Fungal Contamination

Fungal Contamination
Fungal contamination of food usually occurs accidentally, but it could occur purposefully as an act
of bioterror or biological warfare. The potent acute toxicity and chemical stability of mycotoxins
aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), and T–2 toxin make them apt to be weaponized for bioterrorism [3]. Cereals
represent one of the most important dietary items around the world. Cereals are very susceptible to
fungal attacks while in the field and during storage [4]. T–2 toxin is a member of the fungal
metabolites known as trichothecene mycotoxin. The major attribute of T–2 toxin is that it inhibit
protein synthesis which is followed by a secondary disruption of DNA and RNA synthesis. T–2
toxin affects the actively dividing cells such as those lining the gastrointestinal
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Essay on Clinical Practice Have Been Revolutionised by PCR
Summary: Two decades after its discovery PCR have completely changed clinical practice. PCR is a
gold standard method for detecting and identifying pathogen. By observing viral load it allows to
predict disease progression and therefore design a better treatment. It is allowing non invasive
prenatal diagnosis of many genetic defects. There are few limitations however at the rate PCR is
advancing, no doubt in future whole clinical practice will be dependent on PCR.
Background: Polymerase Chain reaction (PCR) is an in vitro process that enables exponential
amplification of the define target DNA sequence. The process involves three steps: denaturation,
annealing and elongation. In the first step, the reaction mixture containing target ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
This includes prenatal diagnosis of gene mutations, diagnostic detection of target DNA sequence,
genome scanning for mutation and forensic matching of scanty cellular DNA with individual
suspect. But one of its greatest contributions has been in clinical practice. The purpose of the essay
is to discuss how PCR have revolutionised clinical practice.
Method: PubMed Central (The U.S. National Institution of Health) has been used predominantly as
a source of primary literature. Some secondary literature has been used for definitions and to
advance the understanding the methods of PCR. Search engine also have been used throughout the
essay for other journal and websites.
Discussion: Prenatal diagnosis of sickle cell anaemia is one of the applications of PCR with high
sensitivity and specificity. Before the advancement of PCR, it used to take several weeks to perform
hybridization with a probe by using southern blot but now this is done within 24 hours.(3) PCR also
can be employed for the prenatal diagnosis of β–thalassemia , phenylketouria, haemophilia and
cystic fibrosis.
The existence of foetal DNA in maternal plasma was first discovered in 1997 which provided the
opportunity to develop a non–invasive method to detect foetal genetic abnormality. It have been
demonstrated that using real time PCR foetal DNA can be detected

Essay On Fish Food
According from (Edwards et al, 1985) 8 feeding method were figured utilizing possibly composted
alternately dried water hyacinth, Eichornia crassipes joined under a routine pelleted tilapia bolster in
an straightforward relocation procedure: 100. 75, 50 Furthermore 25% composted water hyacinth:
100, 75 what's more 25% dried water hyacinth; and a control diet for 0% uprooting of the routine
encourage. The test eating methodologies were nourished done copy medicines to Oreochromis
niloticus to an arrangement for 16 open air 4–m3 tanks supplied with eight fish/tank for 84 days.
Handy development Also encourage usage efficiencies were acquired for eating methodologies
holding dependent upon 75% composted water hyacinth with no noteworthy ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
A 3 weeks feed trial was made to assess the evident edibility Coefficients (ADCs) from claiming dry
matter, protein, terrible energy, nitrogen, rough lipid Also fiber from claiming Water hyacinth (WH),
Echhornia crassipes supper consolidated Previously, pelleted test encourages (0, 10, 15, 20 Also
25%, dry matter basis) for red tilapia fingerlings. (E.A.T. Mubarak et al, 2011) Eichhornia crassipes
is an obtrusive weed referred to with out–compete local plants and negatively influence microbes
including phytophthora infestans. The spread Also populace thickness about e. Crassipes will a
chance to be favoring by worldwide warming. That point here might have been to distinguish
exacerbates that underlie those impacts with respect to microbes. Those whole plant from claiming
e. Crassipes might have been gathered from el Zomor canal, waterway nile (Egypt), washed clean,
after that air dried. Plant tissue might have been concentrated three times for methanol also
fractionated toward dainty layer chromatography (TLC). Those rough methanolic extricate Also five
portions starting with tlc (A–E) were tried for antimicrobial (bacteria Furthermore fungal)
Furthermore anti–algal exercises (green microalgae and cyanobacteria) utilizing paper circle
dissemination bioassay. Those rough extricate and in addition every one five tlc portions exhibited
antibacterial exercises against both the Gram certain bacteria; bacillus subtilis Also streptococcus
faecalis;

Assignment : Aflatoxin Metabolism And Cancer
Name: Malvi Prakash Golwala (U53409030)
Assignment: Aflatoxin Metabolism to Carcinogen
Date: November 11, 2016
Aflatoxins are mycotoxins produced by molds and can cause liver damage and cancer. They are
closely related to difuronocoumarin compounds. Mostly they are produced by strains like
Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. There are at least 14 known aflatoxins in nature:
Aflatoxin B1 (AFB) and B2: Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, Aflatoxin G1 and G2:
Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, Aflatoxin M1 (metabolite of Aflatoxin B1) in humans
and animals, Aflatoxin M2 (metabolite of Aflatoxin B2) in cattle, Aflatoxicol, Aflatoxin Q1
(metabolite of Aflatoxin B1) in liver preparations of other higher vertebrates. Aflatoxins have been
associated with many disorders in humans like hepatotoxicity, kwashiorkor, Reye's syndrome, liver
cancer. Aflatoxicosis is linked to ascites, portal hypertension, jaundice, etc. signs for hepatic failure
(1). AFB binds to cytosine and guanine and forms adducts, forms RNA–protein adducts that can
potentially harm DNA and protein synthesis (2). Cafestol and kahweol, coffee specific diterpenes
and organosulfur compounds from garlic have been proven to provide protection against the harmful
effects of aflatoxin (3, 4). Aflaguard, a non–toxigenic strain of the mold has been produced which
competes with the wild strain in corn farms in Africa and efficiently inhibits it (8). Aflasafe, heat
killed sorgum grains coated

