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Global Climate Change
- 1. 1 Global Climate Change A Policy Report By Peter Woodhouse POL 560 Fall 2014
- 2. 2 Table of contents Introduction……………………………………………………………3 Key Legislation and Actors……………………………………..4 Elitist theoretical approach……………………………………10 Policy Recommendations………………………………………12 Conclusion…………………………………………………………….15 References…………………………………………………………….16
- 3. 3 The Earth’s climate ischangingandhuman influence onthe climate systemisclear. The burning of fossil fuelsforenergyproductionand transportationemitcarbondioxide (CO2) intothe air. Industrial and natural processesemitNitrousOxide (N2O),Methane (CH4),Ozone (O3), andwatervapor(H2O). These gasses,cumulativelyknownasGreenhouseGases(GHGs), are absorbedintothe atmosphere,or findtheirwayintothe ocean. Once absorbedintothe atmosphere,these GHGsretain andemitthermal radiationcreatingthe fundamentalfoundationof the greenhouseeffectwhere heatistrapped,warming the Earth’s surface. The higherthe concentrationof GHGs, the higherthe Earth’ssurface temperature. The GHGs not absorbedintothe atmosphere,endupinthe oceans,causingincreasesinsea-surface temperatures andacidification. These increasesinsurface andsea-surface temperatureshave alarge andvaryingeffectonthe Earth’s climate systems. All continentsandoceansof the Earth will be affectedinone wayoranother. Highersurface temperatureswill leadtochangesinweatherpatterns,precipitation,agricultural norms and practices,wildlife lifecycle andmigrationpatterns, ecosystemprovisioningservices,andhuman health. The increase of sea-surface temperatureswill alteroceancurrents,meltice caps,increase sea level,andhave seriouseffectsonfisheries. Climate changes,suchasthose describedabove,will have adrasticandwide spreadeffecton humanactivity. Changingweatherpatternswill pose urbanthreatstohumanhealthandwealthinthe formof heatstress,extreme precipitation,inlandandcoastal flooding,landslides,airpollution,drought, waterscarcity,sea level rise,andstormsurges. Rural residentscould face risksof watershortages,food shortages,stresseson infrastructure,andchangesinagricultural productionareasandincomes. Increasesinextreme precipitationeventspose riskstoassets(floodingrisks) andhealth(spreadsof pathogens). Landslidespose obviousthreatstohumanwealthand airpollutionposesthreats tohuman health. Droughtsandwaterscarcity will effectagriculture andmunicipalities alike. Farmingonmarginal landsmay nolongerbe economicallyfeasiblewhile citiesandtownsthatrelyoncurrentlyscarce water supplieswill be forcedtoimportwatersuppliestomaintaincurrentpopulationlevels. Sealevel riseand storm surgeswill threatenmunicipalitieslocatedator nearthe coastor inlow lyingareas. The damage
- 4. 4 causedby extreme weathereventssuchasHurricane Katrinaon low lyingcitiessuchasNew Orleansis well documentedandwill onlyincrease asthe effectsof climate change strengthen. Farmingand huntingactivitieswill be effectedbythe change inthe Earth’s climate. Thiswill have the greatesteffectonthose whodependonthese activitiesfortheirsubsistence,especiallyin developingcountries. Individualsthatsurvive onfarmingmarginal landmayencounterwaterscarcity and weatherissuesthatthreatenitsviability inthe longterm. Hunterscanalso be adverselyeffected. Withhuman populationsgrowingandmovingintootherwiseunpopulatedareas,the abilityforlocal hunterstofollowthe newmigrationpatternsof theirpreybecomesmore andmore difficult. The servicesthatecosystemsprovidetohumanhealth,wealthandwell-beingare goingtobe effectedbychangestothe climate system. Ecosystemservices,suchaswaterfiltration,andclimate and disease regulation are negativelyaffectedasforestsare clearedtomake roomfor furtheragricultural use or to change current landuse patterns. The practice of burning un-marketable timbertoaidin clearingthe landacts as a double dip. The abilitytoscrubCO2 fromthe atmosphere thatthe tree offeredisgone asthe tree is felledandsubsequentburningof the timberreleasesevenmore CO2into the atmosphere. These ecosystemservicesprovide humanswithroughly $33trillionworthof services everyyear(Costanza,et.al.1997), so thatdisturbancesinthese servicescanandwill cause harm to humans. Human healthwill be affectedbythe changingclimate aswell. Increasesinairpollution associatedwithwarmingsurface temperatureswill exacerbatesmog-relatedandlungrelatedillnesses, especiallyinurbanareas. Changingmicroclimateswillallow