For your first reflection please watch the following video and respond to the prompts below (length should be close to 2 pages total):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=18zvlz5CxPE
1) Please describe a time where you have felt that someone else has unfairly judged you based on the way you look, or because of a group membership you belong to (e.g., religious, political, sexual orientation, ethnic, etc.).
2) How did this make you feel about yourself? (Please be detailed in your response)
3) How did this make you feel about the person who incorrectly passed judgment on you? (please be detailed in your response)
4) Describe a time when you unfairly stereotyped an individual from a different culture? How did this make you feel once you realized you unfairly judged them?
N
umerous studies over the past two
decades suggest that when individuals
are diagnosed with a mental illness,
they are placed into a cultural category (e.g.,
“a mentally ill person”) that damages their
material, social, and psychological well-being
(e.g., Link 1987; Link et al. 1989; Markowitz
1998; Rosenfield 1997). According to the
modified labeling theory of mental illness
(Link 1987; Link et al. 1989), the negative
consequences of psychiatric labeling arise
through two social psychological processes.
First, when an individual is diagnosed with a
mental illness, cultural ideas associated with
the mentally ill (e.g., incompetent, dangerous)
become personally relevant and foster nega-
tive self-feelings. Second, these personally rel-
evant cultural meanings are transformed into
expectations that others will reject the individ-
ual, expectations that trigger defensive behav-
iors aimed at preventing that rejection: con-
cealing treatment history, educating others
about mental illness, and/or withdrawing from
social interaction. Ironically, however, these
defensive behaviors are linked with harmful
outcomes: a reduced social network, higher
rates of unemployment, and feelings of
demoralization (Link et al. 1989, 1991).1
Thus, diagnostic labeling is predicted to have
a negative effect on self-feelings, and it is
expected to trigger defensive reactions that
create a type of “secondary deviance,” further
damaging patients’ social interactions, occu-
pational success, and self-image.
We examine the first of these two process-
es in this study. Specifically, we examine the
way that the cultural conceptions of the men-
tally ill are related to patients’ self-feelings.
And, unlike other investigations of this rela-
tionship (e.g., Kroska and Harkness 2006;
Link 1987), we explore the way that diagnos-
tic category (adjustment, affective, or schizo-
phrenic) shapes the association; that is, we
Social Psychology Quarterly
2008, Vol. 71, No. 2, 193–208
Exploring the Role of Diagnosis
in the Modified Labeling Theory of Mental Illness
AMY KROSKA
Kent State University
SARAH K. HARKNESS
Stanford University
According to the modified labeling theory of mental illness, when an indi.
ARTICLE REVIEW
10
Why do people discriminate and stigmatize the mentally ill youths and how can this behavior be dealt with?
Toshia R. Hardman
UMUC
BEHS 495 Advance Seminar in Social Science
21 April 2019
Running head: ARTICLE REVIEW III
2
Gordon, l. R., Krieger, N., Okechukwu, C. A., Haneuse, S., Samnaliev, M., Charlton, B. M., & Austin, S. B. (2017). Decrements in health-related quality of life associated with gender nonconformity among U.S. adolescents and young adults. Quality of Life Research, 2129-2138.
The journal represent psychology by studying changes in the mind and psychology through exploration of health worsening and quality of life. Gender nonconformity refers to a scenario where individuals exhibit characteristics that are common with the opposite gender. Gender nonconforming persons complain of discrimination from both sides of gender. The study identified everyday stressors facing gender non-conforming persons, which were compared to health-related quality of life (HRQRL) while focusing on young people as respondents.
Research findings revealed that gender nonconformity was directly related to several social problems such as discernment that may lead to the development of mental illnesses. Respondents identified; depression, discomfort, unusual activity, and mobility obstinacy as common problems they go through. The study recommended an aggregated initiative from all social quarters to put up efforts focused awareness on gender nonconformity. In relation to the research question, gender non-conformity on of the reasons why young people are discriminated. To deal with stigma and discernment, aggregated efforts are required to promote awareness and change a social behavior.
Corrigan, P. W., Bink, A. B., Fokuo, J. K., & Schmidt, A. (2015). The public stigma of mental illness means a difference between you and me. Psychiatry Research, 226(1), 186-191.
The article studies human behaviors, human culture and functioning of the mind, touching on three disciplines; anthropology, psychology and sociology. People with a mental health condition suffer from discrimination from the public a vice that bumps their road to recovery. Upon recovery, the society offer a cold shoulder hampering their repatriate to social status. The study inspected the psychometrics of several assessments of supposed transformation from an individual through mental illness. A comparison of mental illness and other ailments was done and basis of supposed dissimilarity scale were likened.
The results revealed a positive relationship between differential scores and stereotypes and a negative correlation with affirming attitudes. In conclusion, the study showed an efficient ration of stigma change where individuals have gone through mental illness as their perception shift following their experience. Outcomes from the experiment offer remedy the research question. Human form discriminating tendencies based on accounts they have not experien.
Attitudes toward suicide may influence the
treatment content and outcomes. Hence, this study aimed to
investigate how public attitudes toward suicide were influenced
by (1) their degree of idealism; and (2) their degree of
relativism. A questionnaire survey with Suicide Perception
Scale and Ethic Position Questionnaire was carried out on 50
male and 50 female participants (aged 21 and above) from
Klang Valley, Malaysia to obtain answer. The findings
supported both hypotheses, indicated that (1) higher idealism is
associated with lower level of acceptance toward suicide; and
(2) higher relativism is associated with higher level of
acceptance toward suicide. In sum, variations in public’s
attitude toward suicide were related to individual differences in
personal ethical ideologies and moral philosophies.
Objective: Spirituality has been shown to be associated with various aspects of health. It has also been discussed as an aid in coping with adversities.
Methods: The present investigation examined four dimensions of spirituality – belief in God, mindfulness, quest for meaning and feeling of security – as possible mediators between childhood adversities and adult adaptation. Two samples of n ≈ 500 were examined via internet in a retrospective survey.
Results: Two pathways from childhood to adult adaptation via spirituality were detected, one via mindfulness and one via feeling of security. Both pathways began at maternal love, the opposite of emotional neglect. Childhood abuse or physical neglect was not associated with the development of spirituality. Associations were not only linear in nature, but also displayed interactions.
Objective: Spirituality has been shown to be associated with various aspects of health. It has also been discussed as an aid in coping with adversities.
Methods: The present investigation examined four dimensions of spirituality – belief in God, mindfulness, quest for meaning and feeling of security – as possible mediators between childhood adversities and adult adaptation. Two samples of n ≈ 500 were examined via internet in a retrospective survey.
BRIEF REPORTSocial Anxiety Disorder and Memory for Positiv.docxjasoninnes20
BRIEF REPORT
Social Anxiety Disorder and Memory for Positive Feedback
Brianne L. Glazier and Lynn E. Alden
University of British Columbia
Clinical theorists postulate that individuals with social anxiety disorder (SAD) display memory biases
such that recall of social events becomes more negative with time; however, alternative memory models
have also been proposed. Research has focused predominantly on selective recall of negative information
with inconsistent findings. The goal of the current study was to examine potential biases in recall of
positive social feedback. Individuals with SAD (n � 59) and nonanxious community controls (n � 63)
engaged in an unexpected public speaking task and received standardized positive or neutral feedback on
their speech. Participants were asked to recall the feedback after 5 minutes and after 1 week. Results
indicated that at delayed recall, individuals with SAD recalled positive feedback as less positive than it
had been. The findings support cognitive models of SAD and extend the model to positive social
information. Research is needed to understand the mechanisms that underlie fading positivity.
General Scientific Summary
Individuals with social anxiety disorder display a pattern of eroding positivity in their recall of
positive social feedback.
Keywords: memory bias, public speaking, social anxiety disorder
Supplemental materials: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/abn0000407.supp
Clinical theorists propose that individuals with social anxiety
disorder (SAD) focus on negative information during social events
and repeatedly retrieve and ponder this information after the event.
This selective retrieval process is hypothesized to progressively
alter memories such that recollections of events become more
negative over time (Clark & Wells, 1995; Rapee & Heimberg,
1997). An alternative model is suggested by memory studies that
find individuals without SAD often display a positivity bias, re-
calling events as more positive than they were (e.g., Levine,
Schmidt, Kang, & Tinti, 2012; Schacter, Guerin, & St. Jacques,
2011; Wilson & Ross, 2003). This bias is hypothesized to arise
from an adaptive self-protective drive to maintain self-esteem
(Wilson & Ross, 2003). People prone to negative affect, such as
those with social anxiety, are postulated to lack this self-protective
tendency (e.g., Koban et al., 2017). The difference between these
two models has implications for SAD interventions, namely
whether to modify postevent retrieval, thereby offsetting negative
biases, or to address ways to capitalize on positive outcomes to
build social self-esteem.
The method used to evaluate the two models is the same, namely
assessing change in memory between immediate and delayed
recall. Further, both models assume that selective recall is more
likely to occur if the stimuli involve threat and self-referent (vs.
other-referent) encoding (Brendle & Wenzel, 2004; Mansell &
Clark, 1999). In the domain of social anxiety, two typ ...
ARTICLE REVIEW
10
Why do people discriminate and stigmatize the mentally ill youths and how can this behavior be dealt with?
Toshia R. Hardman
UMUC
BEHS 495 Advance Seminar in Social Science
21 April 2019
Running head: ARTICLE REVIEW III
2
Gordon, l. R., Krieger, N., Okechukwu, C. A., Haneuse, S., Samnaliev, M., Charlton, B. M., & Austin, S. B. (2017). Decrements in health-related quality of life associated with gender nonconformity among U.S. adolescents and young adults. Quality of Life Research, 2129-2138.
The journal represent psychology by studying changes in the mind and psychology through exploration of health worsening and quality of life. Gender nonconformity refers to a scenario where individuals exhibit characteristics that are common with the opposite gender. Gender nonconforming persons complain of discrimination from both sides of gender. The study identified everyday stressors facing gender non-conforming persons, which were compared to health-related quality of life (HRQRL) while focusing on young people as respondents.
Research findings revealed that gender nonconformity was directly related to several social problems such as discernment that may lead to the development of mental illnesses. Respondents identified; depression, discomfort, unusual activity, and mobility obstinacy as common problems they go through. The study recommended an aggregated initiative from all social quarters to put up efforts focused awareness on gender nonconformity. In relation to the research question, gender non-conformity on of the reasons why young people are discriminated. To deal with stigma and discernment, aggregated efforts are required to promote awareness and change a social behavior.
Corrigan, P. W., Bink, A. B., Fokuo, J. K., & Schmidt, A. (2015). The public stigma of mental illness means a difference between you and me. Psychiatry Research, 226(1), 186-191.
The article studies human behaviors, human culture and functioning of the mind, touching on three disciplines; anthropology, psychology and sociology. People with a mental health condition suffer from discrimination from the public a vice that bumps their road to recovery. Upon recovery, the society offer a cold shoulder hampering their repatriate to social status. The study inspected the psychometrics of several assessments of supposed transformation from an individual through mental illness. A comparison of mental illness and other ailments was done and basis of supposed dissimilarity scale were likened.
The results revealed a positive relationship between differential scores and stereotypes and a negative correlation with affirming attitudes. In conclusion, the study showed an efficient ration of stigma change where individuals have gone through mental illness as their perception shift following their experience. Outcomes from the experiment offer remedy the research question. Human form discriminating tendencies based on accounts they have not experien.
Attitudes toward suicide may influence the
treatment content and outcomes. Hence, this study aimed to
investigate how public attitudes toward suicide were influenced
by (1) their degree of idealism; and (2) their degree of
relativism. A questionnaire survey with Suicide Perception
Scale and Ethic Position Questionnaire was carried out on 50
male and 50 female participants (aged 21 and above) from
Klang Valley, Malaysia to obtain answer. The findings
supported both hypotheses, indicated that (1) higher idealism is
associated with lower level of acceptance toward suicide; and
(2) higher relativism is associated with higher level of
acceptance toward suicide. In sum, variations in public’s
attitude toward suicide were related to individual differences in
personal ethical ideologies and moral philosophies.
Objective: Spirituality has been shown to be associated with various aspects of health. It has also been discussed as an aid in coping with adversities.
Methods: The present investigation examined four dimensions of spirituality – belief in God, mindfulness, quest for meaning and feeling of security – as possible mediators between childhood adversities and adult adaptation. Two samples of n ≈ 500 were examined via internet in a retrospective survey.