Genetically Modified Foods Essay
Genetically Modified Foods
With an ever–growing population and the problems of world hunger, there has been a high demand
for an increased food supply and a better food supply. Technology has been called upon to meet this
challenge. The advent of genetically engineered foods, sometimes called transgenic crops or
genetically modified foods, is not a new concept, but the controversy over it is. Can these
"frankenfoods" be harmful to humans? What are their effects on the environment? The following
paper will focus on such questions as well as providing a better understanding of what genetically
modified foods are and how they should be regulated.
What are genetically modified foods?
Although traditional plant breeding has been ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The coding region of the gene is usually fused to a promoter, most commonly used is the 35S
promoter from cauliflower mosaic virus (CMV), in order to promote higher expression levels.
(Snow et. al, 1997) The popular method for genetic engineering of crop plants is natural gene
transfer via an Agrobacterium tumefaciens vector, a bacterium normally found in soils. The
transfer–DNA (T–DNA) vector is made by inserting the desired gene fragment in between specific
25bp repeat domains in the bacterium. The vector is then inserted into the Agrobacterium and "the
virulence gene products of Agrobacterium actively recognize, excise, transport, and integrate the T–
DNA region into the host plant genomes." (Conner et. al, 1999) The amount of DNA transferred is
only about 10kb and the nature of the gene is usually well understood. The expression of the gene
introduced can also be controlled by adding additional sequences that might allow the gene to be
constitutively expressed, expressed only in certain cell types, or expressed as a result of different
environmental changes. This method of gene transfer, however, will only work for the natural host
range of the bacterium and therefore other methods are used for additional crop plants. Such
methods are uptake of naked DNA by electroporation or particle gun bombardment. The use of
genetic markers, as mentioned previously, allows for the preferential growth of cultures that contain
the new genetic

Assay of Oil-Degrading Potential of Fungi Isolates on...
ASSAY OF OIL–DEGRADING POTENTIAL OF FUNGI ISOLATES ON DIESEL, KEROSENE
AND PETROL USING ENRICHMENT METHOD. BOBOYE B., *OLUKUNLE O. F., ADETUYI
F. C. AND ADEBIYI G. AABSTRACT A study was carried out to assay for oil–degrading potential
of fungi isolates on diesel, kerosene and petrol. Water samples were collected aseptically and
analyzed microbiologically using standard techniques. The fungi isolated from the water samples
were: Trichoderma viridae, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus fumigatus and Stochyborys atra. The
confirmatory test for oil utilization potential of the isolated fungi was carried out using the
enrichment method, minimal salt broth (MSB). There were variations in the growth patterns of each
of the fungal species ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is found to improve on nature 's own way of degrading oil. Bioremediation is an option that offers
the possibility to destroy or render harmless various contaminants using natural biological activity.
As such, it uses relatively low–cost, low–technology techniques, which generally have a high public
acceptance and can often be carried out on site Keeler, 2003). However, the time scales involved are
relatively long, and the residual contaminant levels achievable may not always be appropriate.
Bioremediation has been used at a number of sites worldwide, including United States and Europe,
with varying degrees of success. Techniques are improving as greater knowledge and experience are
gained, and there is no doubt that bioremediation has great potential for dealing with certain types of
site contamination (Keeler, 2003). For bioremediation to be effective, microorganisms must
enzymatically attack the pollutants and convert them to harmless products. Bioremediation can be
effective only where environmental conditions permit microbial growth and activity, its application
often involves the manipulation of environmental parameters to allow microbial growth and
degradation to proceed at a faster rate. Like other technologies, bioremediation has its limitations.
Some contaminants, such as chlorinated organic or high aromatic hydrocarbons, are resistant to
microbial

Disadvantages Of Terminalia Arjuna
Terminalia arjuna is also known as Arjuna belongs to the family Combretaceace. Arjuna is a
deciduous tropical woody tree found throughout India especially in the sub Himalayan tracts and
Eastern India. It is known to be one of the most versatile medicinal plants having a wide spectrum of
biological activity. Now days Terminalia arjuna is used for disorders of the heart and blood vessels
(cardiovascular disease), including heart disease, congestive heart failure and related chest pain,
angina, cardiomyopathy, high blood pressure, blocked coronary arteries, hypercholesterolemia,
Hyper lipidemia and edema. It is also used as "a water pill," and for earaches, dysentery, sexually
transmitted diseases (STDs), diseases of the urinary tract, and to increase sexual desire, asthma, bile
duct disorders, scorpion stings, Liver tonic, Urinary tract toner, Cardio modulator and poisonings.
Arjuna is also found to be having antibacterial and antimutagenic property. Arjuna is also known to
relieve symptomatic complaints of essential hypertension viz. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
arjuna is anti–dysentric, antipyretic, astringent, cardiotonic, lithotriptic and tonic wheras its bark
power possesses diuretic in cirrhosis of liver, prostaglandin enhancing and coronary risk factor
modulating properties (Chatterjee,

The Ability Of Pleurotus Citrinopleatus And Aspergillus...
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The ability of Pleurotus citrinopleatus and Aspergillus niger exposed to two doses of gamma
irradiation (1 and 2 KGy) and immobilized on wheat straw to decolorize the dyes had been studied.
Table 2 shows peaks of wavelengths of different types of dyes before and after decolorization. Peaks
of reactive red 6 BX, direct brown BN, direct yellow 5 G, disperse orange 2RLS, disperse violet
3RS, sulpher black Br and sulpher brown SG were at 295, 240, 400, 444, 499, 220 and 250nm were
disappeared respectively after decolorization with tested fungi.
Table 2: Wave lengths (λ) of different tested dyes
Dyes
λ max (nm)
Bofore decolorization
After decolorization
Reactive red 6 BX
295, 545
545
Direct Brown BN
390, 240
390
Direct Yellow 5G
400, 250
250
Disperse Orange 2 RLS
444, 288
288
Disperse Violet 3 RS
499, 281
281
Sulpher Black Br
220, 290
290
Sulpher Brown SG
278, 250
278
Awan et al., (2011) reported that Aspergillus niger is a potent producer of many industrially
important enzymes and may genetically be improved by exposure to gamma rays. The mutants

recovered after treatment by gamma rays were found to be effective producers of enzymes (Awan et
al., 2011). Mutagenesis of Aspergillus niger by using chemicals has been reported earlier to improve
many industrially important enzymes and other products. The cells of Aspergillus niger were
subjected to mutagenesis by ultraviolet irradiation, resulting in 45.4% activity of cellulase (Junwei
and Shuyun, 1988). Non

