Fungi like Aspergillus play important roles in ecosystems by breaking down organic material. Aspergillus can also cause disease as a pathogen. While some species like A. fumigatus cause infections, others like A. oryzae are used industrially to produce enzymes and food products. Genome sequencing of Aspergillus will help understand what makes it pathogenic versus harmless, aiding drug development to treat fungal infections.
the presentation is about economic importance of fungi ( foe and enemy ). The fungal pathogens are the biggest threat to the agricultural and horticultural crops।
the presentation is about economic importance of fungi ( foe and enemy ). The fungal pathogens are the biggest threat to the agricultural and horticultural crops।
Others important fungi are included in this group
Histoplasma capsulatum
Blastomyces dermatitidis
Paracoccidioides barasiliensis
Coccidioides immitis
Cryptococcus neoformans
Normal flora is the term used to describe the various bacteria and fungi that are permanent residents of certain
body sites, especially the skin, oropharynx, colon, and
vagina (Tables 6–1 and 6–2). Viruses and parasites (protozoa
and helminths), which are the other major groups of
microorganisms, are usually not considered members of
the normal flora, although they can be present in asymptomatic individuals. The normal flora organisms are often
referred to as commensals. Commensals are organisms
that derive benefit from another host but do not damage
that host. The term human microbiome is often used to
describe the normal flora.
The members of the normal flora play a role both in the
maintenance of health and in the causation of disease in
three significant ways:
(1) They can cause disease, especially in immunocompromised and debilitated individuals. Although these
organisms are nonpathogens in their usual anatomic location, they can be pathogens in other parts of the body.
(2) They constitute a protective host defense mechanism.
The nonpathogenic resident bacteria occupy attachment
sites on the skin and mucosa that can interfere with colonization by pathogenic bacteria. The ability of members of the
normal flora to limit the growth of pathogens is called colonization resistance. If the normal flora is suppressed, pathogens may grow and cause disease. For example, antibiotics
can reduce the normal colonic flora that allows Clostridium
difficile, which is resistant to the antibiotics, to overgrow and
cause pseudomembranous colitis.
(3) They may serve a nutritional function. The intestinal bacteria produce several B vitamins and vitamin K.
Poorly nourished people who are treated with oral antibiotics can have vitamin deficiencies as a result of the reduction in the normal flora. However, since germ-free animals
are well-nourished, the normal flora is not essential for
proper nutrition.
THE HUMAN MICROBIOME
The human microbiome is the term used to describe the
thousands of microbes (“microbiota”) located on the skin,
on mucosal surfaces, and within the lumen of the
TABLE 6–2 Medically Important Members of the Normal Flora
Location Important Organisms1 Less Important Organisms2
Skin Staphylococcus epidermidis Staphylococcus aureus, Corynebacterium (diphtheroids), various streptococci,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, anaerobes (e.g., Propionibacterium), yeasts (e.g.,
Candida albicans)
Nose S. aureus3 S. epidermidis, Corynebacterium (diphtheroids), various streptococci
Mouth Viridans streptococci Various streptococci, Eikenella corrodens
Dental plaque Streptococcus mutans Prevotella intermedia, Porphyromonas gingivalis
Gingival crevices Various anaerobes (e.g.,
Bacteroides, Fusobacterium,
streptococci, Actinomyces)
Throat Viridans streptococci Various streptococci (including Streptococcus pyogenes and Streptococcus
pneumoniae), Neisseria species, Haemophilus influenzae, S. epidermidis
Colon Bacteroides fragilis, Escherichia
Nematodes are invertebrate roundworms that inhabit marine, freshwater, and terrestrial environments. They comprise the phylum Nematoda (or Nemata) which includes parasites of plants and of animals, including humans, as well as species that feed on bacteria, fungi, algae, and on other nematodes. Four out of every five multicellular animals on the planet are nematodes (Platt, 1994). Cobb (1914) calculated that if the nematodes resident in a single acre of soil near San Antonio, Texas, USA, were to proceed in head-to-tail procession to Washington D.C., some 2000 miles away, the first nematode would reach Washington before the rear of the procession left San Antonio!