Results: Two pathways from childhood to adult adaptation via spirituality were detected, one via mindfulness and one via feeling of security. Both pathways began at maternal love, the opposite of emotional neglect. Childhood abuse or physical neglect was not associated with the development of spirituality. Associations were not only linear in nature, but also displayed interactions.
Objective: Spirituality has been shown to be associated with various aspects of health. It has also been discussed as an aid in coping with adversities.
Methods: The present investigation examined four dimensions of spirituality – belief in God, mindfulness, quest for meaning and feeling of security – as possible mediators between childhood adversities and adult adaptation. Two samples of n ≈ 500 were examined via internet in a retrospective survey.
BRIEF REPORTSocial Anxiety Disorder and Memory for Positiv.docxjasoninnes20
BRIEF REPORT
Social Anxiety Disorder and Memory for Positive Feedback
Brianne L. Glazier and Lynn E. Alden
University of British Columbia
Clinical theorists postulate that individuals with social anxiety disorder (SAD) display memory biases
such that recall of social events becomes more negative with time; however, alternative memory models
have also been proposed. Research has focused predominantly on selective recall of negative information
with inconsistent findings. The goal of the current study was to examine potential biases in recall of
positive social feedback. Individuals with SAD (n � 59) and nonanxious community controls (n � 63)
engaged in an unexpected public speaking task and received standardized positive or neutral feedback on
their speech. Participants were asked to recall the feedback after 5 minutes and after 1 week. Results
indicated that at delayed recall, individuals with SAD recalled positive feedback as less positive than it
had been. The findings support cognitive models of SAD and extend the model to positive social
information. Research is needed to understand the mechanisms that underlie fading positivity.
General Scientific Summary
Individuals with social anxiety disorder display a pattern of eroding positivity in their recall of
positive social feedback.
Keywords: memory bias, public speaking, social anxiety disorder
Supplemental materials: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/abn0000407.supp
Clinical theorists propose that individuals with social anxiety
disorder (SAD) focus on negative information during social events
and repeatedly retrieve and ponder this information after the event.
This selective retrieval process is hypothesized to progressively
alter memories such that recollections of events become more
negative over time (Clark & Wells, 1995; Rapee & Heimberg,
1997). An alternative model is suggested by memory studies that
find individuals without SAD often display a positivity bias, re-
calling events as more positive than they were (e.g., Levine,
Schmidt, Kang, & Tinti, 2012; Schacter, Guerin, & St. Jacques,
2011; Wilson & Ross, 2003). This bias is hypothesized to arise
from an adaptive self-protective drive to maintain self-esteem
(Wilson & Ross, 2003). People prone to negative affect, such as
those with social anxiety, are postulated to lack this self-protective
tendency (e.g., Koban et al., 2017). The difference between these
two models has implications for SAD interventions, namely
whether to modify postevent retrieval, thereby offsetting negative
biases, or to address ways to capitalize on positive outcomes to
build social self-esteem.
The method used to evaluate the two models is the same, namely
assessing change in memory between immediate and delayed
recall. Further, both models assume that selective recall is more
likely to occur if the stimuli involve threat and self-referent (vs.
other-referent) encoding (Brendle & Wenzel, 2004; Mansell &
Clark, 1999). In the domain of social anxiety, two typ ...
Mental Illness Stigma and the Fundamental Components ofSuppo.docxandreecapon
Mental Illness Stigma and the Fundamental Components of
Supported Employment
Patrick W. Corrigan, Jonathon E. Larson, and Sachiko A. Kuwabara
Illinois Institute of Psychology
Purpose/Objective: The success of supported employment programs will partly depend on the endorse-
ment of stigma in communities in which the programs operate. In this article, the authors examine 2
models of stigma—responsibility attribution and dangerousness—and their relationships to components
of supported employment—help getting a job and help keeping a job. Research Method/Design: A
stratified and randomly recruited sample (N � 815) completed responses to a vignette about “Chris,” a
person alternately described with mental illness, with drug addiction, or in a wheelchair. Research
participants completed items that represented responsibility and dangerousness models. They also
completed items representing 2 fundamental aspects of supported employment: help getting a job or help
keeping a job. Results: When participants viewed Chris as responsible for his condition (e.g., mental
illness), they reacted to him in an angry manner, which in turn led to lesser endorsement of the 2 aspects
of supported employment. In addition, people who viewed Chris as dangerous feared him and wanted to
stay away from him, even in settings where people with mental illness might work. Conclusions/
Implications: Implications for understanding supported employment are discussed.
Keywords: stigma, supported employment, discrimination
The disabilities of serious mental illness can block people from
obtaining important life goals, including a good job. Several kinds
of vocational rehabilitation programs have emerged to address
work-related disabilities. Some of these approaches are known as
train-place strategies (Corrigan & McCracken, 2005). Through an
education-based strategy, in train-place programs, participants
must learn prevocational and work readiness skills before they are
placed in work settings. These work settings are often sheltered;
that is, the job is “owned” by a rehabilitation agency, which can
protect participants from stressors (Corrigan, 2001). Alternatively,
supported employment is place-train in orientation. People are
placed in real-world work and subsequently provided training and
support to address problems as they emerge, thereby helping a
person to maintain a regular job. The latter group has dominated
recent supported employment models for people with psychiatric
disabilities (Bond et al., 2001; Bond, Becker, Drake, & Vogler, 1997).
Some forms of supported employment recommend rapid placement
of people in work settings of interest to them (Becker & Drake, 2003).
Unlike train-place programs, supported employment does not
try to protect people with disabilities from the work world (Cor-
rigan, 2001; Corrigan & McCracken, 2005). Instead, providers
offer direct support in vivo. This kind of approach is more suc-
cessful in communities where the intent of supported ...
RESPONSE 1 Respond to at least two colleagues who selec.docxronak56
RESPONSE 1
Respond to at least two colleagues who selected a different article from the one
you selected. Share any insights you gained from your colleagues’ posts.
Colleague 1: Whitney
One important article that focuses on mental illness and culture is the article Community
Attitudes Towards Culture-Influenced Mental illness: Scrupulosity vs. Nonreligious OCD among
Orthodox Jews that was found through the Walden library (Pirutinskiy, Rosmarin, & Parament,
2009). The article focuses on how culture can influence a community’s attitude towards mental
illness (Pirutinskiy, Rosmarin, & Parament, 2009). One specific culture the article focuses on is
the Orthodox Jewish Community who has OCD (Pirutinskiy, Rosmarin, & Parament, 2009). This
article also addresses how Orthodox Jews see their up bring through their culture as casual to
their development involving their routines, rituals, and religions (Pirutinskiy, Rosmarin, &
Parament, 2009). This then does not affect them as much as those who are from a different
culture who are not brought up the same way and this would then affect them through the
acculturation process (Pirutinskiy, Rosmarin, & Parament, 2009)
It’s important that social workers take in consideration in using the cultural formulation
interview to apply cultural competence skills in working with the cultures such as the Orthodox
Jews. A cultural formulation interview will focus on a framework that assess for an individual’s
cultural features, mental health, and these relate to the individuals social and cultural context and
history (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
The scholar will use the cultural formulation interview to assess and apply competence skills
to each client’s case. The scholar would first asses the client with four categories that are
included in a cultural formulation interview (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). The
scholar would first have the client describe their cultural identity such as their as their race,
ethnic, or cultural influences (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Then continue to follow
the assessment with the other three categories.
Then the scholar would use a set of 16 questions cultural formulation interview to obtain
information of the clients mental health and by using this assessment it will identify the clients
culture and how it has impacted the clients clinical presentations and care (American Psychiatric
Association, 2013).Through this assessment it will assist the social worker and client in
understanding how culture affects the individual.
Acculturation can affect each cultural client different involving their psychological
and sociocultural aspects. Acculturation occurs and affects the individual’s psychological change
when two cultures have contact involving cultural groups or cultural members (Berry, n.d.). An
individuals experiencing acculturation can also experience behavioral repertoire due to the
a ...
Running Head GENDER IDENTITY DISORDER CAUSES, TREATMENTS, AND TE.docxcowinhelen
Running Head: GENDER IDENTITY DISORDER: CAUSES, TREATMENTS, AND TESTIMONIES 1
GENDER IDENTITY DISORDER: CAUSES, TREATMENTS, AND TESTIMONIES 2
Gender Identity Disorder: Causes, Treatments, and Testimonies
Jasonus Tillery
Liberty University
Barrett, J. (2014). Disorders of gender identity: what to do and who should do it?. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 204(2), 96-97.
In this article, the author looks into issues to be done and who should deal with various aspects relating to gender identity disorders. The author notes that transsexualism is not indicative of psychopathology. The author explains that if multidisciplinary support is provided, changing cross-sex hormone treatment and social gender role will make great improvements to social and psychological states. According to the author, sustained improvement will merit gender reassignment surgery.
Bornstein, K. (2013). Gender Outlaw: On Men, Women and the Rest of Us. Routledge.
This work provides a summary of a woman who went through some changes; she was a former heterosexual male, IBM salesperson, and a one-time Scientologist, currently a lesbian woman. Her work covers mechanics of the surgery she went through and also many aspects of gender an individual would want to know. In general, Bornstein's work provides her personal testimony for her sexual reassignment surgery to solve her gender dysphoria challenges.
Byne, W., Bradley, S. J., Coleman, E., Eyler, A. E., Green, R., Menvielle, E. J., ... & Tompkins, D. A. (2012). Report of the American Psychiatric Association task force on treatment of gender identity disorder. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 41(4), 759-796.
In this article, these authors cover aspects relating to treatment and diagnosis of gender identity disorder. These authors explain that there is controversy relating to treatment and diagnosis of gender identity disorder. Following a report given by the American Psychiatric Association (APA), the authors in this article critically provide a review of literature important in treating gender identity disorder in different ages as a way of assessing the quality of evidence relating to treatment. As part of the recommendation, the authors note that it is important to consider ethical bounds in treating minors with gender variation, transsexual or transgender, the rights of individuals of different ages with gender variant and clarifying APA’s position in treating gender identity disorder.
Cohen-Kettenis, P. T., Elaut, E., & Kreukels, B. P. (2015). Psychological Characteristics and Sexuality of Natal Males with Gender Dysphoria. In Management of Gender Dysphoria (pp. 75-82). Springer Milan.
The authors of this article explore sexuality and psychological characteristics of natal males who have gender identity disorder. In recent times, as these authors note, psychological characteristics relating to personal gender dysphoria have come under scrut ...
MARY REVIEW1.Chan, G. & Yanos, P. T. (2018). Media depictions .docxalfredacavx97
MARY REVIEW
1.Chan, G. & Yanos, P. T. (2018). Media depictions and the priming of mental illness stigma. Stigma and Health, 3(3), 253-264. http://eds.b.ebscohost.com/eds/detail/detail?vid=8&sid=66026bf7-aa09-4bcd-a73a-7b9d3e35bcc7%40pdc-v-sessmgr01&bdata=JkF1dGhUeXBlPXNoaWImc2l0ZT1lZHMtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=2017-15491-001&db=pdh (Links to an external site.)
2. Neuman, W. L. (2017). Understanding Research (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Pearson.
3. The topic discussed in the article I chose is mental illness. The article discusses the question of the affect the media plays in regards to one's perception of mental illness. The study designed involves the random assignment of individuals to descriptions of a violent accident. Some descriptions were left unaltered while others were manipulated to mention the term and concept of mental illness. Chan and Yanos (2018) state "we also examined the potential moderating impact of cognitive styles and preexisting attitudes and beliefs."
4. I would say this research is descriptive
5. Experimental
6. Results found that participants are likely to associate mental illness with violent outbursts when stated throughout media. I think this was used for applied social research. Chan and Yanos (2018) state "roughly, 43% of the participants in the experimental condition reported the cause of the incident as related to mental illness, in contrast with only 2% of participants in the control condition." When asked to provide a recount of the article 42% of participants mentioned mental illness while none of the participants of the control group did (Chan & Yanos, 2018).
7. In an unscientific method one can simply ask the question of does mental illness make one violent? Asking a question such as this doesn't entail proper research but a simple yes or no question. Research isn't completed to discover why individuals may have these particular beliefs.
8. Do you think or know of research that discovered why individuals may have these beliefs?
Kenneth Review
1. Article citation.
Steffens, N. K., Haslam, S. A., Jetten, J., & Mols, F. (2018). Our Followers Are Lions, Theirs Are Sheep: How Social Identity Shapes Theories About Followership and Social Influence. Political Psychology, 39(1), 23–42. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12387
2. Book citation.
Neuman, W. L. (2017). Understanding research. Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon.