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Heterocyclic Moietie
Many naturally occurring medicines containing heterocyclic moieties in their basic structure such as
antibiotics like cephalosporin (4), penicillin (5), morphine (6) as analgesic, alkaloids like caffeine
(7), nicotine (8) and quinine (9) as anti–malarial drug. On the other hand, novel heterocyclic
compounds have been synthesized by synthetic chemist due to their excellent pharmacological
activities. These heterocyclic molecules are biological active as antifungal [11], antidepressant [12–
13] anticonvulsant [14–15], anti–inflammatory [16], antibacterial [17], antitumor [18] and more
(Figure–2). Figure–2: Biological active heterocyclic molecules
Heterocyclic compounds heaving other important commercial or industrial applications such as
fungicides, optical ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In complex (33) benzimidazolylmethyl–1,3–diaminepropane act as hexadentate ligand and make
complex with Cu (II) ion. This complex (33) possesses antitumor activity and has ability to add into
the double helix of the DNA [85]. Another complex (34) of Cu (II) ion with 2–
pyridinylbenzimidazole–5–carboxalic acid was studied for topoisomerase II inhibitory activity and
found very active [86]. Some benzimidazole complexes (35, 36) with Pt (II) ion were showed
excellent activity against human breast cancer cell line (MCF–7) and HeLa cervix cancer cell line
[87–88]

Mold Grow Lab Report
What Effect does Different Conditions and Environments have on Mold Growth?
"Molds, like most fungi, break down plant and animal matter in the environment. They can grow
almost anywhere there is moisture and organic material such as in soil, on foods and plants, and in
people's homes" (Department of Health). The purpose of this experiment is to determine what
conditions and environments mold grow best in; therefore, it will help in indicating which
environments food should be best stored in, using different samples (strawberry, bread, and cheese)
each going through different conditions and environments. The results will be determined by
calculating the area of mold grown in each sample. In this experiment the IV is the different
conditions ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Make a note of the size or scaled size of each square"(Had2Know). Prior studies and research have
been also done in this field, one research was testing mold growth based on different temperatures,
stating that "For instance, A. flavus and Aspergillus niger are able to grow between 8 and 45 °C,
with an optimum near 30°C (97). These molds are involved in spoilage of shelf–stable food,
especially in hot weather." (Dagnas and Membré). Another journal, tested the application of radio–
frequency energy in conjunction with conventional hot air treatment to provide uniform heating for
control of mold in pre–packaged bread loaf, stating that "Radio frequency (RF) heating has been
studied as a means to control mold growth and extend shelf life of finished bakery products
(Cathcart et al., 1947; Bartholomew et al., 1948; Zhao et al., 1999; Piyasena et al., 2003; Tang et al.,
2005)" (Liu, Tang and Mao). Also, another research said that "In high moisture products (a^sub w^
0.94–0.99), almost all bacteria, yeasts, and molds are capable of growth" (Smith, Daifas and El–
Khoury). In conclusion, I hope that this study will help me develop a better understanding of how
mold growth is affected when it comes to different conditions and environments; therefore, we could
indicate which environments food

Avian Aspergillosis
Avian Aspergillosis
The subfamily Aspergillus has a wide range of fungi which can cause Avian Aspergillosis.
Aspergillus Fumigatus is the most commonly diagnosed species of the fungus, others include flavus
and niger. Aspergillus Fumigatus tends to thrive in moist and warm environments. Endotoxins are
released through the dispersal of microscopic spores, which usually become airborne. This enables
the disease to travel from one location to another and then proceed to grow, which creates areas that
are more highly populated compared to others. In small minorities the fungus is less likely to have
adverse consequences. Some factors concerning the environment that can increase the chances of a
bird inhaling spores are poor ventilation and sanitation, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Acute Avian Aspergillus can create a loss of appetite and can cause severe difficulty when breathing.
This can be seen by the bird showing signs of accelerated breathing, gasping and voice changes. An
infected bird might also have abnormal excretion, a strong thirst with excessive urination or show
signs of emaciation and central nervous system damage. This severe damage will be evident in an
obvious lack of muscular coordination and mobility; the bird might also hold its head at an unnatural
angles. Central nervous system damage will only occur if the fungal infection reaches the brain. The
most common signs of Avian Aspergillosis are drooped wings and rapid opening and closing of the
bird's bill. The fungus usually affects the respiratory region including the trachea, lungs and syrinx;
the infection can however spread to the kidneys, brain, skin, and muscles. Since Aspergillus can be
fatal, a lot of birds are diagnosed post–mortem. The signs from an autopsy can include brain tissue
death or meningoencephalitis; white nodules can also be evident. These small growths are evidently
what cause erosion through the tissue, enabling a vast amount of conidia to enter the

Production of Citric Acid (A. Niger)
Part B
Small Scale Literature Review
Running Head: Factors Affecting Citric Acid Production by Aspergillus niger
Factors Affecting Citric Acid Production by Aspergillus niger
Ong Chia Swing, Student.
Nilai University
1. Introduction
Citric acid is a natural preservative or conservative that is used to add an acidic, sour taste to foods
and beverages. In the context of biochemistry, the conjugate base of citric acid which is the citrate
plays an important role as an intermediate in the citric acid cycle which occurs in the metabolism of
all aerobic organisms. Due to its importance to most organisms, more than a million tonnes are
produced every year via fermentation. It is used mainly as an acidifier, flavouring and as a chelating
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
2.2 Effects of Sucrose Concentration during Citric Acid Accumulation by A. niger
Next, a research paper by Aysegul and Christian (2001), a study where it focused on the effects of
sucrose concentration during citric acid accumulation by Aspergillus niger. It was hypothesised that
different levels of sucrose concentration can determine the regulation of the citric acid production
rate. Due to its regulation, the metabolism took place at several levels including the control of gene
expression, translational control, control of enzyme activity and control through the spatial
distribution of enzymes (Panneman et al., 1996; Kubicek et al., 1977 & 1978; Wolschek et al.,
1996; Visser et al., 1992). Therefore, a number of the enzymes involved in hexose utilisation are
regulated as well by inhibitors, activators and protein phosphorylation or dephosphorylation. It is
believed that the citric accumulation is known to be stimulated by high sugar concentration
suggesting it may be influenced by osmotic stress. The main goal of this research paper was to
investigate the phosphorylated proteins produced during the osmotic stress conditions due to high
sucrose concentrations as the possible role of protein phosphorylation due to osmotic stress has not
been investigated in Aspergillus niger ATCC 11414 under citric acid production conditions in the

past. Basically, an increase in citric acid accumulation with increasing concentrations of sugar is not
surprising as it may simply