diseasestospreadtoareasoutside of their normal range. While thissoundsasinnocuousasa differentstrainof wintercoldreachingClevelandthis winter,pandemicssuchasEbola have truly shownlightonthe possible ramificationsof ashifting climate,coupledwithpopulationmigration. Slightelevationsinsurface temperature cancreate robust hostenvironmentsfordiseasesusuallykeptdownbytemperaturerestrictions. By no meansisit impliedthatall of these effectswill occurinall locations. Some locationswill see highertemperaturesthatincrease local agriculturalrevenues. Otherscanbenefitfromchanging game and fishmigrationpatterns. Whatwe know will occurischange. Change can be difficultfor humansand will be expensive. The economicrisksassociatedwithglobal climate change are enormous. The fact that actionsto reduce these risksare beingstalledbythose thatare currentlyenjoyingthe
- 5. 5 fruitsof the status quois a short-sightednessthatneedstobe addressedassoonas politicallyfeasible. Thisdisparityiswhatcreatesmy interestinthissubject. All of the pooledofficial andunofficial actorsinvolvedinglobal climate change policydiscussion comprise the entiretyof the humanrace. International,national,state, local,private, andnon-profit entities andindividualsall have ahandin the creationof the problemand findingsolutionstothe problem. Reducingthe risksassociatedwithclimate change includemitigationefforts,where GHG emissionsare reduced,hopefullystemmingchangestothe climate,keeping futuremeansurface temperatureslessthan2*Celsius higherthanpre-industrial meansurface temperatures. Adaptation measuresare undertakentoprepare populationsforthe impendingchangingclimate. Thiscaninclude changinglanduse designationssothatlow lyingareasshouldnotbe populated,andimproving infrastructure towithstandthe newdemandsof awarmerEarth. Official actors inthe policydebate regardingglobal climate change include those onthe international,national,state,andlocal level. The leadinternational actoristhe Intergovernmental Panel onClimate Change (IPCC). The IPCCwassetup as a scientificbodybythe UnitedNations(UN) in 1988 by twoUN organizations,the WorldMeteorological Organization(WMO) andthe UnitedNations EnvironmentProgramme (UNEP) withmembershipopentoall membersof those organizations. The IPCCcreatesreportsthat supportthe UnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimate Change’s (UNFCCC) charge of stabilizingGHGconcentrationstolevelsthatwouldpreventhumanchange tothe climate systemandcovers“scientific,technical,andsocio-economicinformationrelevanttothe understandingthe scientificbasisof riskof human-inducedclimate change,itspotential impactsand optionsforadaptationandmitigation”(IPCC,2013). The IPCC basesitsassessmentsonpublishedpeer- reviewedliterature andtodate has publishedfive AssessmentReports(AR11990, AR2 1995, AR3 2001, AR4 2007, AR5 2014). The latestassessmentreport,AR5focussesontransparencyinhow itgoesabout compilingitsresearch,attemptingtoanswercriticsregardingthe science of global climate change while outliningthe currentstate of research. AR5 was organizedinthe same mannerof previousassessmentswiththree WorkingGroupsand a Synthesisreport. EachWorkingGroup focusesondifferentaspectsof the climate change problem withthe Synthesisreporttyingthe informationtogether. WorkingGroup1 focusesonthe physical science regardingclimate change,statingthatthe climate iswarmingandconcentrationsof GHGs emittedbyhumansare the dominantcause of these emissionsandthe subsequentwarming. Working Group II dealswithimpacts,adaptations,andvulnerabilitiesregardingclimatechange withemphasison
- 6. 6 adoptingadaptationmeasurestoreduce the risksbylimitingthe rate andmagnitude of climate change. WorkingGroup IIIfocusesonmitigationstrategiesthatwouldloweremissionsaffectingclimatechange inthe hopeskeepingtemperaturesbelow thresholdsof 2* Celsiuswhere humanactivitywill be adverselyandexpensivelyaffectedsetbypreviousAssessmentReports (IPCCSummaryfor Policymakers,2013). A growingareaof focusof the IPCCisadaptationto climate change. Withmanyof the largest culpritsof GHG emissions(US,China,India,amongstothers) refusingorbeingunable tocommittothe substantial emissionreductionsneededtostemthe effectsof climate change,focusonmeasuresthat will help humansdeal withthe newclimate now are receivinganincrease of attention. Inresponse to thisthe UNEP has founded the Global Programme of ResearchonClimate Change Vulnerability,Impacts