3. Title and topic.
Our Followers Are Lions, Theirs Are Sheep: How Social Identity Shapes Theories About Followership and Social Influence.
This article is fascinating to say the least. It speaks on the idea that people see followers of other groups as being less of an ideal follower, see them as not being an effective follower, and see members of their own group as being “better” overall. This non effective follower is seen as more conformist, blindly following what they are told, and unable to be think for themselves. Conversely, they see their own group as dynamic free thinkers, active, thoug.
Student Name Annotated Bibliography Bares, D.S., T.docxemelyvalg9
Student Name
Annotated Bibliography
Bares, D.S., Toro, P.A. (1999). Developing measures to assess social support among homeless and poor
people. Journal of Community Psychology, 27 (2), 137-156.
Baras and Toro (1999) sought to assess the social support of homeless populations by using two
commonly used instruments: The Interpersonal Support Evaluation (ISEL) and the Social Network
Interview (SNL). In comparing the instruments, the ISEL was found to be useful in indicating a
participant’s psychological well-being, while the SNL helped to assess stress-buffering effects.
More details regarding the instrument items would have been more helpful for the use of this
paper. However, the study’s results substantiate the concept that the presence of social support
for the homeless should support physical and psychological health in the way that it cushions the
effects of stressful events. These instruments yielded results indicating that larger nonfamily
social networks are a predictor for recurring homelessness, as well as mental illness.
Galaif, E.R., Nyamathi, A.M., Stein, J.A. (1999). Psychosocial predictors of current drug use, drug
problems, and physical drug dependencies in homeless women. Addictive Behaviors, 24 (6), 801-
814.
This study was designed to show relationships between psychosocial elements and use of the top
three most frequently used drugs among homeless women. The impact of social networks on
adaptive and maladaptive coping mechanisms that influence drug use were measured through a
version of the Jalowiec Coping Scale, part of a multi-item instrument. Depression, current drug
use, drug problems and physical drug dependence were assessed, in other parts of the
instrument. Current drug use was found to predict negative social support, depression and less
use of positive coping strategies. Homelessness may diminish a woman’s capability to establish
and maintain positive social support. This article was very informative in that it gives clearly
identified stressors for homeless women and reasons for maladaptation. Use in paper?
Hill, R. P., (1992). Homeless children: coping with material losses. The Journal of Consumer Affairs, 26
(2), 274-287.
This one-year study investigated how various possessions and fantasies serve as coping
mechanisms for homeless children. Many of the child participants were resilient despite
homelessness because of positive role models. In addition, though they had little material
possessions, these children often engaged in fantastical play that portrayed one particular
“special” toy overcoming evil and other obstacles, then moving on to a better place. The
methods used in this study are primarily interviewing and observation, and were part of an
ethnography at a suburban homeless shelter; no psychometric instruments were used. Though
the researcher’s background primarily involves an interest in consumerism, this study is valuable.
Social Psychiatry Comes of Age - Inaugural Column in Psychiatric TimesUniversité de Montréal
In this inaugural column on “Second Thoughts… About Psychiatry, Psychology, and Psychotherapy,” I want to express second thoughts about my profession in a warm and constructive way.
https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/social-psychiatry-comes-of-age
The multi center dilemma project, an investigation on the role of cognitive c...Guillem Feixas
The Multi-Center Dilemma Project is a collaborative research endeavour aimed at determining the role of dilemmas —a kind of cognitive conflict, detected by using an adaptation of Kelly’s Repertory Grid Technique— in a variety of clinical conditions. Implicative dilemmas appear in one third of the non-clinical group (n = 321) and in about
half of the clinical group (n = 286), the latter having a proportion of dilemmas that doubles that of the non-clinical sample. Within the clinical group, we studied 87 subjects, after completing a psychotherapy process, and found that therapy helps to dissolve those dilemmas. We also studied, independently, a group of subjects diagnosed with social phobia (n = 13) and a group diagnosed with irritable bowel syndrome (n = 13) in comparison to non-clinical groups. In both health related problems, dilemmas seem to be quite relevant. Altogether, these studies, though preliminary (and with a small group size in some cases), yield a promising perspective to the unexplored area of the role of cognitive conflicts as an issue to consider when trying to understand some clinical conditions, as well as a focus to be dealt with in psychotherapy when dilemmas are identified.
SHAME AS A CULTURAL INDEX OF ILLNESS AND RECOVERY FROM PSYCHOTIC ILLNESS IN JAVAUniversitasGadjahMada
Most studies of shame have focused on stigma as a form of social response and a socio-psychological consequence of mental illness. This study aims at exploring more complex Javanese meanings of shame in relation to psychotic illness. Six psychotic patients and their family members participated in this research. Ethnographic fieldwork was conducted in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Thematic analysis of the data showed that participants used shame in three different ways. First, as a cultural index of illness and recovery. Family members identified their member as being ill when they had lost their sense of shame. If a patient exhibited behavior that indicated the reemergence of shame, the family saw this as an indication of recovery. Second, as an indication of relapse. Third, as a barrier toward recovery. In conclusion, shame is used as a cultural index of illness and recovery because it associated with the moral-behavioral control. Shame may also be regarded as a form of consciousness associated with the emergence of insight. Further study with a larger group of sample is needed to explore shame as a ‘socio-cultural marker’ for psychotic illness in Java.
Spiritual Transformation in Claimant Mediums / PA Presentation June 2016William Everist, PHD
A qualitative study designed to establish a comprehensive understanding of the initial experience associated with the spiritual transformation process of inexperienced claimant mediums, commonly described as individuals who allegedly have regular communications with the deceased. Spiritually Transformative Experiences are commonly thought to be a type of transformation and expansion of consciousness.
Adiesa Burgess Dr. MixonPSYC-40121 October 2022 C.docxstandfordabbot
Adiesa Burgess
Dr. Mixon
PSYC-401
21 October 2022
Comprehensive Assignment
My chosen research topic is the practices of the Islamic faith related to illness, suffering, death, dying, grief, mourning rituals, and burial or cremation. I chose this topic because Islam is the second largest religion in the world, and I am interested in how this religion deals with death and dying. This topic is significant because death is a universal experience and understanding how different cultures and religions deal with death can help us to understand the human experience. This research will be of interest to scholars and students of religion and culture. Finally, this research will be of interest to anyone who is interested in understanding the Islamic faith and its practices related to death and dying. Additionally, this research can help to inform the practices of healthcare providers who work with Muslim patients (Eyetsemitan, 2021).
Islam has a rich tradition of practices related to death and dying. Muslims believe that death is a natural part of life, and they have developed practices to help them cope with death. For example, when a Muslim is dying, they are typically surrounded by their family and friends, who recite prayers and verses from the Quran. After death, the body is washed and shrouded in a white cloth, and the funeral is held as soon as possible. Grief is a natural part of the mourning process, and Muslims often express their grief through prayer, reading the Quran, and spending time with family and friends. These practices are significant because they provide a way for Muslims to cope with death and dying. They also help to create a sense of community and support for those who are grieving. Additionally, these practices can help to inform the practices of healthcare providers who work with Muslim patients (Bahadur, 2020).
Another way the Islamic faith relates to death, dying, grief, mourning rituals, and burial or cremation is through the concept of martyrdom. Muslims believe that those who die while defending their faith or while performing good deeds are martyrs, and they are rewarded with a special place in paradise. This belief provides comfort to Muslims who are grieving the loss of a loved one, and it also helps to motivate Muslims to do good deeds. Finally, the concept of martyrdom can help to inform the practices of healthcare providers who work with Muslim patients (Bahadur, 2020).
References
Eyetsemitan, F. E. (2021).
Death, dying, and bereavement around the world: Theories, varied views and customs. Charles C Thomas Publisher.
Bahadur, P. (2020). Rituals and beliefs surrounding death in Islam.
Journal of Adventist Mission Studies,
16(1), 173-192.
HOW IS PERSONALITY ASSESSED?
137
to generate detailed images of the brain (e.g., DeYoung et al., in
press). Conversely, studies concerned with brain activity may
use fMRI (e.g., Canli, 2004) or PET (.
 Assignment 1 Discussion Question Prosocial Behavior and Altrui.docxbudbarber38650

Assignment 1: Discussion Question: Prosocial Behavior and Altruism
By Saturday, July 11, 2015, respond to the discussion question. Submit your responses to the appropriate Discussion Area. Use the same Discussion Area to comment on your classmates' submissions by Saturday, July 11, 2015, and continue the discussion until Wednesday, July 15, 2015 of the week.
Consider and discuss how the phenomena of prosocial behavior and pure altruism relate to each other and how they differ from each other.
Pure altruism is a specific kind of prosocial behavior where your sole motivation is to help a person in need without seeking benefit for yourself. It is often viewed as a truly selfless form of behavior.
Provide an example each of prosocial behavior and pure altruism.

.
● what is name of the new unit and what topics will Professor Moss c.docxbudbarber38650
● what is name of the new unit and what topics will Professor Moss cover? How does this unit correlate to modern times?
● what problems were apparent in urban America?
● what were the three main streams of immigration up through the 1920s? What are "birds of passage?" How were Japanese and Korean immigrants different than Chinese immigrants? What is meant by "pale of settlement" and "pogrom."
● What is meant by "Americanization" and how did this process occur?
● What were the various forms of popular culture during this era, and why were they important?
● what forms of popular culture did working women enjoy? How did middle-class reformers react to these forms?
● what is meant by "the new woman" and "mothers to society?"
● How did middle-class men generally respond to the changing times? Why were people like Eugene Sandow and Harry Houdini so significant at this time?
● What were some of the examples of nativism at this time?
● What was the Social Gospel and what are settlement houses?
.
More Related Content
Similar to For your first reflection please watch the following video and res.docx
Mental Illness Stigma and the Fundamental Components ofSuppo.docxandreecapon
Mental Illness Stigma and the Fundamental Components of
Supported Employment
Patrick W. Corrigan, Jonathon E. Larson, and Sachiko A. Kuwabara
Illinois Institute of Psychology
Purpose/Objective: The success of supported employment programs will partly depend on the endorse-
ment of stigma in communities in which the programs operate. In this article, the authors examine 2
models of stigma—responsibility attribution and dangerousness—and their relationships to components
of supported employment—help getting a job and help keeping a job. Research Method/Design: A
stratified and randomly recruited sample (N � 815) completed responses to a vignette about “Chris,” a
person alternately described with mental illness, with drug addiction, or in a wheelchair. Research
participants completed items that represented responsibility and dangerousness models. They also
completed items representing 2 fundamental aspects of supported employment: help getting a job or help
keeping a job. Results: When participants viewed Chris as responsible for his condition (e.g., mental
illness), they reacted to him in an angry manner, which in turn led to lesser endorsement of the 2 aspects
of supported employment. In addition, people who viewed Chris as dangerous feared him and wanted to
stay away from him, even in settings where people with mental illness might work. Conclusions/
Implications: Implications for understanding supported employment are discussed.
Keywords: stigma, supported employment, discrimination
The disabilities of serious mental illness can block people from
obtaining important life goals, including a good job. Several kinds
of vocational rehabilitation programs have emerged to address
work-related disabilities. Some of these approaches are known as
train-place strategies (Corrigan & McCracken, 2005). Through an
education-based strategy, in train-place programs, participants
must learn prevocational and work readiness skills before they are
placed in work settings. These work settings are often sheltered;
that is, the job is “owned” by a rehabilitation agency, which can
protect participants from stressors (Corrigan, 2001). Alternatively,
supported employment is place-train in orientation. People are
placed in real-world work and subsequently provided training and
support to address problems as they emerge, thereby helping a
person to maintain a regular job. The latter group has dominated
recent supported employment models for people with psychiatric
disabilities (Bond et al., 2001; Bond, Becker, Drake, & Vogler, 1997).
Some forms of supported employment recommend rapid placement
of people in work settings of interest to them (Becker & Drake, 2003).
Unlike train-place programs, supported employment does not
try to protect people with disabilities from the work world (Cor-
rigan, 2001; Corrigan & McCracken, 2005). Instead, providers
offer direct support in vivo. This kind of approach is more suc-
cessful in communities where the intent of supported ...
RESPONSE 1 Respond to at least two colleagues who selec.docxronak56
RESPONSE 1
Respond to at least two colleagues who selected a different article from the one
you selected. Share any insights you gained from your colleagues’ posts.