The Importance Of Staying Healthy And Preventative Measures
Staying healthy is a point of importance for many. In order to stay healthy, preventative measures
such as screenings and check–ups are scheduled. While these preventative measures can be taken,
the underlying cause for symptoms brought to light by medical professionals may be unknown.
Rather than causes being housed in the body, they can be sourced in the environment. The model
example of this medical phenomenon is mold. Growing in homes exposed to water, mold can stay
hidden behind walls, flooring, or ceilings silently affecting the inhabitants. Mold toxicity can be
brought on by numerous sources causing life–threatening health implications if not properly treated.
Mold is not simply comprised of spores, but it offers a myriad of toxic components. Visenuo Aiko
and Alka Mehta of the School of Biosciences and Technology at VIT University in Vellore, India,
describe mycotoxins as "low molecular weight molecules produced as secondary metabolites by
saprophytic fungi" (2). Mycotoxins cause a vast array of health implications. Janette Hope, author of
"Mechanism," describes the symptoms experienced from mold exposure include but are not limited
to afflictions to neurocognitive abilities, immune system, respiratory system, and nervous system
(1). The many categories of mycotoxins are specific mold types and carry correlating symptoms. For
example, aflatoxins, the most common classification of mycotoxins, are the primary cause of liver
and kidney cancer especially in poor

Ka Case Study
Screening of different species of Aspergillus genera to obtain high level KA producer was
previously reported by El–Kady et al.8 among which A. flavus, A. phoenicis, and A. wentii were
found to produce 5 g/L of KA in submerged fermentation. In another study, Hazzaa et al.2 described
about the KA biosynthesis ability of Aspergillus strains including A. oryzae var. effusus NRC14
(42.0 g/L), A. flavus NRC13 (41.0 g/L), A. tamarii NRC18 (22.0 g/L), and A. parasiticus (17.7 g/L).
Improvement the KA production ability of A. terreus by random mutagenesis using UV light
irradiation (for 5, 10, 20, and 40 min) was also performed in this study to obtain a potent mutant
which produce KA higher than its wild strain. The amount of KA produced by C4–5, ... Show more
Glucose, as a monosaccharide, was used as a carbon source for biomass built–up and it was also
used as a suitable precursor for KA biosynthesis by Aspergillus strains.3,25 Kitada et al.26 reported
that all supplied glucose at concentration of 25 g/L and 50 g/L was consumed for biomass built–up
by A. oryzae. However, the highest KA production by A. oryzae (24.2 g/L) was obtained in the
presence of 100 g/L of glucose in the culture media.26
Analysis of variance of the obtained results in the case of yeast extract (X2) showed that this factor
was also significantly affected the KA production by C5–10 mutant (p< 0.05) (Table 3). Organic
nitrogen sources are generally better than inorganic nitrogen supplements for KA fermentation due
to the presence of buffering system, vitamins, and oligoelements.7,27 Beside the peptone and
polypeptone, yeast extract has been reported to be a favorable organic nitrogen source for KA
production.1,16 However, Kwak and Rhee28 reported a high production yield for KA (83 g/L) by A.
oryzae using a mixture of yeast extract and (NH4)2SO4 as nitrogen sources.
For KH2PO4 (X3) the measured p–value was less than 0.05 (Table 3), so, this factor was also
considerably affected the KA production by C5–10 mutant. Rapid KA production was previously
observed in the culture broth containing phosphate ranging from 0.55 mM to 13.72 mM.3,29 On the
other hand, Coupland and Niehaus30 reported that production of KA by A. flavus was not
influenced by

Mold Research Paper
Review of Literature
Introduction– History of Mold
Mold grows everywhere. It can grow on walls, floors, ceilings, and foods. Some molds can be as
dangerous as stachybotrys, or black mold, which is the most dangerous mold to human health. And
some are not as dangerous as stachybotrys, but are they still can affect your health. I'll be
experimenting on how fast mold can grow on bread, cheese, and strawberries in different
environments.
What is stachybotrys? Stachybotrys is a greenish–black mold that can grow on things with a high
cellulose content. It can grow on drywall sheetrock, dropped, ceiling tiles, and wood that became
moist or water–damaged caused by water leaks, condensation, or flooding. Also stachybotrys is an
uncommon mold that

Pathogens Of Aspergillus: What Is Otomycosis?
Otomycosis is defined as a fungal infestation of the external ear canal. It is a common complaint in
an otolaryngologist's clinic. Patients with otomycosis usually complain of pruritus, otalgia,
decreased hearing & otorrhea with otoscopic findings of small, well–defined areas of granulation
tissues with thick fibrinous deposits on the external auditory canal or on the tympanic membrane
(1). Lack of cerumen, increased air saturation, heat environment, water sports activity and frequent
trauma to the ear canal are contributing factors in development of otomycosis. Cerumen is acidic in
nature with a pH of 4 to 5 which does not promote growth of bacteria and fungi. Frequent water
exposure of the external ear canal leads to elimination of cerumen and drying of the ear canal (4).
Aspergillus niger and Candida albicans are the two most frequent pathogens of otomycosis (5). ...
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They can inhabit a wide variety of substrates hence, they are widely distributed, and are found in an
extensive array of habitats (6). The genus Aspergillus is the most common cause of otomycosis
which comprises approximately 75% of the cases, with Aspergillus niger being the most common
species and less common are the Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus fumigates

Turkey X Disease
The outbreak of Turkey X disease in England in 1960 and later outbreaks of a similar disease in
ducklings in Kenya and Uganda resulted in extensive research, which indicated that the common
factor in all the disease outbreaks was the presence of toxic Brazilian groundnut meal in animal feed
(13) During an examination of a sample of this toxic meal it was found that up to 20% of the pieces
of groundnut–cotyledon tissue contained fungal hyphae which were absent in a sample of nontoxic
meal (5). Attempts to culture them showed that hyphae were dead. Sargeant et al (89) however,
succeeded in producing pure cultures of certain fungal species present in a highly toxic sample of
groundnuts from Uganda. One of the fungi isolated contained a factor, which was toxic to ducklings
and produced the characteristic symptoms associated with Turkey X disease. The toxin–producing
fungus was identified as Aspergillus flavus (89) and the toxin was named "aflatoxin".
The Aspergillus flavus group (83) includes A. flavus and A. parasiticus, which are the primary and
possibly the only source of aflatoxins, and A. oryzae and A. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Aspergillus flavus is the most common species associated with aflatoxin contamination of
agricultural crops (30, 31). A. flavus is found in temperate and tropical regions in soil and, in
agricultural areas, most commonly, on maize, cotton, tree, and ground nuts (88) and less frequently
on rice (24). A. flavus populations are highly diverse and their stability in the soil and on the plant is
not well understood. An atoxigenic relative of A. flavus, A. oryzae, is widely used in soybean and
rice fermentation (20). It is now increasingly clear that A. oryzae is not a separate species but
actually is only one of many examples of atoxigenic variants of A. flavus (46;

