onlyloss inthe 1940’s). Re-aligninglanduse policieswiththe impendingclimate change will reduce costsoverthe long-termandalleviate the needforcostly(financiallyandsocially) eminent domainlitigation(wherethe state “takes”apropertyinthe bestinterestof the public). Thiscanbe seen as solvingaclimate change problembefore itposesanissue,bothfinanciallyandsocially. Itmay be financiallyunfeasible forgovernmentstopurchase currentat-riskproperties throughthe processof eminentdomain. Thisisdue to the highvalue placedoncoastal propertiesmostatriskfrom seachange and the political toxicityof tellingvoterstheyhave toleave theirhomes. Changinglanduse planning
  • 14. 14 regulationsfornewconstructionwill notalleviatethe risksposedtoexistingatriskhomes,butwill eliminatethe issue overtime asat-riskhomessuccumbtothe risingtide. The policyrecommendationthatIconsiderthe bestwouldbe tofocus onimprovementsto efficiency andinfrastructure. Efficiencymeasurescanbe comprisedof technological improvementsand behavioral curtailmentefforts. Behavioral curtailmenteffortsare notoriouslydifficulttoimplement overa large scale. When all componentsof motivationalign,affectinga behavioral seachange is possible,butcreatingthatscenariobydesignhasprovenaverydifficulttask. Focusingontechnological efficiencyallowsreductionsof emissionsandfuel use throughthe longterm. Raisingthe average MPG of automobilesispossible throughanumberof measures. Makingenginesmore fuelefficient, incorporatinghybridtechnologysuchaselectricpower,andincorporating otherrenewable sourcesof fuel toaugmentgasoline use are justa few optionsforaddressingone of the largestculpritsof GHG emissions. Thiswill notbe aneasypolitical pill toswallow,butoffering consumersthe same driving experience while usinglessfuel andgeneratingfeweremissionswill enable reductionstobe met withoutthe oneroustaskof tryingto change humanbehaviors. Increasingwaterconservationmeasures inagriculture andmunicipalitiesare waysinwhichwaterscarcityeventscanbe alleviatedbefore they come to fruition. There isa culture of disposabilityandwaste pervasiveinthe UnitesStates. There are a multitude of efficiencymeasuresthatcanbe adoptedinthe fieldsof energy,transportation,water resourcesandagriculture. Havingthe publicadoptanefficiencymindsetwouldaidthiseffortgreatly. Increasingthe capacityand faulttolerance of publicinfrastructure isthe secondhalf of my preferredpolicyrecommendation. There is goingtobe higherdemandforelectricitydue toextreme heatand coldevents. Increasedpopulationisgoingtoincrease demandfortransportation, transportationfuels,water,andalmosteveryotherresource usedbyman. Ensuringthatthe infrastructure thathelpstransportandmanage those resourcescanhandle the largerloadwill stave off scarcity eventsthatcan have seriouseffectsonhumanhealth,wealth,well-beingandsecurity. Takinga page from the Boy Scoutsof America…Be Prepared. The changingclimate will alsocreate more dangerousweathereventssuchasfloods,high winds,lightning,andotherstormrelatedstresses(EPA.gov) thatcouldinhibitthe provisionof needed services. Preparingroadways,electrical facilities,sewersandwatertreatmentplants,andfuel storage facilitiestobe able towithstandmore dangerousweatherevents shouldbecomeapriority. Redundant computerandpowersupplysystemsthatincrease the faulttolerance of vital humanservicescan
  • 15. 15 eliminateinterruptions of service that,asstatedabove,canhave adverse effectsonsociety. These fortificationswillrequirecapital inputbutthe investmentwillpayforitself inthe longrun. Global climate change isgoingto be one of the mostpressingissuesfacingthe humanrace over the next100 years. If consumptionandemissionrates continue togrow at currentlevels,the human experience will be alteredformuchof the global population. Effectsonhumanhealth,security,and overall well-beingwill be pervasive. Acknowledgingthe science,implementingmitigationstrategies, and adaptingtothe comingchangesare all actionsthat needto be taken. Unfortunately,manyofficial and unofficial actorsare recalcitranttoaccept the science andaddressthe issuesheadon. Separating corporate self-interestfromthe publicinterestisnecessarytomove societyawayfromthe statusquo and start changingthe contextinwhichthese decisionsare made.
  • 16. 16 References Cited Abrahamse,Wokje,etal. 2005. "A review of interventionstudiesaimedathouseholdenergy conservation." Journalof environmentalpsychology 25.3, 273-291. CenterforClimate andEnergySolutions.2014 “Climate Debate inCongress” http://www.c2es.org/federal/congress/112 (accessedDecember3,2014) Costanza,Robert;Ralphd’Arge,Rudolf de Groot,StephenFarberk,MonicaGrasso,Bruce Hannon,Karin LimburgI , ShahidNaeem,RobertV.O’Neill,Jose Paruelo,RobertG.Raskin,Paul Suttonkk&Marjan van denBelt(15 May 1997)."The value of the world'secosystemservicesandnatural capital".Nature387: 253–260. . IntergovernmentalPanel onClimateChange. 2013 “PrinciplesGoverningIPCCWork” http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/ipcc-principles/ipcc-principles.pdf (accessedDecember1,2014) Intergovernmental Panel onClimate Change. 2013. “Understandingthe Climate SystemanditsRecent Changes” Summary forPolicymakers(finalized version) Official Website of the Governorof Massachusetts,Deval Patrick. 2014 “GovernorPatrickSigns InvestmentBillContinuingUnprecedentedGrowthinEnergyandEnvironmental Protection” http://www.mass.gov/governor/pressoffice/pressreleases/2014/0813-gov-signs-environmental- protection-investment-bill.html (accessedNovember27,2014) Peters,B.Guy. 2012. American PublicPolicy: Promiseand Performance.CqPress. UnitedNationsEnvironmental Programme. 2014 “What isProvia” http://www.unep.org/provia/ABOUT/WhatisPROVIA/tabid/55216/Default.aspx (accessedDecember2, 2014 UnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimate Change. 2014 “Full Textof the Convention” http://unfccc.int/essential_background/convention/background/items/1353.php (accessedDecember 2, 2014 UnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency. 2014 “AdaptationOverview” http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/impacts-adaptation/adapt-overview.html (accessedDecember5, 2014)