Colleague 1: Whitney
One important article that focuses on mental illness and culture is the article Community
Attitudes Towards Culture-Influenced Mental illness: Scrupulosity vs. Nonreligious OCD among
Orthodox Jews that was found through the Walden library (Pirutinskiy, Rosmarin, & Parament,
2009). The article focuses on how culture can influence a community’s attitude towards mental
illness (Pirutinskiy, Rosmarin, & Parament, 2009). One specific culture the article focuses on is
the Orthodox Jewish Community who has OCD (Pirutinskiy, Rosmarin, & Parament, 2009). This
article also addresses how Orthodox Jews see their up bring through their culture as casual to
their development involving their routines, rituals, and religions (Pirutinskiy, Rosmarin, &
Parament, 2009). This then does not affect them as much as those who are from a different
culture who are not brought up the same way and this would then affect them through the
acculturation process (Pirutinskiy, Rosmarin, & Parament, 2009)
It’s important that social workers take in consideration in using the cultural formulation
interview to apply cultural competence skills in working with the cultures such as the Orthodox
Jews. A cultural formulation interview will focus on a framework that assess for an individual’s
cultural features, mental health, and these relate to the individuals social and cultural context and
history (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
The scholar will use the cultural formulation interview to assess and apply competence skills
to each client’s case. The scholar would first asses the client with four categories that are
included in a cultural formulation interview (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). The
scholar would first have the client describe their cultural identity such as their as their race,
ethnic, or cultural influences (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Then continue to follow
the assessment with the other three categories.
Then the scholar would use a set of 16 questions cultural formulation interview to obtain
information of the clients mental health and by using this assessment it will identify the clients
culture and how it has impacted the clients clinical presentations and care (American Psychiatric
Association, 2013).Through this assessment it will assist the social worker and client in
understanding how culture affects the individual.
Acculturation can affect each cultural client different involving their psychological
and sociocultural aspects. Acculturation occurs and affects the individual’s psychological change
when two cultures have contact involving cultural groups or cultural members (Berry, n.d.). An
individuals experiencing acculturation can also experience behavioral repertoire due to the
a ...
Running Head GENDER IDENTITY DISORDER CAUSES, TREATMENTS, AND TE.docxcowinhelen
Running Head: GENDER IDENTITY DISORDER: CAUSES, TREATMENTS, AND TESTIMONIES 1
GENDER IDENTITY DISORDER: CAUSES, TREATMENTS, AND TESTIMONIES 2
Gender Identity Disorder: Causes, Treatments, and Testimonies
Jasonus Tillery
Liberty University
Barrett, J. (2014). Disorders of gender identity: what to do and who should do it?. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 204(2), 96-97.
In this article, the author looks into issues to be done and who should deal with various aspects relating to gender identity disorders. The author notes that transsexualism is not indicative of psychopathology. The author explains that if multidisciplinary support is provided, changing cross-sex hormone treatment and social gender role will make great improvements to social and psychological states. According to the author, sustained improvement will merit gender reassignment surgery.
Bornstein, K. (2013). Gender Outlaw: On Men, Women and the Rest of Us. Routledge.
This work provides a summary of a woman who went through some changes; she was a former heterosexual male, IBM salesperson, and a one-time Scientologist, currently a lesbian woman. Her work covers mechanics of the surgery she went through and also many aspects of gender an individual would want to know. In general, Bornstein's work provides her personal testimony for her sexual reassignment surgery to solve her gender dysphoria challenges.
Byne, W., Bradley, S. J., Coleman, E., Eyler, A. E., Green, R., Menvielle, E. J., ... & Tompkins, D. A. (2012). Report of the American Psychiatric Association task force on treatment of gender identity disorder. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 41(4), 759-796.
In this article, these authors cover aspects relating to treatment and diagnosis of gender identity disorder. These authors explain that there is controversy relating to treatment and diagnosis of gender identity disorder. Following a report given by the American Psychiatric Association (APA), the authors in this article critically provide a review of literature important in treating gender identity disorder in different ages as a way of assessing the quality of evidence relating to treatment. As part of the recommendation, the authors note that it is important to consider ethical bounds in treating minors with gender variation, transsexual or transgender, the rights of individuals of different ages with gender variant and clarifying APA’s position in treating gender identity disorder.
Cohen-Kettenis, P. T., Elaut, E., & Kreukels, B. P. (2015). Psychological Characteristics and Sexuality of Natal Males with Gender Dysphoria. In Management of Gender Dysphoria (pp. 75-82). Springer Milan.
The authors of this article explore sexuality and psychological characteristics of natal males who have gender identity disorder. In recent times, as these authors note, psychological characteristics relating to personal gender dysphoria have come under scrut ...
MARY REVIEW1.Chan, G. & Yanos, P. T. (2018). Media depictions .docxalfredacavx97
MARY REVIEW
1.Chan, G. & Yanos, P. T. (2018). Media depictions and the priming of mental illness stigma. Stigma and Health, 3(3), 253-264. http://eds.b.ebscohost.com/eds/detail/detail?vid=8&sid=66026bf7-aa09-4bcd-a73a-7b9d3e35bcc7%40pdc-v-sessmgr01&bdata=JkF1dGhUeXBlPXNoaWImc2l0ZT1lZHMtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=2017-15491-001&db=pdh (Links to an external site.)
2. Neuman, W. L. (2017). Understanding Research (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Pearson.
3. The topic discussed in the article I chose is mental illness. The article discusses the question of the affect the media plays in regards to one's perception of mental illness. The study designed involves the random assignment of individuals to descriptions of a violent accident. Some descriptions were left unaltered while others were manipulated to mention the term and concept of mental illness. Chan and Yanos (2018) state "we also examined the potential moderating impact of cognitive styles and preexisting attitudes and beliefs."
4. I would say this research is descriptive
5. Experimental
6. Results found that participants are likely to associate mental illness with violent outbursts when stated throughout media. I think this was used for applied social research. Chan and Yanos (2018) state "roughly, 43% of the participants in the experimental condition reported the cause of the incident as related to mental illness, in contrast with only 2% of participants in the control condition." When asked to provide a recount of the article 42% of participants mentioned mental illness while none of the participants of the control group did (Chan & Yanos, 2018).
7. In an unscientific method one can simply ask the question of does mental illness make one violent? Asking a question such as this doesn't entail proper research but a simple yes or no question. Research isn't completed to discover why individuals may have these particular beliefs.
8. Do you think or know of research that discovered why individuals may have these beliefs?
Kenneth Review
1. Article citation.
Steffens, N. K., Haslam, S. A., Jetten, J., & Mols, F. (2018). Our Followers Are Lions, Theirs Are Sheep: How Social Identity Shapes Theories About Followership and Social Influence. Political Psychology, 39(1), 23–42. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12387
2. Book citation.
Neuman, W. L. (2017). Understanding research. Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon.
3. Title and topic.
Our Followers Are Lions, Theirs Are Sheep: How Social Identity Shapes Theories About Followership and Social Influence.
This article is fascinating to say the least. It speaks on the idea that people see followers of other groups as being less of an ideal follower, see them as not being an effective follower, and see members of their own group as being “better” overall. This non effective follower is seen as more conformist, blindly following what they are told, and unable to be think for themselves. Conversely, they see their own group as dynamic free thinkers, active, thoug.
Student Name Annotated Bibliography Bares, D.S., T.docxemelyvalg9
Student Name
Annotated Bibliography
Bares, D.S., Toro, P.A. (1999). Developing measures to assess social support among homeless and poor
people. Journal of Community Psychology, 27 (2), 137-156.
Baras and Toro (1999) sought to assess the social support of homeless populations by using two
commonly used instruments: The Interpersonal Support Evaluation (ISEL) and the Social Network
Interview (SNL). In comparing the instruments, the ISEL was found to be useful in indicating a
participant’s psychological well-being, while the SNL helped to assess stress-buffering effects.
More details regarding the instrument items would have been more helpful for the use of this
paper. However, the study’s results substantiate the concept that the presence of social support
for the homeless should support physical and psychological health in the way that it cushions the
effects of stressful events. These instruments yielded results indicating that larger nonfamily
social networks are a predictor for recurring homelessness, as well as mental illness.
Galaif, E.R., Nyamathi, A.M., Stein, J.A. (1999). Psychosocial predictors of current drug use, drug
problems, and physical drug dependencies in homeless women. Addictive Behaviors, 24 (6), 801-
814.
This study was designed to show relationships between psychosocial elements and use of the top
three most frequently used drugs among homeless women. The impact of social networks on
adaptive and maladaptive coping mechanisms that influence drug use were measured through a
version of the Jalowiec Coping Scale, part of a multi-item instrument. Depression, current drug
use, drug problems and physical drug dependence were assessed, in other parts of the
instrument. Current drug use was found to predict negative social support, depression and less
use of positive coping strategies. Homelessness may diminish a woman’s capability to establish
and maintain positive social support. This article was very informative in that it gives clearly
identified stressors for homeless women and reasons for maladaptation. Use in paper?
Hill, R. P., (1992). Homeless children: coping with material losses. The Journal of Consumer Affairs, 26
(2), 274-287.
This one-year study investigated how various possessions and fantasies serve as coping
mechanisms for homeless children. Many of the child participants were resilient despite
homelessness because of positive role models. In addition, though they had little material
possessions, these children often engaged in fantastical play that portrayed one particular
“special” toy overcoming evil and other obstacles, then moving on to a better place. The
methods used in this study are primarily interviewing and observation, and were part of an
ethnography at a suburban homeless shelter; no psychometric instruments were used. Though
the researcher’s background primarily involves an interest in consumerism, this study is valuable.
Social Psychiatry Comes of Age - Inaugural Column in Psychiatric TimesUniversité de Montréal
In this inaugural column on “Second Thoughts… About Psychiatry, Psychology, and Psychotherapy,” I want to express second thoughts about my profession in a warm and constructive way.
https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/social-psychiatry-comes-of-age
The multi center dilemma project, an investigation on the role of cognitive c...Guillem Feixas
The Multi-Center Dilemma Project is a collaborative research endeavour aimed at determining the role of dilemmas —a kind of cognitive conflict, detected by using an adaptation of Kelly’s Repertory Grid Technique— in a variety of clinical conditions. Implicative dilemmas appear in one third of the non-clinical group (n = 321) and in about
half of the clinical group (n = 286), the latter having a proportion of dilemmas that doubles that of the non-clinical sample. Within the clinical group, we studied 87 subjects, after completing a psychotherapy process, and found that therapy helps to dissolve those dilemmas. We also studied, independently, a group of subjects diagnosed with social phobia (n = 13) and a group diagnosed with irritable bowel syndrome (n = 13) in comparison to non-clinical groups. In both health related problems, dilemmas seem to be quite relevant. Altogether, these studies, though preliminary (and with a small group size in some cases), yield a promising perspective to the unexplored area of the role of cognitive conflicts as an issue to consider when trying to understand some clinical conditions, as well as a focus to be dealt with in psychotherapy when dilemmas are identified.
SHAME AS A CULTURAL INDEX OF ILLNESS AND RECOVERY FROM PSYCHOTIC ILLNESS IN JAVAUniversitasGadjahMada
Most studies of shame have focused on stigma as a form of social response and a socio-psychological consequence of mental illness. This study aims at exploring more complex Javanese meanings of shame in relation to psychotic illness. Six psychotic patients and their family members participated in this research. Ethnographic fieldwork was conducted in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Thematic analysis of the data showed that participants used shame in three different ways. First, as a cultural index of illness and recovery. Family members identified their member as being ill when they had lost their sense of shame. If a patient exhibited behavior that indicated the reemergence of shame, the family saw this as an indication of recovery. Second, as an indication of relapse. Third, as a barrier toward recovery. In conclusion, shame is used as a cultural index of illness and recovery because it associated with the moral-behavioral control. Shame may also be regarded as a form of consciousness associated with the emergence of insight. Further study with a larger group of sample is needed to explore shame as a ‘socio-cultural marker’ for psychotic illness in Java.
Spiritual Transformation in Claimant Mediums / PA Presentation June 2016William Everist, PHD
A qualitative study designed to establish a comprehensive understanding of the initial experience associated with the spiritual transformation process of inexperienced claimant mediums, commonly described as individuals who allegedly have regular communications with the deceased. Spiritually Transformative Experiences are commonly thought to be a type of transformation and expansion of consciousness.
Adiesa Burgess Dr. MixonPSYC-40121 October 2022 C.docxstandfordabbot
Adiesa Burgess
Dr. Mixon
PSYC-401
21 October 2022
Comprehensive Assignment
My chosen research topic is the practices of the Islamic faith related to illness, suffering, death, dying, grief, mourning rituals, and burial or cremation. I chose this topic because Islam is the second largest religion in the world, and I am interested in how this religion deals with death and dying. This topic is significant because death is a universal experience and understanding how different cultures and religions deal with death can help us to understand the human experience. This research will be of interest to scholars and students of religion and culture. Finally, this research will be of interest to anyone who is interested in understanding the Islamic faith and its practices related to death and dying. Additionally, this research can help to inform the practices of healthcare providers who work with Muslim patients (Eyetsemitan, 2021).