A Summary On The And Of The Roots
In the roots, (E)–β–farnesene, monoterpenoid ester geranyl valerate and a sesquiterpene, α–
isocomene were also identified as major constituent. Secondary Products Bioactivec Compounds
Molecular Formula Activities Bisabolol C15H26O Azulene C10H8 Sesquiterpenes Chamzulene
C14H16 Antiinlamatory , Antimicrobial , Farnesene C15H24 Antimutagenic, Anixolytic. Terpenoids
Monoterpenes Tans– anethole C10H12O

King Tutankhamun: The Mummy's Curse
King Tutankhamun has become world famous as a symbol of ancient Egypt, but his existence was
only speculative until the early 20th century. The tomb of King Tutankhamun was unearthed in
1922, by Howard Carter. Several years later, a man named Lord Carvaveron arranged for a group of
archaeologists to gather in Egypt for the massive project that was the unearthing of the tomb and
removing the key materials inside. Within ten years of the dig, six people died including Lord
Carnaveron. Carnaveron died only seven weeks after the expedition. A few others died quite soon
after the expedition, and one man died of blood poisoning. These deaths made it seem as if there
was a curse put on the tomb, to prevent tomb raiders from disturbing the eternal soul of the great
Egyptian phamroah, King Tutankhamun.
The myth of the "mummy's curse" has since persisted in the public consciousness since then. There
are many theories for the existence of the "curse." The first is that the curse actually exists as a
supernatural phenomenon integral to ancient Egyptian culture. Handwerk (n.d.) states that curses
were inscribed on Egyptian tombs as a "primitive security system." The curse would cause whoever
disturbed the tombs to die, thereby protecting the remains of the ancient pharoahs. Some tombs in
ancient Egypt were inscribed with curses in hieroglyphics that were meant to terrify those who
would "desecrate or rob the royal resting place," (Handwerk, n.d.). The inscriptions read things like,

Annotated Bibliography For Research Paper
Name: Cheryl Chan Course: SBI 4U Period: 1 Date: 4/10/2015 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Source 1: CSE citation of source: D.N.A Tagoe, H.D. Nyarko, R. Akpaka. A Comparison of the
Antifungal Properties of Onion (Allium cepa), Ginger (Zingiber officinale) and Garlic (Allium
sativum) against Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger and Cladosporium herbarum. Science Alert
[Internet]. 2011[cited 2015 Oct 04]; Research Journal of Medicinal Plant 5(3): 281–287. Available
from: http://scialert.net/fulltext/?doi=rjmp.2011.281.287&org=10 Summarize the article in 6 – 8
point form notes. Your summary should reflect your understanding of the entire article. ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The plates were covered by parafilm and nurtured at 25°C for a week. The perpendicular diameters
of the inhibition zones were measured. And the mean values were calculated. When the diameter of
the inhibition zone was larger than 9.5mm, 0.5 mm larger than the diameter of the paper disc, then
the agent was identified as having antifungal activity. Data analysis concluded that tea tree oil was
the most effective in inhibiting the growth of fungi followed by Cavicide® and Virkon®. And
Vinegar can only inhibit the growth of P. chrysogenum, while 70% ethanol had no effect in
inhibiting the growth of fungus. This test confirmed the ability of antifungal agents in inhibiting the
growth of fungus, which may applied to the treatment of fungal contamination in indoor air. How
does this article relate to your topic or influence the design of your experiment? Be specific as to
how the methods, results and conclusion from the scientific paper guide you in your lab's design,
hypothesis and procedure. Based on the knowledge you gleaned from the scientific paper: o What
questions do you still have? o What will you test in your experiment that is an extension of the
scientific

Pulmonary Infections
II) Pulmonary infections:
1–Bacterial infection:
The bacterial infection in lung usually starts with the introduction of organisms into the airways.
The routes by which bacteria can reach air spaces are inhalation of an aerosol, aspiration of
respiratory or gastrointestinal secretions, or bacteraemic spread. The common bacilli include
Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, anaerobic bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus,
enteric gram–negative bacilli, Pseudomonas spp., Acinetobacter spp., Mycobacterium tuberculosis
and Legionelia spp.(32,33)
1.1–Tuberculosis (TB):
TB can involve various organs but the most common organ involved is lung. Primary pulmonary TB
usually affects the lower lobes of lung or the anterior segment of an upper lobe. ... Show more
The fungus is ubiquitous and is especially abundant in avium, particularly pigeon excreta. Although
the disease occurs in apparently healthy individuals, it is more often seen as an opportunistic
infection especially in patients with haematologic malignancies, AIDS or patients with defective
cellular immunity. The pulmonary lesions include diffuse miliary lesions or patchy consolidation of
mucoid nature.(32,36)
3.3– Candidiasis:
Candidiasis comprises of superficial, mucocutaneous, or systemic fungal infection caused by yeast
like fungi of the genus Candida. Candida albicans is the most common type. Pulmonary
involvement can be a)endobronchial/ primary pulmonary candidiasis acquired by aspiration of
Candida spp. from oral cavity or upper respiratory tract, b)hematogenous pulmonary candidiasis and
c)embolic pulmonary candidiasis in children with indwelling venous catheters.
4–Bacterial infections that resemble fungal infections:
4.1.Nocardiosis:
Nocardiosis is a localized or disseminated infection caused by aerobic, filamentous, branching
gram–positive bacteria. It is an uncommon infection in immunocompetent hosts. Pulmonary lesions
may be large cavitating abscesses or diffuse fibrino–suppurative

Antifungal Activity Of Essential Oils
Antifungal activity of essential oils against respiratory tract pathogens causing Aspergillosis
Abstract:
Invasive Aspergillosis is often found in severely immuno–suppressed patients, and is characterized
by invasion of blood vessels which can result into dissemination to other organs. Aspergilloma is a
fungal ball that develops in previous cavitary lung lesions. Essential oils and their volatile
constituents have been used as antifungal. Inhalation of vapours of the essential oils kill invaders
attached to the inner respiratory lining and work synergistically with the body defences. In this
study, Five essential oils were used against aspergillus fumingatus using cut plug method and the
essential oil showes inhibitory activity against A. flumingatus the most effective oils against
A.fumigatus were found to be of Cinnamomum verum (Cinnamon), Lavandula angustifoli
(Lavendre), Foeniculum vulgare (Fennel), Zingiber officinale (Ginger) and Cinnamomum
camphora(Camphor) with inhibition zones ranging between 11 to 31 mm Treating the organism with
cinammom essential oil led to an external changes, irregular cell shape and disintegration of fungus
cell wall under transmission electron microscope Analysis by GCMS showed at leas 8 components,
esters were the most abundant group of compounds.
The genus Aspergillus includes over 180 species which are ubiquitous and are especially common in
soil and decaying vegetation. Around 20 species of the genus Aspergillus have been