and Adaptation(PROVIA). “PROVIA isaglobal initiativewhichaimstoprovide directionandcoherence at the international levelforresearchonvulnerability,impactsandadaptation(VIA).Launchedwiththe supportof leadingscientistsanddecision-makers,PROVIA respondstothe urgent call bythe scientific communityfora more cohesive andcoordinatedapproach,andthe critical needtoharmonize,mobilize, and communicate the growingknowledge-baseonVIA. Tothisend,PROVIA will actasa new and growingnetworkof scientists,practitionersanddecision-makersworkingtowardsidentifyingresearch gaps andmeetingpolicyneedsinclimate change vulnerability, impactandadaptationresearch” (UNEP.org2014). Workingwithpolicyanddecision-makerstoenhance how nationsandstatesalter theirlanduse planninginitiativesandinfrastructuredecisionscanhelpallotpreciousresourcestoallow humansto betterdeal withthe changingclimate. Individual nationsare alsoactorsregardingglobal climate change. How individualnationsreact to the global change crisisoftenisdependentonthe financial concernsof the nations. Emission-centric nationssuchas the UnitedStates,China,India,andothershave founditpoliticallyinfeasible to implementhardandfast regulationsonGHG emissions. Othernationshave embracedthe factthat climate change isoccurringand have startedto change national policytotry to mitigate climate change and adaptto the newcircumstances. The UnitedStateshas longbeena large producerof GHG emissions. The political intereststhat desire acontinuationof the statusquoin the US include multi-national energycorporationssuchas Exxon/Mobile,automobile manufacturerssuchasFordand General Motors,and utilitycorporations. For a longtime,these corporationshave beenabletosell theirproductsandserviceswithoutthe costof the emissionsof theirproductsorservices generatingpollution beingincludedintotheircost,called
- 7. 7 externalities. These externalitiesincludeautomobileandenergyproductionemissions of CO2and other GHGs. While the Obamaadministrationdidmake acarbon tax (a tax levyof upwardsof $20 per metric ton of CO2 emittedintothe atmosphere)apriority,passage of saidlaw hasbeenhampered(andto date,beatdown) by the partisanpolitical landscape of the US. The lackof abilityof international leaders,suchasthe US, to implementstrongemissionreductionplanshassetbackthe mitigationof climate change globally. While the US has failedtopassa comprehensive climatechange bill,itdoesnotmeanthatthe federal governmenthasnotundertakenactiontoloweremissions. Aggressivelyadvocatingfor renewable energysuchassolarand windpowerthroughrebatesandsubsidies,implementingstronger air pollution standardsforcoal andotherfossil fuel burningenergyproductionfacilities,andapplying strongwordinginthe re-vampingof the National FloodInsurance Acttoinclude intheircalculationsthe future effectsof climate change are all measuresthathave beenadoptedandcarriedoutbythe Obama Administration. These are significantvictoriesinaddressingclimate change,butstrongpolitical opposition existsand,if the latestelectionsare aharbinger,maybe growing,regardlessof the available science. Individual statesalsoplayanofficialrole inclimate change policy. Some stateshave takena more progressive stance regardingclimate change andGHG emissionsthanothers. Whilemanystates inthe Southstill questionthe existence of climate change,statessuchasMassachusetts have passed comprehensive climate change legislationthatallows them,andotherstates, toflex itsenvironmental muscleswhere othersstate’smusclesatrophy. Passingacomprehensive climate change billisnotthe onlyavenue available forastate to addressclimate change andemissionsissues. Increasingproduction of renewableenergy,reducingthe carbonfootprintof the State throughthe purchase of alternative energyvehicles andothermeasures,andregulationof energyandtransportationfuel pricesthrough tariffsandtaxesall allowstatestodetermine if andhow theydeal withclimate change. Local municipalitiescanhave a similareffectasstates,shouldtheychoose to,justona smaller scale. Citiesand townscan implementplanningandbuildingregulationsthatdetermine where houses are built(whichcanbe affected inthe future bysea-levelrise) andthe energyefficiencyof newlybuilt homes(whichcanhave a drastic impactof reducingGHG emissionsinresidential energyuse). Municipal operationscanbe convertedtorenewable energyasa wayto lowercostsand provide anexample to residentslookingtoaidthe environmentandlowertheirbills.