Islam has a rich tradition of practices related to death and dying. Muslims believe that death is a natural part of life, and they have developed practices to help them cope with death. For example, when a Muslim is dying, they are typically surrounded by their family and friends, who recite prayers and verses from the Quran. After death, the body is washed and shrouded in a white cloth, and the funeral is held as soon as possible. Grief is a natural part of the mourning process, and Muslims often express their grief through prayer, reading the Quran, and spending time with family and friends. These practices are significant because they provide a way for Muslims to cope with death and dying. They also help to create a sense of community and support for those who are grieving. Additionally, these practices can help to inform the practices of healthcare providers who work with Muslim patients (Bahadur, 2020).
Another way the Islamic faith relates to death, dying, grief, mourning rituals, and burial or cremation is through the concept of martyrdom. Muslims believe that those who die while defending their faith or while performing good deeds are martyrs, and they are rewarded with a special place in paradise. This belief provides comfort to Muslims who are grieving the loss of a loved one, and it also helps to motivate Muslims to do good deeds. Finally, the concept of martyrdom can help to inform the practices of healthcare providers who work with Muslim patients (Bahadur, 2020).
References
Eyetsemitan, F. E. (2021).
Death, dying, and bereavement around the world: Theories, varied views and customs. Charles C Thomas Publisher.
Bahadur, P. (2020). Rituals and beliefs surrounding death in Islam.
Journal of Adventist Mission Studies,
16(1), 173-192.
HOW IS PERSONALITY ASSESSED?
137
to generate detailed images of the brain (e.g., DeYoung et al., in
press). Conversely, studies concerned with brain activity may
use fMRI (e.g., Canli, 2004) or PET (.
Similar to For your first reflection please watch the following video and res.docx (20)
 Assignment 1 Discussion Question Prosocial Behavior and Altrui.docxbudbarber38650

Assignment 1: Discussion Question: Prosocial Behavior and Altruism
By Saturday, July 11, 2015, respond to the discussion question. Submit your responses to the appropriate Discussion Area. Use the same Discussion Area to comment on your classmates' submissions by Saturday, July 11, 2015, and continue the discussion until Wednesday, July 15, 2015 of the week.
Consider and discuss how the phenomena of prosocial behavior and pure altruism relate to each other and how they differ from each other.
Pure altruism is a specific kind of prosocial behavior where your sole motivation is to help a person in need without seeking benefit for yourself. It is often viewed as a truly selfless form of behavior.
Provide an example each of prosocial behavior and pure altruism.

.
● what is name of the new unit and what topics will Professor Moss c.docxbudbarber38650
● what is name of the new unit and what topics will Professor Moss cover? How does this unit correlate to modern times?
● what problems were apparent in urban America?
● what were the three main streams of immigration up through the 1920s? What are "birds of passage?" How were Japanese and Korean immigrants different than Chinese immigrants? What is meant by "pale of settlement" and "pogrom."
● What is meant by "Americanization" and how did this process occur?
● What were the various forms of popular culture during this era, and why were they important?
● what forms of popular culture did working women enjoy? How did middle-class reformers react to these forms?
● what is meant by "the new woman" and "mothers to society?"
● How did middle-class men generally respond to the changing times? Why were people like Eugene Sandow and Harry Houdini so significant at this time?
● What were some of the examples of nativism at this time?
● What was the Social Gospel and what are settlement houses?
.
…Multiple intelligences describe an individual’s strengths or capac.docxbudbarber38650
“…Multiple intelligences describe an individual’s strengths or capacities; learning styles describe an individual’s traits that relate to where and how one best learns” (Puckett, 2013, sec. 7.3).
This week you’ve read about the importance of getting to know your students in order to create relevant and engaging lesson plans that cater to multiple intelligences and are multimodal.
Assignment Instructions:
A. Using
SurveyMonkey
, create a survey that has:
At least five questions based on Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences
At least five additional questions on individual learning style inventory
A specific targeted student population grade level (elementary/ middle/ high school/adults)
Include the survey link for your peers
B. Post a minimum 150 word introduction to your survey, using at least one research-based article (cited in APA format) explaining how it will:
Evaluate students’ abilities in terms of learning styles/preferences
Assist in the creation of differentiated lesson plans.
.
• World Cultural Perspective Paper Final SubmissionResources.docxbudbarber38650
•
World Cultural Perspective Paper Final Submission
Resources
•
By successfully completing this assignment, you will demonstrate your proficiency in the following course competencies and assignment criteria:
•
Competency 1:
Evaluate communication issues and trends of various cultures within the United States.
•
Utilize effective research methods using a variety of applicable sources.
•
Demonstrate an ability to connect suitably selected research information with course content.
•
Competency 2:
Develop cultural self-awareness and other-culture awareness.
•
Investigate the interactive effect that cultural tendencies, issues, and trends of various cultures have on communication.
•
Competency 4:
Analyze how nonverbal communication (body language) affects intercultural communication.
•
Explain how personal interactions are affected by the nonverbal characteristics and differences specific to the U.S. culture.
•
Competency 5:
Communicate effectively in a variety of formats and contexts.
•
Write coherently to support a central idea in appropriate format with correct grammar, usage, and mechanics.
Instructions
This paper is one piece of your course project. Complete the following:
•
Choose a world culture that is unfamiliar to you and is represented domestically in the United States.
•
Use research to collect a variety of resources about the culture. This includes interacting with members of the culture. In particular, focus your research on a small number of social issues surrounding the culture, along with cultural tendencies and trends, and the effect of these things on communication. Types of resources include interviews, media presentations, Web sites, text readings, scholarly articles, and other related materials.
•
In a paper of 500–1,000 words, address these things:
•
Investigate the effect that the tendencies, issues, and trends of the culture have on communication.
•
Explain how characteristics of nonverbal communication and other differences between your selected culture and U.S. culture affect personal interactions between members of the two cultures.
•
Connect the research you gathered to your ideas and explanations.
Refer to the World Cultural Perspective Paper Final Submission Scoring Guide as you develop this assignment.
Assignment Requirements
•
Written Communication:
Written communication is free of errors that detract from the overall message.
•
APA Formatting:
Resources and citations are formatted according to APA style and formatting.
•
Page Requirements:
500–1,000 words.
•
Font and Font Size:
Times New Roman or Arial, 12 point.
Develop your assignment as a Microsoft Word document. Submit your document as an attachment in the assignment area.
Note:
Your instructor may also use the Writing Feedback Tool to provide feedback on your writing.
In the tool, click on the linked resources for helpful writing information.
•
Intercultural Competence Reflection
Resources
Review the situation in the media.
• Write a story; explaining and analyzing how a ce.docxbudbarber38650
•
W
rite a story; explaining and analyzing
how a certain independent variable ( at the individual, group or organization levels) affects a dependent variable (behaviour or attitude),
•
You will freely select your story from “ life” : from college, home, neighborhood, a book , a video/ movie, TV…etc. as long as the story has two clear dependent and independent variables.
•
You will finish with a conclusion that lists both variables and explain their relationship (cause and effect).
•
Assignment words limits 200 words (minimum)
WITH REFRENCES ABOUT THE STORY/ SCENARIO SOURCE !
.
•Use the general topic suggestion to form the thesis statement.docxbudbarber38650
•Use the general topic suggestion to form the
thesis statement
which will be an opinion on the topic. The thesis must have
three
controlling ideas.
•Develop an essay
map or informal outline
•Develop each paragraph using a specific
topic sentence
related to the controls in your thesis; thus, announcing the subject matter of that paragraph.
•Use
transitional devices
throughout the essay and in each paragraph.
•Use any combination of modes to support your arguments.
• Have a well-developed introduction and conclusion.
•Use quotes from the text to support your arguments.
•You must have a title.
•Make a “Work Cited” page with the text as the only source.
Topic:
Reading helps students to develop skills that will make them into a more optimally rounded person. Choose any three skills learned in reading and discuss how each one can help students to be more academically inclined.
the text
“The 1960s: A Decade of Promise and Heartbreak”
By Kenneth T. Walsh
March 9, 2010
US News
It was a decade of extremes, of
transformational
change and
bizarre
contrasts: flower children and
assassins
,
idealism
and
alienation
, rebellion and
backlash
. For many in the
massive
post-World War II baby boom generation, it was both the best of times and the worst of times. (7 words)
There will be many 50-year anniversaries to mark significant events of the 1960s, and a big reason is that what happened in that remarkable era still
resonates
today. At the dawn of that decade of contrasts a half century ago—on Jan. 2 ,1960—a
charismatic
young senator from Massachusetts named John F. Kennedy announced that he was running for president, and he won the nation's highest office the following November. He remains one of the
iconic
figures in U.S. history. On February 1, four determined black men sat at a whites-only lunch counter at a Woolworth's in Greensboro, N.C., and were denied service. Their act of
defiance
triggered a wave of sit-ins for civil rights across the South and brought
unrelenting
national attention to America's original sin of racism. On March 3, Elvis Presley returned to the United States from his Army stint in Germany, resuming his career as a pioneer of rock-and-roll and an icon of the youth culture celebrating freedom and a growing sense of rebellion.(5 words)
By the end of the decade, Kennedy had been
assassinated
, along with his brother Robert and the Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. America's cities had become powder kegs as African-Americans, despite historic gains toward legal equality, became more impatient than ever at being second-class citizens. Women began demanding their rights in
unprecedented
numbers. Young people and their parents felt a widening generation gap as seen in their differing perceptions of
patriotism
, drug use, sexuality, and the work ethic. The now familiar culture wars between liberals and conservatives caused angry divisions over law and order, busing, racial preferences, abortion, the Vie.
•The topic is culture adaptation ( adoption )16 slides.docxbudbarber38650
•
The topic is
culture adaptation ( adoption )
16 slides
FIrst part
1- I have to interview 4 people ( Indians Chinese....)
(Experts professors students......)
-What kind or type of culture shock they experienced when they first came to Kuwait?
And whether they tolerated? how do they feel where they tolerated by Kuwaitis ?
- why culture tolerance of a foreign country is required in international marketing.
Based on what you learn those people, you will learn about feelings and their problems and difficulties when they first arrived in foreign countries. And knowing this, now you have to take this knowledge and apply to marketing and answer the questions whether it's difficult to adopt to foreign culture if it's difficult for people it's probably will be very difficult to also introduce those products and adopt those products to foreign culture. So that's why am asking you why culture tolerance in other nations are important and required to International marketing. you have to answer those
The second part of the presentation
You will identify or you will give domestic examples and foreign examples ( culture imperatives + culture electives + culture exclusive) examples of each category what is it about
The last question of the presentation
To Discuss the factor that determined successfully global adaptation
you have to
inculde a video
( 1 min max: 2 min)
Chapter 5 and you may find it in other chapters
This is the book for my course marketing you can get infomation from it :
https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B8pig2KdTaOBSkRzVjJvR1pLUkU/edit
.
•Choose 1 of the department work flow processes, and put together a .docxbudbarber38650
•Choose 1 of the department work flow processes, and put together a thorough 1-paragraph summary to explain to the team the importance of this process and how it works with the EHR. Choose 1 work flow process from the following choices: ◦Appointment scheduling
◦Front desk or check-in
◦Nursing or clinical support
◦Care provider
◦Check-out desk
◦Business office or billing
◦Clinical staff or care provider
•Discuss and describe 3 facility software applications that integrate with the EHR. Examples of software applications are electronic prescribing, speech recognition, master patient index, encoder, picture archiving and communication, personal health record (PHR), decision support, and more.
•Prepare a 3-paragraph summary of each application for the implementation team, and discuss any problems that may be encountered during EHR implementation.
•Describe the impact of 2 advantages and 2 disadvantages of the EHR so that the implementation team can start to prepare for this discussion with the administrators
650 words
.
‘The problem is not that people remember through photographs, but th.docxbudbarber38650
‘The problem is not that people remember through photographs, but that they remember only photographs. This remembering through photographs eclipses other forms of understanding, and remembering.
Harrowing photographs do not inevitably lose their power to shock. But they are not much help if the task is to understand. Narratives can make us understand. Photographs do something else: they haunt us
’ (Sontag, p. 79-80). Discuss the implications of Sontag’s claim for contemporary politics and humanitarian organisations.
