The document summarizes the mouth, esophagus, and swallowing. It discusses the salivary glands and their secretions. The major salivary glands are the parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands, each secreting different mixtures of serous and mucous fluids. It also describes the structure and functions of the esophagus, including the upper and lower esophageal sphincters. Finally, it outlines the three phases of swallowing - oral, pharyngeal, and esophageal - and the neural control involving both the cerebral cortex and brainstem.
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Study of the structure/form of the human body. Study location of organs, reasons for location, and shape. Anatomy is the science which deals with the description of the structure of cells, tissues, organs and organisms.
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
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The Indian Dental Academy is the Leader in continuing dental education , training dentists in all aspects of dentistry and
offering a wide range of dental certified courses in different formats.for more details please visit
www.indiandentalacademy.com
Study of the structure/form of the human body. Study location of organs, reasons for location, and shape. Anatomy is the science which deals with the description of the structure of cells, tissues, organs and organisms.
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
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2. Salivary Secretions
• The different salivary glands have varying proportions of
two types of secretory cells, serous cells and mucous cells
• Serous cells produce a watery fluid with a digestive
enzyme called salivary amylase
• Mucous cells secrete mucous
• Parotid glands
• Secrete clear watery, serous fluid
• Rich in salivary amylase
• Submandibular glands
• Secrete primarily serous fluid and some mucus
• Sublingual glands
• Secrete primarily mucus
4. Saliva Compositon
Water (99.5%) Solid (0.5%)
Organic Inorganic
Ptyalin
Mucin
Lysozyme
IgA
Lactoferrin
Na+
K+
Ca+
Cl-
HCO3
Mg
• Main function of Salivary
Gland-secretion of saliva
• Daily secretion -800 to
1500 ml
• pH : 6-7
6. Under neural control
Mainly by parasympathetic signals from
Sup & Inf salivatory nuclei
Control of Salivary Secretion
Sup Salivatory Nu
Inf Salivatroy Nu
Facial N
Otic Ganglion
Chorda tympani N
Submandibular G
Parotid Gland
7. Control of salivary secretion:
- Mainly nervous regulation, through 2 reflexes:
[I] Conditioned reflexes:
- Acquired reflexes.
- Developed by learning & training.
- Need an intact cerebral cortex.
Mechanism of conditioned reflexes:
(A) Stimulus:
- Seeing, smelling or hearing, or even thinking of food.
8. (B) Reflex arc (pathway):
1- Receptors in the eye, nose & ear.
2- Afferent cranial nerves (optic, olfactory & auditory).
3- Center cerebral cortex salivary nuclei (MO).
4- Efferent
a) Parasympathetic nerves to salivary gland.
b) Sympathetic nerves to salivary gland.
5- Effector organs salivary glands.
(C) Response salivary secretion:
a) Parasympathetic large amount, watery & rich in electrolytes.
b) Sympathetic small amount, viscid & rich in enzymes.
9. [II] Unconditioned (simple) reflexes:
- Inborn reflex.
- Does not depend on training.
(A) Stimulus:
- Presence of food in the mouth
(B) Reflex arc (pathway):
1- Receptors:Taste buds present on the tongue
2- Afferent:
- Chorda tympani “facial nerve” (VII)
- Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX).
3- Center: Salivary nuclei in the medulla oblongata.
4- Efferent:
a- Parasympathetic nerves to salivary gland.
b- Sympathetic nerves to salivary gland.
5- Effector: Salivary glands.
(B) Response: Salivary secretion.
a) Parasympathetic large amount, watery & rich in electrolytes.
b) Sympathetic small amount, viscid & rich in enzymes.
10.
11. Muscles of mastication
Primary muscles of mastication:
Masseter
Temporalis
Lateral pterygoid
Medial pterygoid
Secondary muscles of mastication:
The suprahyoid group of muscles being used as secondary or
supplementary muscles. They are:
Digastric
Mylohyoid
Geniohyoid
12. Food ingestion: stimulated by hunger & Appetite.
Mastication
swallowing.
Mastication(chewing):
By incisors & molar teeth controlled by:
Chewing reflex: stimulated by bolus presence in the mouth causing
reflex inhibition of mastication muscles , lower jaw drops & initiating
a stretch reflex of jaw mastication muscles leading to their rebound
contraction & repeating again the same series of events until the
bolus in fully masticated for easy swallowing.
13. Importance of chewing:
1.Exposing the total surface area of foods specially the raw vegetables
to GIT secretions & enzymes.
2.Prevents excoriation of GIT mucosal surfaces.
3.Increasing the easiness of food emptying from stomach to the
s.intestine.
14. Pharynx Function
Passageway for air and
food
Epiglottis is fold of tissue
that determines the
pathway
Food movement continues
to esophagus via
peristalsis.