- 8. 8 Unofficial actorsinthe global climate change policydebate range frominternational organizationstoindividualsthatparticipate inprotests. Mediaoutlets,nonprofitorganizations,public interestresearchgroupsandindividualsall take stands,proandcon, on bothsidesof the debate. For example,nonprofitsthatchampionforaddressingclimatechange include SierraClub,Natural Resource Defense Council,RainforestActionNetwork,andEnvironmental Defense Fund. NonprofitssuchasThe HeartlandInstitute andphilanthropistssuchasthe Koch Brothers(whohave fundedover$67 millionto groupsdenyingclimate change since 1997 (greenpeace.org,2014) stronglyrebuke climate change science andlookto keepthe statusquo,if not lax regulationfurther. While adetailedanalysisof all of the pertinentunofficialactorsinvolvedwithclimatechange isnotpossibleinthistreatment,muchof the powerassociatedwithunofficial actorscomesfromwealthof resources. Atthe moment,those who have a financial incentive tokeepthe statusquoalsoseemtohave the mostresources. Strong pushbackagainstclimate change policieshasbeenprovided bythose with deeppocketslookingto protect,oil,utility,andtransportationprofits(which,asstatedbefore,come whilenotincludingthe externalityof the pollutioncreatedinthe price). Until the costsassociatedwithclimate change hit consumersina clearerfashion,there maynotbe sufficientfinancial orsocial incentive toinduce change. Keylegislationandtreatylawregardingglobal climatechange canbe brokendownintothe political level thatitinfluences;International,national,state,andlocal. The primaryinternationaltreaty affectingthe environmentandthe onlyinternational climate policywithlegitimacydue toitsglobal membershipisthe UnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange (UNFCCC). The UNFCCC was createdat the 1992 UnitedNationsConference onEnvironmentandDevelopment inRiode Janeiro, Brazil,otherwise knownasthe Earth Summit. “The ultimate objective of thisConventionandany relatedlegal instrumentsthatthe Conference of the Partiesmayadoptistoachieve,inaccordance with the relevantprovisionsof the Convention,stabilizationof greenhousegasconcentrationsinthe atmosphere ata level thatwouldpreventdangerousanthropogenicinterference withthe climate system.Sucha level shouldbe achievedwithinatime-frame sufficienttoallow ecosystemstoadapt naturallytoclimate change,toensure thatfoodproductionisnot threatenedandtoenable economic developmenttoproceedina sustainable manner”(UNFCCC.int,1992). The treatycontainsno binding limitsonGHG emissions, ratheritprovidesa frameworkfornegotiatingtreatiescalledprotocolsthat thencan setbindinglimitsonemissions. Membernationshave metannuallysince 1995 to assessprogressregardingclimate change in meetingscalledthe Conference of Parties (COP). In1997, the Kyotoprotocol,wasadopted,setting
- 9. 9 legallybindingobligationsformember-nationstoreduce GHG emissions. Unfortunately,many emissionsheavy countries,includingthe US, China, andIndia, didnot ratifythe protocol andit expired in 2012. The 2010 Cancun agreementsfocuson cappingfuture temperaturesat 2.0* C above pre-industrial levels. This2*C thresholdisseenasimportantinmitigatingmanyof the mostdangerousforeseen outcomesof climate change. The twentiethConference of Parties,orCOP20,takesplace in December 2014 inLima, Peruand lookstofocuson the increase of awarenessregardingclimatechange science and adaptationmeasuresdesignedtoreduce the financial,social,andhealthriskto humansfrom climate change. The US, underthe Barak Obamaadministration,hasattemptedsweepingclimatechange legislationoverthe last5-7 years,withlittle success. The 111th Congress,spurredbyPresidentObama’s firsttermdesire thata comprehensiveclimateandenergybill be onthe topof hislegislative wishlist, saw the House of RepresentativespassHouse Resolution2454, the AmericanCleanEnergyandSecurity Act of 2009. The Senate wasunable topass itsownbill andup until now,there have notbeensufficient votesinthe Senate (afterthe mostrecentelection,sufficientvotesinthe House wouldbe lackingas well) toevenbringthe motiontoa vote. Withthe political viabilityof comprehensive legislationlacking, Congresshasscaledback the numberandbreadthof climate change legislation. In2011-2012, 113 climate specificbillswereintroducedintoCongress. Thisnumberisdownfrom263 in2009-2010, and 253 in2007-2008. Political interestinthe USregardingclimate change seemstobe waningand oppositiontoregulationattemptingtostemclimate change seemstobe growing. 