* 3500 WORDS
*font 12
*Double Spaced
*8 resources at least
.
·
C
hoose an article
o
1000 words
o
Published in 5 years
o
Credible (e.g. Wall Street Journal, Asia Times, Fortune)
·
Write 3 single spaced analysis
o
Relate to Organizational Behavior
o
APA style
o
Name of theory; Definition of the theory; Location of link in the article
o
Explain and make analysis
.
·You have been engaged to prepare the 2015 federal income tax re.docxbudbarber38650
·
You have been engaged to prepare the 2015 federal income tax return for Bob and Melissa Grant.
·
Your tax form submission should include: Form 1040, Schedules A, B, D, E, and Forms 4684 and 8949 as applicable. You will come across many items on the tax return we have not talked about in class; if we have not covered it in class, and it is not included in the information below, you do
not
need to address it on this assignment.
·
Your solution should contain a detailed workpaper that calculates the tax due or refunded with the return and calculated in the form of the tax formula (see Ch. 4 lecture slides). The calculation should be well labeled and EASY to follow. This presentation will be factored into your grade. Do NOT include any references or citations on your workpaper.
·
You may complete the return by hand (
neatly
) or typed using 2015 forms found on Blackboard or the IRS website. You may complete the form using software, one version of which is available in the ACELAB.
o
Note – ACELAB software is for the 2014 tax year; if you choose to use this method, you do not need to override the automatically calculated 2014 information, but your workpaper must detail each line item that will differ between the 2014 form generated and the 2015 forms).
·
Use the following assumptions in preparing the return:
o
The general method of accounting used by the Grants is the cash method.
o
Use all opportunities under law to minimize the 2015 federal income tax.
o
Use whole dollars when preparing the tax return.
o
Do not prepare a state income tax return.
o
Ignore the Line 45 calculation for alternative minimum tax.
o
If required information is missing, use reasonable assumptions to fill in the gaps.
Client memo (5 points)
·
Complete a letter to the client regarding tax planning advice. Identify and explain two reasonable tax planning items the family could use to minimize their tax liability and/or maximize their wealth. All items would be implemented in future years and do not impact the current tax return.
BOB AND MELISSA GRANT
INDIVIDUAL FEDERAL INCOME TAX RETURN
Bob (age 43, SSN #987-45-1234) and Melissa Grant (age 43, SSN #494-37-4893) are married and live in Lexington, Kentucky. The Grants would like to file a joint tax return for the year. The Grants’ mailing address is 95 Hickory Road, Lexington, Kentucky 40502.
The Grants have two children Jared (SSN #412-32-5690), age 18, and Alese (SSN #412-32-6940), age 12. Jared is still in high school and works part time as a waiter and earns about $2,000 a year. The Grant’s also provide financial support to Bob’s aged (85 years) grandfather, Michael Sr., who is widowed and lives alone. Michael Sr.’s Social Security number is 982-21-5543. He has no income and the Grant’s provide 100 percent of his support.
Bob Grant’s Forms W-2 provided the following wages and withholding for the year:
Employer
Gross Wages
Federal Income Tax Withholding
State Income Tax Withholding
National Sto.
·Time Value of MoneyQuestion A·Discuss the significance .docxbudbarber38650
·
Time Value of Money
Question A
·
Discuss the significance of recognizing the time value of money in the long-term impact of the capital budgeting decision.
Question B
·
Discuss how the internal rate of return (IRR) method differs from the net present value (NPV) method. Be sure to include an explanation of what the IRR method is and what the NPV method is.
The initial post by day 5 should be a minimum of 150 words. If you use any source outside of your own thoughts, you should reference that source. Include solid grammar, punctuation, sentence structure, and spelling.
.
·Reviewthe steps of the communication model on in Ch. 2 of Bus.docxbudbarber38650
·
Reviewthe steps of the communication model on in Ch. 2 of
Business Communication
. See Figure 2.1.
·
Identify one personal or business communication scenario.
Describe each step of that communication using your personal or business scenario. Use detailed paragraphs in the boxes provided
Steps of communication model
Personal or business scenario
1.
Sender has an idea.
2.
Sender encodes the idea in a message.
3.
Sender produces the message in a medium.
4.
Sender transmits message through a channel.
5.
Audience receives the message.
6.
Audience decodes the message.
7.
Audience responds to the message.
8.
Audience provides feedback to the sender.
Additional Insight
Identify
two potential barriers that could occur in your communication scenario and then explain how you would overcome them. Write your answer(s) below.
.
·Research Activity Sustainable supply chain can be viewed as.docxbudbarber38650
·
Research Activity
Sustainable supply chain can be viewed as Management of raw materials and services from suppliers to manufacturers/ service provider to customer - with improvement of the social and environmental impacts explicitly considered.
Carry out a literature review on sustainable / green supply chain and prepare:
·
A report (provide an example) -2500-3000 words approximately and
Issues/topics that
you may like
to address/consider are:
1.
Drivers for Sustainable SCM
2.
Analysing the impact of carbon emissions on manufacturing operation, cost and profit by focusing on product life cycle analysis.
Analyse aspects of the product life cycle in terms of; Outlining CO2 emission points and scope, defining CO2 baseline, prioritising measures to reduce or off set emissions and finally planning and initiating actions.
3.
New ways of thinking/information sharing
Seven key solution areas were identified:
·
In- store logistics: includes in-store visibility, shelf-ready products, shopper interaction
·
Collaborative physical logistics: shared transport, shared warehouse, shared infrastructure
·
Reverse logistics: product recycling, packaging recycling, returnable assets
·
Demand fluctuation management: joint planning, execution and monitoring
·
Identification and labelling: through the use of barcodes and RFID tags. Identification is about providing all partners in the value chain with the ability to use the same standardised mechanism to uniquely identify parties/locations, items and events with clear rules about where, how, when and by whom these will be created, used and maintained. Labels currently are the most widely used means to communicate about relevant sustainability and security aspects of a certain product towards consumers
·
Efficient assets: alternative forms of energy, efficient/aerodynamic vehicles, switching modes, green buildings
·
Joint scorecard and business plan: this solution consists of a suite of industry-relevant measurement tools falling into two broad categories: qualitative tools, which are a set of capability metrics designed to measure the extent to which the trading partners (supplier, service provider and retailer) are working collaboratively; and quantitative tools, which include business metrics aimed at measuring the impact of collaboration
4.
Sustainability in the carbon economy
5.
Introducing/developing sustainable KPI
s
to SC, SCOR,GSCF Models
Wal-Mart
may be a good example to look at: when you burn less, you pay less and emit less, and the benefits can ripple further. The big advantages for organisations in becoming sustainable are reducing costs and helping the environment. For example: Wal-Mart sells 25% of detergent sold in the United States, by replacing regular washing detergent with concentrate they will save: 400 million gallons of water, 125 million pounds of cardboard and packaging, 95 million pounds of plastic.
.
·DISCUSSION 1 – VARIOUS THEORIES – Discuss the following in 150-.docxbudbarber38650
·
DISCUSSION 1 – VARIOUS THEORIES – Discuss the following in 150-200 words with in text citations and references:
·
Differentiate between the various dispositional, biological and evolutionary personality theories.
·
DISCUSSION 2 – STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS – Discuss the following in 150-200 words with in text citations and references:
·
Explain the strengths and limitations of dispositional, biological and evolutionary personality theories.
·
DISCUSSION 3 – ANALYZE PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS – Discuss the following in 150-200 words with in text citations and references:
·
Analyze individual personality characteristics using dispositional, biological and evolutionary personality theories.
·
DISCUSSION 4 – INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS – Discuss the following in 150-200 words with in text citations and references:
·
Explain interpersonal relations using dispositional and biological or evolutionary personality theories.
·
DISCUSSION 5 – ALLPORTS BELIEF – Discuss the following in 150-200 words with in text citations and references:
·
Do you agree or disagree with Allport's belief that individuals are motivated by present drives, not past events? Why?
.
·
Module 6 Essay Content
:
o
The Module/Week 6 essay requires you to discuss the history and contours of the “original intent” vs. “judicial activism” debate in American jurisprudence.
o
Part 1: Introduce and explain the key arguments supporting the “original intent” perspective and the argument for “judicial activism.”
o
Part 2: Weigh the merits of both sides and provide an assessment of both based upon research and analysis.
·
P
age Length:
At least three (3) pages in addition to the title page, abstract page, and bibliography page
·
Sources/Citations
: At least ten (10) sources, combining course material and outside material, are required. Key ideas from the required reading must be incorporated.
.
·Observe a group discussing a topic of interest such as a focus .docxbudbarber38650
·
Observe a group discussing a topic of interest such as a focus group, a community public assembly, a department meeting at your workplace, or local support group
·
Study how the group members interact and impact one another
·
Analyze how the group behaviors and communication patterns influence social facilitation
·
Integrate your findings with evidence-based literature from journal articles, textbook, and additional scholarly sources
Purpose:
To provide you with an opportunity to experience a group setting and analyze how the presence of others substantially influences the behaviors of its members through social facilitation.
Process:
You will participate as a guest at an interest group meeting in your community to gather data for a qualitative research paper. Once you have located an interest group, contact stakeholders and explain the purpose of your inquiry. After you receive permission to participate, you will schedule a date to attend the meeting; at which time you will observe the members and document the following for your analysis:
Part I
·
How were the people arranged in the physical environment (layout of room and seating arrangement)?
·
What is the composition of the group, in terms of number of people, ages, sex, ethnicity, etc.?
·
What are the group purpose, mission, and goals?
·
What is the duration of the group (short, long-term)? Explain.
·
Did the group structure its discussion around an agenda, program, rules of order, etc.?
·
Describe the structure of the group. How is the group organized?
·
Who are the primary facilitators of the group?
·
What subject or issues did the group members examine during the meeting?
·
What types of information did members exchange in their group?
·
What were the group's norms, roles, status hierarchy, or communication patterns?
·
What communication patterns illustrated if the group was unified or fragmented? Explain.
·
Did the members share a sense of identity with one another (characteristics of the group-similarities, interests, philosophy, etc.)?
·
Was there any indication that members might be vulnerable to Groupthink? Why or why not?
·
In your opinion, how did the collective group behaviors influence individual attitudes and the group's effectiveness? Provide your overall analysis.
Part II
Write a 1,200- to 1,500-word paper incorporating your analysis with evidence to substantiate your conclusion.
Explain how your observations relate to research studies on norm formation, group norms, conformity, and/or social influence.
Integrate your findings with literature from the textbook, peer-reviewed journal articles, and additional scholarly sources. Format your paper consistent with APA guidelines.
.
·Identify any program constraints, such as financial resources, .docxbudbarber38650
·
Identify any program constraints, such as financial resources, human capital, and local culture.
·
Analyze the relationships between the policy developers and the policy implementers for the selected program.
Topic is Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants and Children (WIC) program. 380 words, APA format.
.
·Double-spaced·12-15 pages each chapterThe followi.docxbudbarber38650
·
Double-spaced
·
12-15 pages each chapter
The following is my layout for thesis:
CHAPTER 5
·
Brazil’s current outcomes in government, Financial, environmental, and community aspects.
1.
Variation in Government economic politics
2.
Yearly Financial growth
3.
Environmental risk factors
4.
Changes in community aspects
CHAPTER 6
·
Predictions of Market progression, Industrial variations, and government changes between 2007 to 2017
1.
Predictions for Industrial progression
a)
Financial variations and deviations
b)
Funding distribution for new technologies research and development
2.
Prediction for Brazil’s political outlook
a)
New economic laws and tax exemptions
b)
Changes in Political parties
3.
Predictions for deviations and variations in Brazil’s Market
a)
International growth
b)
Domestic growth
.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
Safalta Digital marketing institute in Noida, provide complete applications that encompass a huge range of virtual advertising and marketing additives, which includes search engine optimization, virtual communication advertising, pay-per-click on marketing, content material advertising, internet analytics, and greater. These university courses are designed for students who possess a comprehensive understanding of virtual marketing strategies and attributes.Safalta Digital Marketing Institute in Noida is a first choice for young individuals or students who are looking to start their careers in the field of digital advertising. The institute gives specialized courses designed and certification.
for beginners, providing thorough training in areas such as SEO, digital communication marketing, and PPC training in Noida. After finishing the program, students receive the certifications recognised by top different universitie, setting a strong foundation for a successful career in digital marketing.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Chapter 3 - Islamic Banking Products and Services.pptx
For your first reflection please watch the following video and res.docx
1. For your first reflection please watch the following video
and respond to the prompts below (length should be close to 2
pages total):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=18zvlz5CxPE
1) Please describe a time where you have felt that someone else
has unfairly judged you based on the way you look, or because
of a group membership you belong to (e.g., religious, political,
sexual orientation, ethnic, etc.).