King Tut 's Curse, Real Or Fiction?
King Tut's Curse, Real or Fiction?
Ancient Egypt was my favorite topic in social studies. As far back as I could remember. I have
always been interested, especially since Egypt is a neighboring country to Libya, my second home.
The world is still fascinated, and intrigued by its mysteries. Who build the pyramids? How were
they built by? One of the most asked questions were. Who was King Tut? Was there really a curse?
King Tutankhamen took reign at the very young age of nine, after his father Akhenaten's death in
1322 B.C. Although his short reign of around ten years accomplished very little. The discovery of
his tomb in 1922 has led to many discoveries. He was once almost unknown and now is one of the
most well–known. He was well known for his curse on who ever disturbs his tomb. I believe the
curse is fake. The curse was actually used to sell more newspapers and protect the tomb from
robbers.
It all began, On Feb. 171923. A crowd of invited archeologists and Egyptian dignitaries, were
gathered in the Valley of the Kings. They were there to view the uncovering of King Tutankhamen's
burial chamber. The outer rooms were filled with treasures, Egyptian art, and furnishings. But
everyone was more anticipated to view the actual mummy. While the more leading kings and queens
treasures had been looted long ago whereas, King Tut's tomb had practically been untouched. It had
only been robbed twice and luckily the robbers only got past the first chamber. Two months after the

Are Honeybees Effective Defense Against Disease?
Honeybees, of the genus Apis, play a huge role in our environment through pollination. One in
every three bites of food you eat depends on pollinators. Pollinators transfer pollen and seeds,
allowing the plant to grow and produce food. Without bees pollinating, many plants would
eventually die off, including the crops that humans eat. But like any other living organism, they are
subjected to disease and pests that are harmful to their population. The effective defense against
disease is the most vital aspect of keeping a bee colony functioning properly. Their most effective
defense mechanism that can lead to self–healing is their behavior of removing as many harmful
agents as possible, such as parasites, from their colony. If the dead organism is too large, they will
cover it with propolis, which prevents release of pathogens during decomposition of the body. The
most important defense against disease, however, is their hygiene behavior. If they find an infected
larva in a sealed cell, they will uncap the cell and remove the infected larva from the colony. If adult
bees become ill, they will be forced ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is caused by the fungus Ascosphaera apis, which was discovered in the United States in 1968.
Infection only occurs in larva three to four days old, when they are sealed in their cells. The larvae
must ingest the spores of the fungus for an infection to occur. The fungus takes over the gut of the
larvae and ultimately the rest of its body. Once the larvae are dead they turn chalky white and
resemble mummies. There is currently no known chemical control against Chalkbrood, but
requeening and increased ventilation is effective. Stimulative feeding and replacing old comb also
helps. This disease tends to infect the hive frame by frame, so you can take the infected frame out
and scrape it clean. You can also requeen to break the brood cycle. To prevent Chalkbrood, make
sure to requeen every few

Synthesis, Thermolysis, Novel Semicarbazones And...
Synthesis, Thermolysis, Photolysis and Animicrobial Evaluation of some Novel Semicarbazones
and Thiosemicarbazones Derived from 3–Methyl–2–benzothiazolinone Hydrazone. Hisham
Abdallah A. Yosef * and Nabila M. Ibrahim Department of Organometallic and Organometalloid
Chemistry, National Research Centre, El–Behouth Street, P.O. 12622, Dokki, Giza, Egypt. Abstract:
Reaction of 3–Methyl–2–benzithiazolinone hydrazone (1) with some seleceted isocyanate and
isothiocyanate reagents 2a−j gave the respective semicarbazones and thiosemicarbazones 3a−j.
Thermolysis of compound 3a under reduced pressure gave N,N`−dietylurea (4) in addition to 1,2–
bis(3–methylbenzo[d]thiazol–2(3H)–ylidene)hydrazine (5). Compound 3a was almost quantitatively
recovered upon its exposure to sunlight in methanol for 60 days. Elementary and spectroscopic
measurements (IR, 1H NMR, 13C NMR, MS) are in good accord with the structures postulated for
the new compounds. The single crystal X–ray crystallographic analysis of 3f was given and its data
were discussed. The synthesized compounds 3a–j as well as the hydrazone 1 were screened for their
antibacterial properties against Bacillus subtilis (G+), Escherichia coli (G–), Pseudomonas
aeruginosa (G–) and Staphylococcus aureus (G+) and for their antifungal properties against
Aspergillus flavus and Candida albicans. Some of the tested compounds showed an activity against
the four bacterial strains where their order of activity was found to be 1 > 3g > 3j > 3i > 3e

Essay on Origin and Story of Soy Sauce
Imagine you are at you favorite Asian inspired restaurant with your friends. You just finished
ordering your food, when u look over and see that bottle of dark syrupy liquid off to the side.
Known around the world, Soy sauce is an international condiment that is used as a sauce, a
condiment, as well as an ingredient in plenty of dishes and recipes. Although this condiment is seen
a lot in most Asian style restaurants or even in packets from your Chinese take–out place but it is
used all over the world But have you ever wanted to know exactly is soy sauce, or how its made and
what gives it that dark color? In this paper I will discuss and explain the origin of soy sauce, how its
made and the different types of soy sauce there are, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These merchants gave their new sauce a name which they hoped would catch on in their own
language and also help it to sell. Then they started to distribute it widely. By December 1750 it had
reached the North America, arriving first in New York Harbor bearing the name "India Soy."
(Shurtleff & Aoyagi,2012)
Now, I will explain the process of making soy sauce. Now we all know that soy sauce comes from
soy beans, but how is it turned into the dark syrupy liquid? These use a process called fermentation,
which a way of cooking a food using bacteria. There are two distinct ways to making soy sauce,
there is the traditional brewing fermentation and refining process, and then there is a chemical non
brewing process called chemical–hydrolyzation. The fermentation method takes up to six months to
complete and results in a transparent, delicately colored broth with balanced flavor and aroma but
the non–brewing method is done in two days and has a harsher flavor and is opaque in color with a
strong chemical aroma. The basic raw ingredients are soy beans, wheat, and salt. There is also the
introduction of bacteria called Aspergillus oryzae or Aspergillus soyae,which breaks down the
proteins in the soybeans.
So, in a nutshell, this is how the process works. First they blend or mash the soybeans and wheat,
adding it to water and boiling it till the seeds are softened. Then they add a seed mold to