48% of the bills introducedin2011-2012 wouldhave blockedorhinderedclimateactions. These rangedfromtaking emissionscontrol authorityawayfromthe EnvironmentalProtectionAgencytoremovingregulations fromthe CleanAirAct(c2es.org,2014). All of the billsfailed,butagrowingdissatisfactionwith regulationmayleadtoan increase of climate change science and policy applicationdissatisfaction amongpro-businessconstituents. Whetherstateshave takenanactive participatoryrole regardingclimate change usually dependsonthe political inclinationof the constituency. WashingtonState andMassachusetts (two notoriouslyliberal andgreenstates), forexample, have passedcomprehensive climatechange legislation,whilemuchof the nationisstill miredinthe argumentof whetherclimate change exists. The Massachusettslegislation,EnvironmentalBondBill (H4375) allots$2.2 Billionforenvironmental and energyinitiativesthroughoutthe state,including$62 millionforcleanenergyandenergyefficiency (mass.gov,2014) and isby far the largestenvironmental bondbill inthe state’shistory. Itaddresses
- 10. 10 issuessuchas renewableenergy, landuse planning,infrastructure investmentsandsea-level rise, amongstothers,through2018. Citiesandtownscan choose toimplementlesscomprehensiveclimatechange legislationbased on the inclinationof residents. Environmentallymotivatedconstituenciescanseektoreduce their carbon footprintbyimplementingrenewable energysolutionsintothe municipality,orothergreen activities. Oftenthese local initiativesare inconjunctionwithlocal nonprofitentitiesseekingtoreduce the effects climate change. The DartmouthSolarChallenge(partof the widerSouthCoastEnergy Challenge)offershome energyaudits(designedtohelpresidentsdecreasetheirenergyusage andbills), and solaroptionstoresidentswhose homesreceive enough sunlightthroughapartnershipwiththe Townof Dartmouthand the nonprofitSouthCoastEnergyChallenge. In myopinion,global climatechange fallsmostcommonlyintothe “elitist”approachasdefined inChapter4 of Peters,thoughthe “pluralist”approachcould alsobe applied. The “elitist”approach “assumesthatthere isa powerelite thatdominatespublicdecisionmakingandwhose interestsare servedinthe policymakingprocess”(Peters,2012 pg. 69). In the US, and in manycountriesabroad, environmental andenergypolicyisdominatedbythe lobbyingarmof these twoeconomicsectors. The US political systemposesnolimitsonthe amountof moneythatPolitical ActionCommittees (PACs),in the name of private corporations, candonate tothe re-electioneffortsof politicians. Thissystemhas ledto a systemof entrenchmentwhenitcomestoclimate change regulations(amongstothers). Electedpoliticiansoftenowetheirpositions inoffice tothe fundsfunneledtothembyPACs. Without these funds,politicianswouldnotbe able tosaturate voterswithpropagandasuchas television advertisements. Inturn,politicianswhoreceive these fundslistenmore intentlytothe desiresof these interestedpartiesandoftenhelpsetthe agendaof whattype of policyisgoingtobe addressed. Due to the profitwieldingpowerof large energyandindustrialentitiesinthe US(mostly multinationalcorporations) puttingclimate change regulationonthe decisionmakingagendahaslagged behindotherpolitical entitiessuchasthe EuropeanUnion. To the corporationsandthe politicians,the threatof lostrevenuesandprofitsposedbyclimate change regulationoutweighthe longtermeffectof climate change. Consideringthe currentstate of affairs,thisisnotsurprising. Energyandoil companies do notfactor in the emissionscausedbythe use of theirproducts,because currentlythose costsare not associatedwiththeiruse. Thistype of economicmarketfailuretoencompassall costsof consumptionis calledanexternality. Thismeansthatpart of the costof usingthe product(emissionsandthe costthey incurin the case of the energyindustry) are notincludedinthe price of the product. These costsare