2) How did this make you feel about yourself? (Please be
detailed in your response)
3) How did this make you feel about the person who incorrectly
passed judgment on you? (please be detailed in your response)
4) Describe a time when you unfairly stereotyped an individual
from a different culture? How did this make you feel once you
realized you unfairly judged them?
N
umerous studies over the past two
decades suggest that when individuals
are diagnosed with a mental illness,
they are placed into a cultural category (e.g.,
“a mentally ill person”) that damages their
material, social, and psychological well-being
(e.g., Link 1987; Link et al. 1989; Markowitz
2. 1998; Rosenfield 1997). According to the
modified labeling theory of mental illness
(Link 1987; Link et al. 1989), the negative
consequences of psychiatric labeling arise
through two social psychological processes.
First, when an individual is diagnosed with a
mental illness, cultural ideas associated with
the mentally ill (e.g., incompetent, dangerous)
become personally relevant and foster nega-
tive self-feelings. Second, these personally rel-
evant cultural meanings are transformed into
expectations that others will reject the individ-
ual, expectations that trigger defensive behav-
iors aimed at preventing that rejection: con-
cealing treatment history, educating others
about mental illness, and/or withdrawing from
social interaction. Ironically, however, these
defensive behaviors are linked with harmful
outcomes: a reduced social network, higher
rates of unemployment, and feelings of
demoralization (Link et al. 1989, 1991).1
Thus, diagnostic labeling is predicted to have
a negative effect on self-feelings, and it is
expected to trigger defensive reactions that
create a type of “secondary deviance,” further
damaging patients’ social interactions, occu-
pational success, and self-image.
We examine the first of these two process-
es in this study. Specifically, we examine the
way that the cultural conceptions of the men-
tally ill are related to patients’ self-feelings.
And, unlike other investigations of this rela-
tionship (e.g., Kroska and Harkness 2006;
3. Link 1987), we explore the way that diagnos-
tic category (adjustment, affective, or schizo-
phrenic) shapes the association; that is, we
Social Psychology Quarterly
2008, Vol. 71, No. 2, 193–208
Exploring the Role of Diagnosis
in the Modified Labeling Theory of Mental Illness
AMY KROSKA
Kent State University
SARAH K. HARKNESS
Stanford University
According to the modified labeling theory of mental illness,
when an individual is diagnosed
with a mental illness, cultural ideas associated with the
mentally ill become personally rel-
evant and foster negative self-feelings. We explore the way that
psychiatric diagnosis shapes
this process. Specifically, we examine if and how psychiatric
patients’ diagnostic category
(adjustment, affective, or schizophrenic) moderates the
relationship between stigma senti-
ments and the meanings associated with self-identities (“myself
as I really am”) and reflect-
ed appraisals (“myself as others see me”). Stigma sentiments
are the evaluation, potency,
and activity associated with the cultural category “a mentally ill
person.” We find that diag-
nosis moderates several of these relationships and that the
results among patients with an
affective diagnosis best match the stigma sentiment hypotheses
derived from the modified
4. labeling theory. We conclude with a discussion of the
implications of these findings for the
stigma sentiment hypotheses. We also highlight several avenues
for future research.
193
We thank Bernice Pescosolido and the Indiana
Consortium for Mental Health Services Research for col-
lecting the data used in this study. We also thank David
Heise, Nancy Docherty, and the Stanford University
Social Psychology Workshop for very helpful feedback.
We presented portions of this paper at the 2007 American
Sociological Association meeting in New York, NY.
Direct correspondence to Amy Kroska, Department of
Sociology, Kent State University, Kent, OH 44242;
[email protected]
1 Link and his colleagues (1989, 1991) measure the
coping strategies as “coping orientations,” which reflect a
combination of patients’ reports of using the strategy and
their support for using it.
194 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLY
examine if and how patients’ diagnostic cate-
gory moderates the association between the
cultural conceptions of the mentally ill and
self-meaning. Given the distinct cultural
meanings and experiences associated with dif-
ferent classes of diagnoses, we consider varied
processes a possibility. We operationalize the
cultural conceptions of the mentally ill with
stigma sentiments: the evaluation (good ver-
sus bad), potency (powerful versus weak), and
5. activity (active versus inactive) associated
with the cultural category “a mentally ill per-
son.” And we operationalize self-meanings as
the evaluation, potency, and activity of
patients’ self-identities (“myself as I really
am”) and reflected appraisals (“myself as oth-
ers see me”).
CULTURAL CONCEPTIONS OF THE MENTALLY ILL
AND PATIENTS’ SELF-FEELINGS
According to the modified labeling theo-
ry, when a person is diagnosed with a mental
disorder, the negative cultural conceptions of
mental illness become personally relevant,
which then damages self-feelings. Link (1987)
investigated this proposition by operationaliz-
ing cultural conceptions with stigma beliefs,
beliefs that psychiatric patients are devalued
and discriminated against. Link measured
stigma beliefs with a twelve-item index that
asked respondents to report their level of
agreement with attitude statements such as
“Most people would willingly accept a former
mental patient as a close friend,” “Most people
believe that a person who has been in a men-
tal hospital is just as intelligent as the average
person,” and “Most people would accept a
fully recovered former mental patient as a
teacher of young children in a public school.”
In support of the proposition, Link found that
stigma beliefs are positively related to demor-
alization among current psychiatric patients
but unrelated among nonpatients (community
residents with and without psychiatric pathol-
ogy who had not received psychiatric treat-
6. ment).
We also supported this proposition in past
research (Kroska and Harkness 2006), but we
operationalized the cultural conceptions of
mental illness with stigma sentiments.
Evaluation, potency, and activity (EPA) are the
three universal dimensions of meaning identi-
fied by Osgood and his colleagues in their
cross-cultural research (e.g., Osgood, May,
and Miron 1975). We see several advantages
to this operationalization of cultural concep-
tions: (1) EPA profiles offer an established
and parsimonious technique for measuring
cultural conceptions that has been used in sev-
eral research areas, including affect control
theory (e.g., Heise 2007), the sociology of
emotions (e.g., Heise and Calhan 1995), the
sociology of meanings and attitudes (e.g.,
Langford and MacKinnon 2000), and the soci-
ology of self-identities (e.g., Lee 1998); (2)
EPA dimensions can be used to measure cul-
tural conceptions of the mentally ill in most, if
not all, populations (Osgood et al. 1975); (3)
EPA measures are unlikely to contain
researcher bias or historically or culturally
specific features; and (4) the three-dimension-
al representation of these conceptions pro-
vides a multifaceted representation of stigma
that not only distinguishes patients from non-
patients but may also help to distinguish
among the different types of stigma associated
with different diagnostic categories (Marks
1965; Nunnally 1961).
7. Drawing on the modified labeling theory,
we developed stigma-sentiment hypotheses
wherein each dimension of meaning associat-
ed with a “mentally ill person” is expected to
be positively related to the corresponding
dimensions of patients’ self-identity and
reflected appraisal but unrelated to the corre-
sponding dimensions of nonpatients’ self-
identity and reflected appraisal (Kroska and
Harkness 2006).2 Nonpatients, in this study,
were college students. We found support for
several of our hypotheses. For example, the
potency that patients associate with “a mental-
ly ill person” is positively related to patients’
own feelings of potency (potency of “myself
as I really am”), whereas the potency of “a
2 In Kroska and Harkness (2006), high values on stig-
ma sentiments indicated high evaluation, potency, and
activity ratings of “a mentally ill person.” To improve clar-
ity, in this study, we have inverted the direction of stigma
sentiments, so high values on stigma sentiments indicate
low evaluation, potency, and activity ratings of “a mental-
ly ill person.”
DIAGNOSIS IN THE MODIFIED LABELING THEORY 195
mentally ill person” is unrelated to the college
students’ feelings of potency.
Diagnosis as Moderator of Stigma Sentiment
to Self-meaning Relationship
We extend this line of research by explor-
8. ing the way that a three-category measure of
diagnosis (adjustment, affective, and schizo-
phrenic) moderates the relationship between
stigma sentiments and mental patients’ self-
meanings. Two previous studies, which used a
dichotomous measure of diagnosis (major
depression versus schizophrenia), suggest that
diagnosis does not moderate the effects of
stigma on well-being. Link (1987) found that
although a diagnosis of depression (rather
than schizophrenia) was related positively to
demoralization, diagnosis did not moderate
the influence of stigma beliefs on demoraliza-
tion. Similarly, Link and his colleagues (1989)
found that diagnosis did not moderate the
effects of stigma beliefs on the size of support
networks nor did it moderate the relationship
between the endorsement of coping strategies
(education, secrecy, withdrawal) and network
size. Yet, these studies recruited respondents
who, before diagnosis, appeared to fit only
two diagnostic groups: major depression and
schizophrenia/schizophrenia-like disorders. In
this study, by contrast, we include all available
subjects diagnosed with either a major mental
illness or an adjustment disorder, which
allows us to explore the moderator role of
diagnosis using a three-category measure:
adjustment diagnoses, affective diagnoses,
and schizophrenic diagnoses. In our sample,
the adjustment diagnoses include adjustment
disorder, grief reaction, and posttraumatic
stress; the affective diagnoses include bipolar
disorder, cyclothymia, dysthymia, and major
depression; and the schizophrenic diagnoses
include psychotic–not otherwise specified,
9. schizoaffective, schizophrenia, and schizo-
phreniform.
Disorders in each category are associated
with distinct symptoms and cultural meanings
and may, therefore, shape the relationship
between stigma sentiments and self-meanings
in distinctive ways. Adjustment disorders
involve distress and behavioral symptoms
experienced in response to external stressors.
Two disorders in this category–the adjustment
disorder and grief reaction disorders–are often
temporary. Affective disorders are mood disor-
ders that involve symptoms of depression and,
for bipolar disorders, symptoms of mania
(Goodwin and Guze 1996). Finally, schizo-
phrenic disorders involve impairments of per-
ceptions, including hallucinations and delu-
sions, symptoms that often impair patients’
social and occupational functioning and can
create alexithymia (Maggini and Raballo
2004; van ‘t Wout et al. 2007), an inability to
recognize one’s own feelings.
Although the symptoms within each diag-
nostic category are well known, little existing
research examines how these diagnoses affect
the association between stigma and self-mean-
ings. Therefore, we do not advance any
hypotheses regarding the direction of modera-
tion for each diagnostic group; instead, we
simply pose two research questions, one for
the relationship between stigma sentiments
and the EPA of patients’ self-identity (“myself
as I really am”) and one for the relationship
10. between stigma sentiments and the EPA of
patients’ reflected appraisals (“myself as oth-
ers see me”).
Diagnosis-as-Moderator Research Question 1:
Does the relationship between the evaluation,
potency, and activity of “a mentally ill person”
and the corresponding dimensions of self-identi-
ty (“myself as I really am”) vary by diagnostic
category (adjustment, affective, and schizo-
phrenic)?
Diagnosis-as-Moderator Research Question 2:
Does the relationship between the evaluation,
potency, and activity of “a mentally ill person”
and the corresponding dimensions of reflected
appraisals (“myself as others see me”) vary by
diagnostic category (adjustment, affective, and
schizophrenic)?
According to the stigma sentiment
hypotheses, each dimension of meaning asso-
ciated with “a mentally ill person” should be
positively related to the corresponding of
meaning associated with patients’ self-identity
and reflected appraisal. Therefore, positive
relationships are consistent with the stigma
sentiment hypotheses; negative relationships
196 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLY
are inconsistent with the hypotheses. Cross-
dimensional relationships (e.g., between the
potency of “a mentally ill person” and self-
11. evaluation) were not anticipated in the
hypotheses.
We examine these associations when con-
trolling for the global assessment of function-
ing, a measure of an individual’s social, psy-
chological, and occupational functioning.
Thus, our analyses examine the moderator
role of diagnosis while controlling, at least to
some extent, for symptom severity. Given the
differences in the severity of impairment
across the three diagnostic categories, this
control helps rule out the possibility that diag-
nostic category simply reflects symptom
severity.
METHODS
Data
We use psychiatric patient data from
Wave 1 of the Indianapolis Network Mental
Health Study. The data were collected at the
two largest general hospitals, one public and
one private, in Indianapolis. The patients are
individuals who made their first major contact
with the mental health system and were diag-
nosed with either a serious mental illness or an
adjustment disorder. All individuals fitting
study criteria were asked to participate
through a rolling recruitment strategy that
began in January 1990. Data were collected
from the patients within three months of their
initial contact with the mental health system.