Biology: What are Mycotoxins
Mycotoxins
Risk identification
Next to dioxins and dioxin–like compounds, mycotoxins belong to the potential chemical hazards
related to animal feed of poultry. Mycotoxins are toxic compounds which are produced by several
species of fungi genera such as Fusarium, Aspergillus and Penicillium. Production can occur before
harvesting or during storage, is determined by environmental factors such as temperature and
humidity and is mainly occurring in cereals and ground nuts. Usually, mycotoxins enter the food
chain by contaminated feed [73]. Worldwide, incidences of mycotoxins in feed are quite common
and might pose a concern for human health.
A well–known case of mycotoxins contamination of feed, which was the start of a raised concern
about the health risks of mycotoxins, was the Turkey–X disease from the early 1960s [74]. In this
case, groundnut cake, contaminated with cyclopiazonic acid and aflatoxins, produced by Aspergillus
flavus, caused wide–ranging disease and death in turkeys [75]. As illustrated in the case,
mycotoxin–containing feed can have serious effects on the health of animals after ingestion. The
remaining question for this risk assessment is however whether mycotoxins may end up in the meat
of animals, meant for human consumption, and have an effect on human health after ingestion in
this way. Observations of aflatoxin– and ochratoxin residues in edible tissues of chicken broilers
show that these mycotoxins are relevant in this risk assessment [76]. Other

Sterigmatocystin Essay
Sterigmatocystin (ST) is a carcinogenic polyketide [12] produced by species in several fungal
genera. Microfungi capable of producing ST are common food, feed and indoor contaminants, and
may also be plant and mammalian pathogens, thus having a large economic impact for the
biotechnological, agricultural and food industry [12, 13]. Nanotechnology plays an important role in
the fabrication of different nanoparticles that can exhibit novel antimicrobial properties [14]. The
nano–scale of metals play roles in understanding the ability to manipulate biological processes
which will be the central theme for present biomedical and biological issues that need a nanoscience
or nanotechnology approach [15]. Shahverdi et al [14] ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Moreover, selenium has also been found to trigger the generation of ROS, with both elements
capable of reacting with intracellular thiols and forming intermediates that cause oxidative stress as
a consequence of the formation of superoxide radicals [21, 22]. Nanoparticles can contribute to
functional damages of cell membrane or wall by disrupting the integrity of these important
envelopes [23]. Selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) have become the focus of intensive research owing
to their wide range of applications in areas such as antioxidants [14, 24– 26], antibacterial activity
[16] and anticancer [16, 27] applications. However, so far not much has been reported on the
evaluation of antifungal activity of SeNPs. Studies of Shahverdi et al [14] have shown that
antifungal formulations in the form of nanoparticles could be used as potential fungicidal material. It
has been found that SeNPs exhibit low cytotoxicity compared with selenium compounds and
possess excellent anticancer and therapeutic activities making them apt for medical applications [28,
29]. SeNPs have anticancer activity against kidney, breast, and lung [30, 31] and hence, can be used
as chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic agents. On the other hand, SeNPs synthesized from a
biological source possess a significant antimicrobial activity against pathogenic bacteria, microfungi
and yeast [32].
The aim of this study was to investigate the complete inhibition of three toxigenic

Abpa Essay
Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA) is a hypersensitivity mediated pulmonary disease
characterized by an allergic inflammatory response to colonization of the airways by Aspergillus
species, most commonly Aspergillus fumigatus.1 ABPA usually occurs in patients of bronchial
asthma and cystic fibrosis with a variety of clinical and radiological manifestations. The first three
cases of ABPA were reported by Hinson et al2 in 1952 in England. The first case of ABPA in the
United States was reported in 1968, and the first childhood case of ABPA in the United States was
reported by Slavin et al in 1970.3,4 In India, ABPA was first reported by Shah in 1971.5 Data on
childhood ABPA from India are very few.6,7 The youngest case in India was ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
Ltd. Grading of SPT was done as per Shivpuri's classification. Those who showed positive reaction
to any Aspergillus antigen in SPT were further evaluated for ABPA using Greenberger's criteria19
(Table 1). Patients with all 5 major criteria were considered to have ABPA–CB (ABPA with central
bronchiectasis). The presence of all major criteria in the absence of central bronchiectasis were
considered ABPA–S (seropositive ABPA). Minor criteria were not used to diagnose ABPA rather
was only used as a supportive for the diagnosis of ABPA. Serum total IgE was quantitatively
measured using ELISA technique manufactured by CALBIOTECHTM and a value of > 200 IU/mL
was considered elevated. Serum precipitins for Aspergillus was done using PLATELIATM
Aspergillus IgG kit. ImmunoCAP® FEIA method was used to determine the specific IgE for
Aspergillus fumigatus and levels > 0.35 kUA/L was considered positive. Serum eosinophil counts
greater than 500 cells/mm3 was considered

Case Study On Maize
Maize (Zea Mays L.), commonly called as corn, is the most important cereal crop cultivated
throughout the world. The United States produces almost half of the world's total maize production
whereas other countries including China, Brazil, France, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Mexico,
Egypt, Malaysia, Colombia, South Africa and India are the major maize producing nations. Two
nations namely USA and China are the leading nations for the consumption of maize. In the recent
year, there has been increasing demand for maize throughout the world. Major exporters of corn are
USA followed by Argentina, Brazil, China and South Africa.
Despite its importance, maize has many production constraints, which prevent farmers from getting
maximum yield. Drought, fire, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
(b) Black masses of spores that develop inside individual male florets and
(c) Masses of black spores in place of the normal ear, leaving the vascular bundles exposed and
shredded.
2.1.19. False head smut:
Ustilaginoidea virens is the causal organism for this disease. False head smut occurs very rarely in
hot, dry or humid areas. The fungus commonly infects rice flowers more than maize. Symptoms
differ from those of other smuts of maize. False head smut produces neither tassel malformation nor
ear infection, as does true head smut (Sphacelotheca reiliana); only a few isolated male florets in the
tassel show dark– green masses of spores. False head smut also differs from common smut (Ustilago
maydis) in that no galls are produced.
2.1.20. Penicillium ear rots: Penicillium spp is the causal organism for Penicillium ear rots Damage
is most frequently caused by Penicillium oxalicum, but other species may occasionally be involved.
In many instances infection follows ear damage by insects. A conspicuous, light blue–green powder
grows between kernels and on the cob surface. Kernels with fungal growth normally become
bleached and