- 11. 11 passedonto the populationasawhole,tobe dealtwithcommunally. Due tothe fact that these costs are notcurrentlyincludedinthe price of energyservices,energyproducingcompaniesfighttoothand nail to keepthe statusquo. If priceswere raisedtoreflectthe costsactuallyassociatedwithenergyuse, energycompanieswouldbe forcedtoraise prices. Raisingpriceswouldreduceconsumptionand decrease profitsdue tothe fact thatall of the burdenwouldnotbe able to be placedontothe consumer (Regardlessof whatenergycorporationswouldlike to believe,energycostsare notcompletelyinelastic. Consumerswill reacttochangesinprice,evenif notat the rate theydo to othergoods). Thisprospect has ledenergyandotheremission-intensiveindustriestofightanypolicythatwouldbringthis externalityintothe free-marketfold,asitwouldseriouslyaffecttheirprofits,futures,andwayof doing business Thistype of approachcouldbe counteredbya “pluralist”approach. The “pluralist”approach “statedbriefly…assumesthatpolicymakingingovernmentisdividedintoanumberof separate arenas and that the interestsandindividualswhohave powerinone arenadonotnecessarilyhave powersin others”(Peters2012. Pg. 68). Thistype of approach can come intoplay if the effectsof climate change start to have negative consequencesonthe population. As the effectsof projectedclimate change come tofruition,the USpopulationmaybe less inclinedtosupportthe economicsuccessesof corporations,deferringtotheirowneconomicutility instead. Whenfacedwithfloodinsurance billstwice the previousrate,skyrocketingelectricityand energyratesandfoodand watershortages,the populationasa whole willbe facedwitheconomic decisionsthataffectthemdirectlyratherthanindirectly. The profitsof large multinational corporations no longerwill be whatconstituentsmostconcernthemselveswith,supplantedbytheirownfinancial well-being. Whenthisoccurs,the “pluralist”approach,describedbyPeters, maycome tothe forefront. While itwill take time,once climate change comestodirectlyaffectconsumerbehavior,a “pluralist”approach coulddefine howfuture actionistaken. Interestswill nolongerbe definedby nebulousargumentsposedbycorporations,butbythe decisions individualsface ineverydaylife. Eliminatingeconomicexternalitieswillforce individualstomake decisionsonthe entiretyof theiruse (raisesinenergyandtransportationpriceswillcause decreasesinconsumption,solelybasedon economicanddisposable incomefactors). Corporate donationstopoliticianswill be lessof importwhen re-electionwill be more basedonhowthe politicianrespondstovoterconcernsoverenergyand transportationcosts,thancorporationslookingtocontinue theircurrentprofitstream. Until these factors can be broughtto the forefront,throughbroadbasedcarbontaxesor emissioncap-andtrade-
- 12. 12 regimes,there isseriousdoubtasto the efficacyof the “pluralist”approach. Whenthisscenarioof constituentshavingto deal withthe entiretyof theirenergyandtransportationuse occurs,itisnodoubt that individualswill vote withtheirpersonalsituationratherthanwiththe whimsandconcernsof profitable corporations. There are manyrecommendationsthatcouldaddressclimate change,butfew are politically feasible (atleastinthe US) rightnow. Institutingabroad-basedcarbontax or an effectivecap-and- trade-regime onGHGemissionsare seenasthe mosteffectivewayof mitigatingthe risksassociated withglobal climate change,butdue tothe reasonshighlightedabove,are notpoliticallyfeasible inthe US. Carbon taxesseektoput a price (usuallybetween$10-50 per metrictonof CO2 emitted) onCO2 emissions. Carbontaxesare seenasa Pigouviantax,ora tax that factors in negative externalities otherwise notincludedinthe marketprice fora productor service creatinga situationwhere the costof a product or service isbelowsocial cost,orprivate costplusexternalities. Pigouviantaxesbringcosts