Ghost Worms in the Sky
Lyrics: Kathy Merrifield
Vocals: Pointless Sisters
The majority of nematodes are microscopic, averaging less than a millimeter in length, but some of the animal parasites are quite large and readily visible to the naked eye. The animal and plant parasites are of direct importance in agriculture, the environment, and in human health; however, most nematodes in the environment are not parasites. Nematodes that feed on other organisms are important participants in the cycling of minerals and nutrients in the ecosystem that is fundamental to other biological activity. Some of these nematodes may have major roles in decomposition, including biodegradation of toxic compounds. In fact, the incidence of certain nematode species is sometimes used as an indicator of environmental quality. Insect-parasitic nematodes can be of importance in regulating insect populations, and are being used in the biological control of insect pests.
The developmental biology of one nematode species, Caenorhabditis elegans, is better characterized than that of any other multicellular organism. C. elegans is studied as a model system in molecular and developmental biology, and is providing insights into many other areas of biology and medicine.
Mycology is the branch of biology concerned with the study of fungi, including their genetic and biochemical properties, their taxonomy and their use to humans as a source for tinder, traditional medicine, food, and entheogens, as well as their dangers, such as toxicity or infection.
Others important fungi are included in this group
Histoplasma capsulatum
Blastomyces dermatitidis
Paracoccidioides barasiliensis
Coccidioides immitis
Cryptococcus neoformans
Normal flora is the term used to describe the various bacteria and fungi that are permanent residents of certain
body sites, especially the skin, oropharynx, colon, and
vagina (Tables 6–1 and 6–2). Viruses and parasites (protozoa
and helminths), which are the other major groups of
microorganisms, are usually not considered members of
the normal flora, although they can be present in asymptomatic individuals. The normal flora organisms are often
referred to as commensals. Commensals are organisms
that derive benefit from another host but do not damage
that host. The term human microbiome is often used to
describe the normal flora.
The members of the normal flora play a role both in the
maintenance of health and in the causation of disease in
three significant ways:
(1) They can cause disease, especially in immunocompromised and debilitated individuals. Although these
organisms are nonpathogens in their usual anatomic location, they can be pathogens in other parts of the body.
(2) They constitute a protective host defense mechanism.
The nonpathogenic resident bacteria occupy attachment
sites on the skin and mucosa that can interfere with colonization by pathogenic bacteria. The ability of members of the
normal flora to limit the growth of pathogens is called colonization resistance. If the normal flora is suppressed, pathogens may grow and cause disease. For example, antibiotics
can reduce the normal colonic flora that allows Clostridium
difficile, which is resistant to the antibiotics, to overgrow and
cause pseudomembranous colitis.
(3) They may serve a nutritional function. The intestinal bacteria produce several B vitamins and vitamin K.
Poorly nourished people who are treated with oral antibiotics can have vitamin deficiencies as a result of the reduction in the normal flora. However, since germ-free animals
are well-nourished, the normal flora is not essential for
proper nutrition.
THE HUMAN MICROBIOME
The human microbiome is the term used to describe the
thousands of microbes (“microbiota”) located on the skin,
on mucosal surfaces, and within the lumen of the
TABLE 6–2 Medically Important Members of the Normal Flora
Location Important Organisms1 Less Important Organisms2
Skin Staphylococcus epidermidis Staphylococcus aureus, Corynebacterium (diphtheroids), various streptococci,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, anaerobes (e.g., Propionibacterium), yeasts (e.g.,
Candida albicans)
Nose S. aureus3 S. epidermidis, Corynebacterium (diphtheroids), various streptococci
Mouth Viridans streptococci Various streptococci, Eikenella corrodens
Dental plaque Streptococcus mutans Prevotella intermedia, Porphyromonas gingivalis
Gingival crevices Various anaerobes (e.g.,
Bacteroides, Fusobacterium,
streptococci, Actinomyces)
Throat Viridans streptococci Various streptococci (including Streptococcus pyogenes and Streptococcus
pneumoniae), Neisseria species, Haemophilus influenzae, S. epidermidis
Colon Bacteroides fragilis, Escherichia
Nematodes are invertebrate roundworms that inhabit marine, freshwater, and terrestrial environments. They comprise the phylum Nematoda (or Nemata) which includes parasites of plants and of animals, including humans, as well as species that feed on bacteria, fungi, algae, and on other nematodes. Four out of every five multicellular animals on the planet are nematodes (Platt, 1994). Cobb (1914) calculated that if the nematodes resident in a single acre of soil near San Antonio, Texas, USA, were to proceed in head-to-tail procession to Washington D.C., some 2000 miles away, the first nematode would reach Washington before the rear of the procession left San Antonio!