15. Structure of the Pharynx
• The pharynx can be divided into the following parts:
• Nasopharynx
• Oropharynx
• Laryngopharynx
Superior
Middle
Inferior
Tongue
Epiglottis
Trachea
Nasopharynx
with mucosa
removed to
show muscles
Pharyngeal
constrictor
muscles:
(a) The tongue forces food into the pharynx.
Food
mass
Hard
palate
16. The Esophagus
A hollow collapsible tube
Length- 10 inches
The upper third contains skeletal
muscles
The middle third contains mixed
skeletal and smooth muscles
The lower third contains smooth
muscles and the esophago-
gastric/ cardiac sphincter is found
here
Functions to carry or propel foods
from the oropharynx to the
stomach
17. Physiology of esophagus
Upper esophageal sphincter (UES)
Lower esophageal sphincter (LES)
High-pressure zone (HPZ)
UES
3 cm long zone of increased pressure at upper end of esophagus
Relaxes with swallowing – normally remains closed (prevents
swallowing of air with inspiration)
Contracts thereafter Contraction of UES in sequence with
pharynx above and esophagus below
Essentially same as criopharyngeus muscle
18. LES (functional sphincter)
3-5 cm zone of increased pressure at lower end of esophagus
Relaxes with swallowing
Contracts thereafter in sequence with transmitted pressure increases –
prevents reflux
Sphincter tone provided by intrinsic myogenic activity
Sphincter relaxation due to neural activity
HPZ
Classically believed to be equivalent to LES
Now felt to be determined by esophageal environment (Not entirely
a result of active motor tone of LES; HPZ results primarily from
exposure of segment of distal esophagus to intraabdominal positive
pressure)
20. Introduction
Swallowing involves co-ordinated activity of muscles of oral
cavity, pharynx, larynx and esophagus
The whole process is partly under voluntary control & partly
reflexive in nature
Swallowing by definition involves passage of bolus of food
(solid / liquid) from the oral cavity to stomach via the
pharynx and esophagus, passing over the entrance to
laryngeal vestibule.
Voluntary control of Swallowing involves control of jaw,
tongue, degree of constriction and length of pharynx and
closure of laryngeal inlet.
20
22. Components of deglutition
Deglution has 3 components
Passage of bolus from oral cavity to stomach
Protection of airway
Inhibition of air entry into the stomach
22
23. Deglutition - phases
Three stages have been traditionally described for the sake of convenience. They
help in the better understanding of the physiological process involved.
Oral
Pharyngeal
Esophageal
23
24. Oral phase
(I) The first or buccal phase:
- It is voluntary & consists of
passage of food from mouth to
pharynx. When food is masticated
& mixed with saliva, it collects in
the form of bolus on the dorsum
of the tongue. The tongue then
elevates by contraction of
mylohyoid muscle forcing the
bolus into the pharynx.
24
25. Pharyngeal phase (Pumping action of tongue &
hypopharyngeal suction)
(II) The second or pharyngeal phase:
- It is involuntary & consists of passage of
food through pharynx.
- It begins when food touches the tonsillar &
pharyngeal region.
- Protective reflexes which prevent food from
entering the respiratory passages. These are:
25
a- Reflex elevation of the larynx to be covered by epiglottis & root of the tongue. So, opening of
larynx is closed & food cannot enter the trachea.
b- Reflex inhibition of respiration (apnea). The swallowing center in medulla inhibits the
respiratory center.
c- Reflex elevation of soft palate which becomes in contact with posterior pharyngeal wall & shuts
the posterior nasal openings from the pharynx. So, food cannot enter the nose.
26. Role of epiglottis in the pharyngeal phase
The movement of epiglottis occurs
in two stages
The epiglottis moves from vertical –
horizontal position
The upper third of epiglottis moves
below the horizontal to a slightly
lower level to cover the narrowed
laryngeal inlet
26
27. Esophageal stage
(III) The third or esophageal phase:
- It is involuntary & consists of passage
of food down the esophagus to the
stomach.
- Immediately after semisolid food
enters the upper esophagus, a
peristaltic wave starts & propels food
down the esophagus to the stomach.
- This phase is helped by mucin & gravity
in erect position.
27
28. Neural control of swallowing
Two areas of brain are involved
Cerebral cortex
Brain stem
28
Neural control of swallowing involves a number of different regions of the
CNS, extending from the motor nuclei within the brainstem, up to the
cortex. The act of swallowing is regulated by sensory feedback.
The initiation of swallowing can either be as a voluntary act, or a reflex as
the result of stimulation of the mucosa in the oral cavity. The latter may
occur during saliva accumulation or by presence of food or liquid.
Due to anatomical & physiological close relationship between swallowing,
ventilation & mastication, there is extensive overlap in the brainstem
areas controlling these functions.