Neoplasia
NEOPLASIA
Presented by Dr Abudu Emmanuel Kunle (MBBS, M.Sc, FMCPath) Senior Lecturer and Consultant
Histopathologist University of Uyo Teaching Hospital,Uyo, Akwa– Ibom State, Nigeria.
Neoplasia means the process of new growth whilst Neoplasm means a new growth. Sometimes,
the parenchyma cells stimulate the formation of an abundant collagenous stroma, referred to as
desmoplasia. Some tumours e.g. some cancers of breast are stony hard or scirrhous. Sarcomas have
little connective tissue stroma and so are fleshy. Pseudo tumours: i) An ectopic rest of normal tissue
is sometimes called a choristoma e.g a rest of adrenal cells under the kidney capsule or a pancreatic
nodular rest in the mucosa of the small intestine may mimic neoplasm. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Cancer stem cells and cancer cell lineages: cancer stem cells are cells within the tumour that have
the capacity to initiate and sustain the tumour. 3) Local invasion: Benign tumours are usually
encapsulated except haemangioma while malignant tumours can locally invade and destroy the
adjacent tissues. Next to the development of metastases, invasiveness is the most reliable feature
that differentiate malignant from benign Tumours. Carcinoma in situ is best seen in tumour of skin,
breast, cervix, vagina, in which display the cytologic features of malignancy without invasion of the
basement membrane.
a) Biology of tumour growth: Benign and malignant neoplasms contd
4) Metastasis: metastases are tumour implants discontinuous with the primary tumour. All cancers
can metastasize except those of glial cells in CNS (Gliomas), and basal cell carcinoma of the skin
but they are locally invasive. Pathways of spread: i) Seeding of body cavities and surfaces: esp.
carcinoma of ovaries and sometimes mucus–secreting appendiceal carcinoma fill the peritoneal
cavity with a gelatinous neoplastic mass referred to as pseudomyxoma peritonei. ii) Lymphatic
spread: is the most common pathway for the initial dissemination of carcinomas, and sarcomas as
well. The pattern of lymph node involvement follows the routes of lymphatic drainage. A Sentinel
Lymph Node is defined as the first node in a regional lymphatic basin that receives

Natural Nutritional Supplements From Plant
The dilatory effect may be due to increase elasticity of the elastic fibers of the supporting tissue
surrounding the alveolar duct and the openings of the alveolar sacs and alveoli this is similar effect
produced by ethanolic extract of shoot system of Garcinia kola (Ofusori et al.,
2008). In our study the seed extract effect on treated lung may be due its antioxidant properties that
might be beneficial effect since there was no abnormal effect on its anatomical change. Antixoidant
protect cells from toxins by moving up oxygen radicals produced from oxidative stress (Cantuti
Castelvertric et al.,
2000). Natural nutritional supplements from plant sources origin such as seed extract of Carcia
papaya exhibits promising pharmacological properties which lead to good recovery from respiratory
diseases. The antifungal activity of pawpaw seed extract on A. flavus was obvious at concentrations
(100 and 200) mg/ml in which
M/C ratio for A. flavus decreased at high concentration of C. papaya seed extract compared with
low concentration of pawpaw seed extract which give high M/C ratio and these lead us to confirm
the antifungal potency of C. papaya seed extract against A. flavus.
The antifungal activity of pawpaw seed extract on A. flavus was obvious at concentrations (100 and
200) mg/ml in which
M/C ratio for A. flavus decreased at high concentration of C. papaya seed extract compared with
low concentration of pawpaw seed extract which give high M/C ratio and these lead us to confirm

Tuberculosis Is A Top Infectious Disease Killer Worldwide
14). Currently, there are ten drugs that have been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration to treat tuberculosis. There are four approved drugs that are considered to be first–
line antituberculosis agents that form the foundation for initial drug therapy. Also, there are six
approved second–line drugs that are considered to treat a more serious adverse drug reaction more
frequently than first–line antituberculosis agents. Therefore, it is important to take all prescribed
drugs and finish them all. If not, a person with tuberculosis will become sick again making it harder
to treat because the drugs will become resistant to the infected tuberculosis still present in ones
body; second–line drugs will then be used.
Other comments ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The physician began to quickly take vitals, do a physical exam, and labs to determine any other
signs the patient may have been developing. "A chest X–ray was done and showed infiltrate in the
middle of the left lung with a diameter of 1.7 cm with signs of cavitation" (Case Study: Tuberculosis
2016). "The patient was diagnosed with infiltrative TB of the left lung without MTB shedding"
(Case Study: Tuberculosis 2016). Treatment of infiltrative TB was administered to the patient with
first–line antituberculosis agents and was sent home. After two months, the patient returned to the
hospital concerned that he had been coughing up blood over the previous three days. With an
additional symptom of hemoptysis, the patient was immediately transferred to isolation where a
second chest X–ray was done and determined that he had progressive bilateral fibronodular disease.
Treatment of this type of TB disease was administered to the patient using second–line drugs
because the line of drugs used previously were now resistant.
Figure 2: radiography of Progressive Bilateral Fibronodular Disease
Fungal Organism
Scientific Name
Aspergillus sp. (opportunistic) is a common mold that lives indoors and outdoors. However, there
are many types of Aspergillus that can be mild or even become more serious in time. In 1842,
Aspergillus was first isolated and then in 1856 a case of Aspergillus broke out and was reported by
Rudolf

Flavus Preparation Lab Report
3.3.1 Aspergillus flavus Preparation
A. flavus was grown on Potato Agar Dextrose (PDA) media on Petri dishes at optimum growth
temperature of 25 to 30°C for seven days. Before that, 39g of PDA was dissolve in 1 Litre of
distilled water and poured into half of the petri dish. There are 5 Petri dishes that are needed for this
fungi preparation. Then, the culture was maintained at 4°C and subculture every 30 to 40 days.
Then, the Petri dishes were sealed with paraffin film and kept in a box in order to make sure the
fungi grow perfectly. Noted that all the steps above are done in the laminar flow to avoid
contamination that might stunt the growth of A. flavus.
3.3.2 Spores Suspension Inoculum Preparation
A. flavus from Petri dish was transferred ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
5mL of water sample was filtered and the filter paper was put into oven (MMM Medcenter GmbH,
Germany) operating at 100°C for one hour. The last step before final weighing, the filter paper was
put back into desiccator about half an hour to normalize the temperature and the filter paper was re–
weighed. Total solid suspended can be determined by using formula below:
Total Suspended Solid (mg/l)=((A–B))/(sample volume,ml) ×1000 (3)
Where,
A = weight of filter paper + dried residue, mg
B = weight of filter paper, mg
3.8.5 pH
Measurement of pH is one of the most important and always used test in water chemistry. For this
work, the pH was measured by using pH meter (Crison pH 25). For turbid water, the pH of water
samples are adjusted from 2 to 8 using 1M NaOH and 1M HCl. The initial turbidity of turbid water
used were 150, 100 and 50 NTU while the dosage used were 10, 30 and 50 v/v. The pH changes
before and after undergo Jar Test were

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