intoline withwhattrulyisoccurringwithinthe entiretyof the market. Cap-and-traderegimesonGHGs consistof marketbasedincentivesthatlooktocontrol emissionsbycappingemissionsatacertain thresholdandonlyallowsincreasesof emissions byentitiespurchasingthemonthe openmarket. Corporationscurrentlyholdtoomuchpowertohave these measuresenactedorevenputonthe agendafor consideration. Otherthan forcingcorporationstoacknowledge the negativeexternalitiesassociatedwiththeir productsor services,there are recommendationsthatcouldprovide promiseinreducingGHG emissions. One suchoptionisreducingresidential energyconsumption(REC). LoweringRECisseenas one of the mostcost effectiveandtimelywaysof reducingGHGemissions. Currently,RECaccountsfor up to 35% of energyuse inindustrializedcountriesand21% of GHG emissions(Abrahamse,2005). This energyuse isdependentonthe energyefficiencyof applianceswithinahouseholdandthe behaviorsof householdmembers. Thisconsumptionpatternprovidesatwo-prongedavenue forreducingenergy consumptionandtherefore GHGemissionsrelatedtocreatingsaidenergy. Implementingregulationsor incentivesforusingenergyefficientappliancessuchashot waterheaters,furnaces,andrefrigerators can be seentohave a large impact onREC, due to the factthat measurestoinstall energyefficient appliancesare seentohave a longerlastingeffectonREC thancurtailmentmeasures(measures designedtochange RECbehaviors). Mandatingorofferingincentivesforthe installationof energy efficientappliancescanhelpreduce GHGemissionswithouthavingtochange anyend-userconsumption rates(an attractive optionconsideringthe large variance amonghouseholdsrelatingtoREC).
- 13. 13 AffectingbehaviorsinRECisalsoseenas a timelyandcost-effective measure. Behaviorsof end usersdo differwildly. Since there issuchhigh variabilityinREC,bringingREC ratesdown,especiallyin comparisontolike end-users, seemsaviable optionforreducingRECwithoutthe needfortax andcap measures. This variability canbe attributedtothe lack of clearand concise feedbackmechanisms affordedend-users. Mosthouseholdshave onlyanelectrical orgas metertogauge theirREC. Since these metersonlyprovideinformationonthe total energyused,notwhenandwhatappliancesusedthe energy,householdsare notprovidedthe informationneededtoreduce REC. Withouta mechanismto define whenandhowenergyisused,there isdis-connectbetweenuse andthe costof use. Thisdis- connectinhibitshouseholdsfromimplementingappliance andbehavioral changesthatwouldhelp reduce energyconsumptionandthe ensuing energy bills. While anoption,changestoRECcan alsobe seenasdifficultdue to entrenchedbehaviorthatwill be difficulttounseat Withcarbon taxes,cap-and-price regimes,andseeminglychangesinRECbeingtoopolitically and socially unfeasible,strategiesregardingadaptationshouldandwill now take centerstage. Adaptationmeasuresinclude thoseactionsthatseektoreduce the riskof the effectsof climate change on the humanpopulation. Inotherwords,we cannotcurrentlystopemissionsleadingtoclimate change,so effortstodecrease the risktohumansfromclimate change shouldbe considered. Adaptationstoclimate change are as varied asthe effectsof climate change. Alteringlanduse planningregulations totake intoaccountclimate change isa viable consideration. Fortoo long,(atleast inthe US) individualshave beengiventhe right,bystatesormunicipalities,tobuildhousesinareas prone to natural disasterssuchas flooding,andlandslides. Thisallowshomeownerstopopulate areas that are notsafe and to receive federal insurance forthe possiblelossestheymightincurbecause of theirself-madedecisions. The costof these lossesare transferredtothe tax-payingpublic(flood insurance inthe US has beena publicventure since privateinsurancecompanies nolongersaw profitin the coverage,onlyloss inthe 1940’s). Re-aligninglanduse policieswiththe impendingclimate change will reduce costsoverthe long-termandalleviate the needforcostly(financiallyandsocially) eminent domainlitigation(wherethe state “takes”apropertyinthe bestinterestof the public). Thiscanbe seen as solvingaclimate change problembefore itposesanissue,bothfinanciallyandsocially. Itmay be financiallyunfeasible forgovernmentstopurchase currentat-riskproperties throughthe processof eminentdomain. Thisisdue to the highvalue placedoncoastal propertiesmostatriskfrom seachange and the political toxicityof tellingvoterstheyhave toleave theirhomes. Changinglanduse planning