Ghost Worms in the Sky
Lyrics: Kathy Merrifield
Vocals: Pointless Sisters
The majority of nematodes are microscopic, averaging less than a millimeter in length, but some of the animal parasites are quite large and readily visible to the naked eye. The animal and plant parasites are of direct importance in agriculture, the environment, and in human health; however, most nematodes in the environment are not parasites. Nematodes that feed on other organisms are important participants in the cycling of minerals and nutrients in the ecosystem that is fundamental to other biological activity. Some of these nematodes may have major roles in decomposition, including biodegradation of toxic compounds. In fact, the incidence of certain nematode species is sometimes used as an indicator of environmental quality. Insect-parasitic nematodes can be of importance in regulating insect populations, and are being used in the biological control of insect pests.
The developmental biology of one nematode species, Caenorhabditis elegans, is better characterized than that of any other multicellular organism. C. elegans is studied as a model system in molecular and developmental biology, and is providing insights into many other areas of biology and medicine.
Mycology is the branch of biology concerned with the study of fungi, including their genetic and biochemical properties, their taxonomy and their use to humans as a source for tinder, traditional medicine, food, and entheogens, as well as their dangers, such as toxicity or infection.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
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Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
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2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
The Indian economy is classified into different sectors to simplify the analysis and understanding of economic activities. For Class 10, it's essential to grasp the sectors of the Indian economy, understand their characteristics, and recognize their importance. This guide will provide detailed notes on the Sectors of the Indian Economy Class 10, using specific long-tail keywords to enhance comprehension.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Students, digital devices and success - Andreas Schleicher - 27 May 2024..pptxEduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents at the OECD webinar ‘Digital devices in schools: detrimental distraction or secret to success?’ on 27 May 2024. The presentation was based on findings from PISA 2022 results and the webinar helped launch the PISA in Focus ‘Managing screen time: How to protect and equip students against distraction’ https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/managing-screen-time_7c225af4-en and the OECD Education Policy Perspective ‘Students, digital devices and success’ can be found here - https://oe.cd/il/5yV
Cambridge International AS A Level Biology Coursebook - EBook (MaryFosbery J...
Fungi Introduction.ppt
1. What are fungi?
• Fungi belong to their own special ‘kingdom’ as they differ from
both plants and animals. Fungi are eukaryotic cells.
• The fungal kingdom is largely hidden from our view
underground and we usually only see the "fruit" of a fungus.
Fungi can exist as single cells or chains of cells together.
The living body of a fungus is called a mycelium and is made
up of a branching network of filaments known as hyphae.
• Fungal mycelia are usually hidden in a food source like wood
and we only know they are there when they develop
mushrooms or other fruiting bodies. Some fungi only produce
microscopic fruiting bodies and we never notice them.
Fungal hyphae growing -
contain chains of cells.
2. Interesting fungi:
• One of the largest living organisms in the world is a specimen
of the fungus Armillaria ostoyae which covers 1,500 acres in
Washington State, USA and seems to be 400-1,000 years old.
• The only evidence of the fungus are clumps of golden
mushrooms that pop up in autumn when it rains. Largely this
fungus is seen underground and forms huge rhizomorphs
(root like structure).
3. How do fungi live?
• Fungi feed by absorbing nutrients from the organic material
that they live in.
• They digest their food before they absorb it by secreting acids
and hydrolytic enzymes.
• Different fungi have evolved to live on various types of organic
matter, some live on plants eg.Phytopthora infestans - the
potato blight fungus, as seen here;
Some live on animals eg.the athlete's
foot fungus and some live on insects
eg.Cordyceps australis.
4. Helpful fungi:
• Most of us use fungi every day without knowing it. We eat
mushrooms and Quorn (a vegetarian fungal protein), but we
also prepare many other foods using fungi.
• The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is used to ferment
sugar to alcohol and carbon dioxide – the process used to
make beer and wine and also to make bread rise.
• The fungi Aspergillus oryzae and Aspergillus sojae are used
in the production of the oriental foods soy sauce and miso.
We also use fungi to produce flavourings, vitamins and
enzymes and to mature many cheeses.
• Fungi play an essential role in both the Nitrogen and Carbon
cycle by breaking down dead organic material.
5. Helpful fungi:
• We get some important drugs from fungi such as the antibiotic
penicillin and cyclosporin A - a drug that stops organ rejection
after transplantation.
• Research scientists use several fungi to investigate basic
functions that occur in all cells because they are simple and
easy to grow; some cancer research is done using fungi.
• Fungi are responsible for breaking down dead organic matter
which allows nutrients to be cycled through the ecosystem.
6. Importance of fungi:
• Without fungi we would not have bread, beer, wine or
antibiotics, but more importantly without the nutrient recycling
and plant nutrition provided by fungi - we probably could not
survive at all.
• In humans, fungi cause skin infections such as ringworm and
athlete's foot, but they also cause several deadly diseases
which can be hard to treat. Fungi that can cause life-
threatening infections in people include Aspergillus fumigatus,
Candida albicans and Cryptococcus neoformans – they are
called pathogens.
Ringworm infection on leg
7. Importance of fungi?
Most patients with deadly fungal diseases do not have a fully
functional immune system. They may have leukaemia or AIDS
or they may be taking drugs to suppress their immune system
because of organ transplantation.
Although there are drugs to treat fungal infections these drugs
can have some nasty side-effects because they are often
toxic to people as well as to fungi. There is a desperate need
for new and better anti-fungal agents.
Aspergillus fumigatus
spore forming head (Electron micrograph)
8. What is Aspergillus?
• It is a genus of around 200 fungi (moulds) found worldwide.
• Fungi are identified in the lab by their structure and
appearance. They may appear as round single cells
like yeast, or made of chains of cells called hyphae.
• Aspergillus is a filamentous fungus as opposed
to yeast which is single celled.
• Fungi reproduce by forming tiny spores which can easily be
airborne.
Conidial head or fruiting body of
Aspergillus - producing spores
Yeast
Aspergillus
hyphae
9. When was aspergillus first identified?
• In 1729 Aspergillus was first catalogued by an Italian biologist -
P Micheli.
• The first known case of infection was in a jackdaw in 1815 and
in a human in 1842.
• In the 19th century it was an occupational hazard amongst wig
combers when it caused allergic disease of the lungs.
10. Why is Aspergillus important?
The following slides focus on Aspergillus because this fungus
illustrates a spectrum of positive and negative aspects of fungi
with respect to the environment and disease.
• Some Aspergillus species cause serious disease in humans
and animals – it is pathogenic.
• Some Aspergillus species produce enzymes which have
important industrial applications.
• Aspergillus can produce mycotoxins – these are often found in
contaminated foodstuff and are hazardous to the consumer.
11. Where is Aspergillus found?
• Its natural habitat is in hay and compost.
• Aspergillus spores are easily airborne and we normally breathe
in 100-200 spores daily.
• Some species withstand heat eg; Aspergillus fumigatus
(pathogenic type) these are commonly found in compost.
12. The life cycle of Aspergillus
Spores inhaled Germination
Mass of hyphae
(plateau phase)
Hyphal elongation
and branching
13. Sources of Infection?
Aspergillus species are found in :
– Soil
– Air; spores may be inhaled
– Water / storage tanks in hospitals etc
– Food
– Compost and decaying vegetation
– Fire proofing materials
– Bedding, pillows
– Ventilation and air conditioning systems
– Computer fans
Aspergillus spores
14. Which species of Aspergillus are pathogens?
• The most common causing invasive disease are Aspergillus
fumigatus and Aspergillus flavus.
• The most common causing allergic disease are Aspergillus
fumigatus and Aspergillus clavatus.
EM of Aspergillus clavatus
15. Aspergillus as a pathogen in man-
Aspergillosis is a group of diseases caused by Aspergillus.
The symptoms – fever, a cough, chest pain or breathlessness
occur in many other illnesses so diagnosis can be hard.
Usually only patients with already weakened immune systems
or who suffer other lung conditions are susceptible.
• In man the major forms of disease are:
1. Allergic aspergillosis (affects asthma, cystic fibrosis and
sinusitis patients).
2. Acute invasive aspergillosis (risk increases if patient has
weakened immunity such as some cancer patients and those
on chemotherapy).