- 14. 14 regulationsfornewconstructionwill notalleviatethe risksposedtoexistingatriskhomes,butwill eliminatethe issue overtime asat-riskhomessuccumbtothe risingtide. The policyrecommendationthatIconsiderthe bestwouldbe tofocus onimprovementsto efficiency andinfrastructure. Efficiencymeasurescanbe comprisedof technological improvementsand behavioral curtailmentefforts. Behavioral curtailmenteffortsare notoriouslydifficulttoimplement overa large scale. When all componentsof motivationalign,affectinga behavioral seachange is possible,butcreatingthatscenariobydesignhasprovenaverydifficulttask. Focusingontechnological efficiencyallowsreductionsof emissionsandfuel use throughthe longterm. Raisingthe average MPG of automobilesispossible throughanumberof measures. Makingenginesmore fuelefficient, incorporatinghybridtechnologysuchaselectricpower,andincorporating otherrenewable sourcesof fuel toaugmentgasoline use are justa few optionsforaddressingone of the largestculpritsof GHG emissions. Thiswill notbe aneasypolitical pill toswallow,butoffering consumersthe same driving experience while usinglessfuel andgeneratingfeweremissionswill enable reductionstobe met withoutthe oneroustaskof tryingto change humanbehaviors. Increasingwaterconservationmeasures inagriculture andmunicipalitiesare waysinwhichwaterscarcityeventscanbe alleviatedbefore they come to fruition. There isa culture of disposabilityandwaste pervasiveinthe UnitesStates. There are a multitude of efficiencymeasuresthatcanbe adoptedinthe fieldsof energy,transportation,water resourcesandagriculture. Havingthe publicadoptanefficiencymindsetwouldaidthiseffortgreatly. Increasingthe capacityand faulttolerance of publicinfrastructure isthe secondhalf of my preferredpolicyrecommendation. There is goingtobe higherdemandforelectricitydue toextreme heatand coldevents. Increasedpopulationisgoingtoincrease demandfortransportation, transportationfuels,water,andalmosteveryotherresource usedbyman. Ensuringthatthe infrastructure thathelpstransportandmanage those resourcescanhandle the largerloadwill stave off scarcity eventsthatcan have seriouseffectsonhumanhealth,wealth,well-beingandsecurity. Takinga page from the Boy Scoutsof America…Be Prepared. The changingclimate will alsocreate more dangerousweathereventssuchasfloods,high winds,lightning,andotherstormrelatedstresses(EPA.gov) thatcouldinhibitthe provisionof needed services. Preparingroadways,electrical facilities,sewersandwatertreatmentplants,andfuel storage facilitiestobe able towithstandmore dangerousweatherevents shouldbecomeapriority. Redundant computerandpowersupplysystemsthatincrease the faulttolerance of vital humanservicescan
- 15. 15 eliminateinterruptions of service that,asstatedabove,canhave adverse effectsonsociety. These fortificationswillrequirecapital inputbutthe investmentwillpayforitself inthe longrun. Global climate change isgoingto be one of the mostpressingissuesfacingthe humanrace over the next100 years. If consumptionandemissionrates continue togrow at currentlevels,the human experience will be alteredformuchof the global population. Effectsonhumanhealth,security,and overall well-beingwill be pervasive. Acknowledgingthe science,implementingmitigationstrategies, and adaptingtothe comingchangesare all actionsthat needto be taken. Unfortunately,manyofficial and unofficial actorsare recalcitranttoaccept the science andaddressthe issuesheadon. Separating corporate self-interestfromthe publicinterestisnecessarytomove societyawayfromthe statusquo and start changingthe contextinwhichthese decisionsare made.
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