3. Disseminated invasive aspergillosis (widespread through
body).
Aspergillus
keratitis (eye)
16. An example of invasive aspergillosis
Aspergillus bone and soft tissue infection in a patient with the inherited
condition chronic granulomatous disease (CGD).
17. Relative risk of Aspergillus infection
Patients whose immune system is already weakened are most susceptible.
Those most at risk include some cancer and leukaemia patients, those
on chemotherapy and transplant patients.
Immune malfunction
Frequency
of
aspergillosis
Immune hyper-reactivity
Frequency
of
aspergillosis
Acute invasive
aspergillosis
Aspergilloma
Allergic aspergillosis
Allergic sinusitis
Normal
immune
function
18. Aspergillus as a pathogen
in animals
• All domestic mammals, birds and numerous
wild species can get aspergillosis.
• Birds such as penguins and falcons when
stressed by malnutrition or capture are
particularly susceptible to aspergillosis.
• Spores of Aspergillus fumigatus cause lung
infections – leading to death.
• Aspergillus fumigatus spores are often present on the surface
of eggs after laying. The spores may penetrate the shell
pores and contaminate newly hatched chicks.
19. Aspergillus species secrete a number of enzymes
with important industrial uses –
• Genetically modified A. oryzae is used for the large scale
production of lipases used in biological washing powders.
• A.niger is used in the commercial production of citric acid,
which is widely used in the food industry.
• Fermentation of genetically modified
A.oryzae is the major source of recombinant
chymogen which is used to curdle milk to make hard cheeses.
20. Aspergillus Mycotoxins
• Mycotoxins are chemical products of fungi that have the
capacity to damage animal health and contaminate crops.
• Repeated aflatoxin ingestion in man has been linked to liver
cancer.
• Mycotoxins (aflatoxins) produced by Aspergillus parasiticus
and A. flavus are commonly found to contaminate corn,
peanuts, and other crops used for animal feedstuff. High
temperature and humidity increase chances of contamination.
• Turkey ‘X’ syndrome - in 1960, 100,000 turkeys died in the
South of England, from liver damage after consumption of
peanuts contaminated with A. flavus.
21. Why sequence the Aspergillus genome?
• Aspergillus contains about 10,000 genes compared to the
possible 33,000 genes or more found in humans – how
many of these genes are shared with humans?
• 50% of the fungal genes identified so far are completely
new to science, implying they are unique to fungi.
• So far genetic analysis shows fungi may contain many
unique coding sequences – do these encode unique genes
which may be useful to mankind?
• Can we identify fungal genes which also function or
malfunction in man? Yes - Aspergillus nidulans has been a
successful genetic model for the identification of genes
responsible for alkaptonuria – a metabolic disorder.
22. Comparison of the size of different genomes
Species Approx. Size Type
Human 3,300x106 Mammal
Aspergillus
fumigatus
30x106 Multi-cellular
Mycobacterium
tuberculosis
4x106 Single cellular
(complex)
Mycoplasma
pneumoniae
400,000 Smallest
independent life
form
Haemophilus
influenzae
1.2x106 Single cellular
Malaria 30x106 Single and
multi-cellular
forms
Worm 100 x 106 Multi-cellular
23. How will the sequence of Aspergillus be useful?
• Genome sequencing of a harmful pathogen allows us to
compare DNA sequences with other Aspergillus species
which are not pathogenic.
• That information will enable an understanding of why
Aspergillus fumigatus can cause infection resulting in allergic
or invasive disease.
• New drug targets will emerge for use in medicine and
agriculture.
• New diagnostic tools will be developed - early detection of
infection is critical for a better outcome for the patient.
24. Aspergillus is a remarkable member of the fungal kingdom,
with a wide diversity of uses and effects on mankind.
• In the environment it plays a role in both the Carbon and Nitrogen
cycles and in the breakdown of organic material into compost.
• It is a pathogen and allergen in humans and animals.
• Aspergillus nidulans has played a crucial role as a genetic model
including identifying the genes responsible for alkaptonuria.
• The biotechnology industry has harnessed it’s potentially useful
enzymes for the food industry and commercial uses.
The future understanding of these fungal genomes will hopefully
pave the way for understanding the role of aspergillus species as
pathogens and to enable the development of effective and perhaps
less toxic medicines for the treatment of aspergillosis.