A total of 173 patients participated in wave 1
of the Indianapolis study, representing a
12. response rate of 66.4 percent. We have com-
plete data for the current study for 142 of the
173 patients.
Dependent Variables
Self-meanings are the evaluation (good
versus bad), potency (powerful versus weak),
and activity (active versus inactive) of “myself
as I really am” (self-identity) and “myself as
others see me” (reflected appraisal). The
dimensions were measured with seven-point
semantic differential scales. The evaluation
scale was anchored with the adjective pairs
“good” and “bad,” the potency scale with
“powerful” and “powerless,” and activity with
“fast, noisy” and “slow, quiet.” The middle cir-
cle was marked “neutral”; the circles between
the midpoint and the endpoints were marked
with “slightly,” “quite,” and “extremely.”
These were coded with values ranging from
–3 to +3.
To reduce response sets, the direction of
the adjectives was randomized across stimuli.
The interviewer read the semantic differential
instructions, which were printed on the survey,
and the respondent could read along. The
instructions stated:
The next few pages measure your attitude about
things. The subject is printed in large type. You
rate how you feel about the subject on all three of
the scales that follow. For example, if you think
“a Riot” is quite bad, slightly powerful, and
13. extremely active you would mark the scales as
follows.
[“a Riot” is followed by the evaluation scale
marked at “quite bad,” the potency scale marked
at “slightly powerful,” and the activity scale
marked at “extremely fast, noisy.”]
Be careful because the Good, Powerful, and Fast
ends of the scale change from one side to the
other as you proceed from word to word.
Rate the words according to your f irst
impressions. There are no right answers other
than the answers that show how you feel.
If the respondent had difficulty with the
semantic differential scales, the interviewer
provided assistance. Table 1 shows the
descriptive statistics for these and the other
variables in the analysis.
Independent Variables
Stigma sentiments are operationalized
with the evaluation, potency, and activity
associated with “a mentally ill person,” mea-
sured with the semantic differential scales
described above. Low EPA ratings of “a men-
tally ill person” indicate high stigma senti-
ments, and high EPA ratings indicate low stig-
ma sentiments.
Diagnosis has three categories: 32 of the
142 patients (22.5%) have an adjustment diag-
nosis (adjustment disorder, grief reaction, or
14. DIAGNOSIS IN THE MODIFIED LABELING THEORY 197
posttraumatic stress), 93 (65.5%) have an
affective diagnosis (bipolar, cyclothymia, dys-
thymia, or major depression), and 17 (12.0%)
have a schizophrenic diagnosis (psychotic–not
otherwise specified, schizoaffective, schizo-
phrenia, or schizophreniform).
Global assessment of functioning scores
reflect the severity of patients’ symptoms and
can range from a low of 1 (persistent danger of
severely hurting self or others) to a high of
100 (superior functioning; no symptoms).
Scores in this sample range from 10 to 73,
with a mean of 46.55, a score that indicates
serious impairment in social, occupational, or
school functioning. A clinically trained survey
interviewer determined this score using the
patient’s answers to a series of questions and
information from the patient’s file.
RESULTS
Differences in Self-meanings by Diagnosis
Before examining our research questions,
we briefly review the self-meaning differences
across diagnoses. Table 1 displays the mean
evaluation, potency, and activity ratings of
self-identities (“myself as I really am”) and
reflected appraisals (“myself as others see
15. me”) in each diagnostic group. Models 1, 4,
and 7 in Tables 2 and 3 show the significance
of the differences in self-meanings by diag-
nostic group, while Models 2, 5, and 8 show
the significance of the differences when con-
trolling for symptom severity (the global
assessment of functioning), sociodemographic
characteristics, and stigma sentiments. For
simplicity, we simply highlight the means
reported in Table 1. A fuller discussion of the
significance of these differences in Tables 2
and 3 is available on the SPQ website.
Self-identity. As shown in Table 1, patients
with an adjustment diagnosis see themselves
(“myself as I really am”) as slightly good
(.53), neither powerful nor weak (–.13), and
slightly inactive (–.75). Patients with an affec-
tive diagnosis have a similar but less inactive
self-meaning (.88, –.27, –.09). Schizophrenic
patients evaluate themselves more positively
than either group (1.59) but are similar on
potency (–.35) and activity (–.41).
Reflected appraisal. As shown in Table 1,
patients with an adjustment diagnosis feel oth-
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics for Variables in the Analyses
Patients by Diagnosis
All Adjustment Affective Schizophrenic
Psychiatric Disorder Disorder Disorder
(N = 142) (n = 32) (n = 93) (n = 17)
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
17. 198 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLY
ers see them (“myself as others see me”) as
neutral in goodness (.41), power (.34), and
activity (.00). Affective patients have a similar
but somewhat more positive reflected
appraisal (.72, .30, .17). Schizophrenic
patients’ reflected appraisal is more positive
(1.29) and less potent (–.41) but similar in
activity (–.06) to the other patients’ reflected
appraisals.
Diagnosis as a Moderator
To assess our research questions, we
examine Models 3, 6, and 9 of Tables 2 and 3,
because these equations include the diagnosis
by stigma sentiment interactions. Because we
have a small number of cases (and hence little
statistical power) and our analyses are
exploratory, we report interactions that are
only marginally significant (p < .10). We dis-
play the interactions in Figures 1–6. “Low” on
the x-axis is 1 sd below that mean (which is
–1.26 on the evaluation of “a mentally ill per-
son” and –2.37 on the potency of “a mentally
ill person”); “high” is 1 sd above that mean
(1.39 on the evaluation of “a mentally ill per-
son” and .64 on the potency of “a mentally ill
person”). The stigma sentiment that is part of
the focal interaction is held at its high or low
point throughout the entire equation; the vari-
ables that are not part of the focal interaction
are held at their means.3 We display the signif-
18. icant (p < .05) slopes in bold along with their
coefficients and p-values.
Self-evaluation. Model 3 in Table 2 shows that
diagnosis moderates the relationship between
the evaluation of “a mentally ill person” and
self-evaluation. As the evaluation of “a men-
tally ill person” increases one unit, affective
patients’ self-evaluation increases .27 units (b
= .27, se = .12, p = .022), results consistent
with the stigma sentiment hypotheses. This
significant slope is displayed in bold in Figure
1. Among patients with a schizophrenic or an
adjustment disorder, by contrast, the relation-
ship is negative and not significant when these
slopes are modeled separately (adjustment: b
= –.24, se = .23, p = .302; schizophrenic: b =
–.37, se = .26, p = .150).4 Yet, when the high-
ly similar schizophrenic and adjustment
patient slopes are modeled together (not
shown), the negative slope is marginally sig-
nificant (b = –.29, se = .17, p = .086).5
Model 3 also shows that diagnosis moder-
ates the association between the potency of “a
mentally ill person” and self-evaluation. As
the potency of “a mentally ill person” increas-
es one unit among schizophrenic and affective
patients, self-evaluation increases (b = .27, se
= .10, p = .009). This slope is displayed in bold
in Figure 2. By contrast, the potency of “a
mentally ill person” is not significantly relat-
ed to self-evaluation among adjustment
patients (b = –.25, se = .16, p = .129) as shown
by the dashed slope in Figure 2. Although this
19. cross-dimensional result is not part of the stig-
ma sentiment hypotheses, the positive direc-
tion of the effect among affective and schizo-
phrenic patients is compatible with the
hypotheses.
Self-potency. Models 5 and 6 show that the
potency of “a mentally ill person” is positive-
3 When two diagnostic categories are grouped together
for a slope, we use the proportion of the non-omitted cat-
egory relative to the omitted for the relevant diagnosis
dummy. For example, there are 32 adjustment and 93
affective cases, so we used .256 (32/(32 + 93)) for the
adjustment dummy when generating predicted values for
the joint adjustment and affective slopes found in Figures
3 to 6.
4 Recall that the coefficient for the non-omitted cate-
gories that are part of an interaction can be determined by
adding together the category’s interaction term and the
corresponding main effect. Thus, the coefficient for the
evaluation of “a mentally ill person” for adjustment
patients (a non-omitted diagnosis) is .27 –.51 = –.24, and
the coefficient for the evaluation of “a mentally ill per-
son” for schizophrenic patients (a non-omitted diagnosis)
is .27 –.64 = –.37. We determined the standard errors and
significance of these coefficients by reversing the coding
(making the non-omitted category the omitted category)
and observing the standard error and p-value for the
appropriate main effect (evaluation of “a mentally ill per-
son” in this example).
5 This alternative equation collapses the two highly
similar slopes by changing the omitted diagnosis to schiz-
ophrenia and including only the affective � evaluation of
20. “a mentally ill person” and adjustment � potency of “a
mentally ill person” interactions. This equation fits the
data somewhat better as indicated by a slightly higher
adjusted R2 (.173). We do not report this equation in Table
2, because it would mean using a different omitted diag-
nosis across models. It is available on request.
DIAGNOSIS IN THE MODIFIED LABELING THEORY 199
ly related to self-potency at a marginally sig-
nificant level among all patients (b = .16, se =
.09, p = .093), consistent with the stigma sen-
timent hypotheses. In addition, Model 6 and
Figure 3 show another cross-dimensional
effect: diagnosis moderates the relationship
between the evaluation of “a mentally ill per-
son” and self-potency. Among schizophrenic
patients, evaluation of “a mentally ill person”
is positively related to self-potency (b = .56, se
= .28, p = .046), but among adjustment and
affective patients, evaluation of “a mentally ill
person” is unrelated to self-potency (b = .04,
se = .11, p = .751).
Self-activity. Model 9 shows that the activity
of “a mentally ill person” is positively related
to self-activity among all patients (b = .33, se
= .10, p = .001), results consistent with the
stigma sentiment hypotheses. Model 9 and
Figure 4 also show another cross-dimensional
effect. As the potency of “a mentally ill per-
son” increases among adjustment and affec-
tive patients, feelings of activity decline (b =
–.19, se = .10, p = .044), but as the potency of
21. “a mentally ill person” increases among schiz-
ophrenic patients, feelings of activity do not
change significantly (b = .26, se = .23, p =
.268).
Table 2. OLS Regressions of Psychiatric Patients’ Evaluation,
Potency, and Activity Ratings of “Myself As I Really
Am” on Controls and Stigma Sentiments (N = 142)
Myself As I Really Am
Independent Variables Evaluation Potency Activity
Models .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9
Adjustment disorder –.35 –.06 –.52 .14 .47 .46 –.66* –.52 –.57†
(0 = affective disorder) (.31) (.33) (.36) (.33) (.35) (.35) (.32)
(.34) (.34)
Schizophrenic disorder .71† .80† .46 –.08 –.44 –.15 –.33 –.45 –
.08
(0 = affective disorder) (.40) (.43) (.44) (.43) (.45) (.48) (.42)
(.44) (.48)
Global assessment of functioning –.01 –.01 –.02* –.02* .001
.002
(.01) (.01) (.01) (.01) (.01) (.01)
Female .05 –.003 –.61* –.55† –.10 –.14
(.28) (.28) (.30) (.30) (.29) (.29)
Age .02† .02 .01 .01 –.02 –.02
(.01) (.01) (.01) (.01) (.01) (.01)
Black (0 = white) .52 .36 .01 .02 –.31 –.42
(.32) (.31) (.33) (.33) (.32) (.32)
Years of schooling .09 .08 –.04 –.04 .08 .08
23. 200 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLY
Reflected appraisal evaluation. Model 3 in
Table 3 and Figure 5 show that diagnosis moder-
ates the relationship between the evaluation of “a
mentally ill person” and reflected appraisal self-
evaluation. Among adjustment and affective
patients, the relationship is positive (b = .44, se =
Figure 1. Self-evaluation by Evaluation of “A Mentally Ill
Person”
Figure 2. Self-evaluation by Potency of “A Mentally Ill Person”
DIAGNOSIS IN THE MODIFIED LABELING THEORY 201
.11, p < .001), results congruent with the stigma
sentiment hypotheses. Among schizophrenic
patients, however, the association is negative and
not significant (b = –.33, se = .28, p = .240).
Reflected appraisal potency. Model 6 and
Figure 6 show that diagnosis moderates the
relationship between the potency of “a men-
tally ill person” and reflected appraisal poten-
Figure 3. Self-potency by Evaluation of “A Mentally Ill Person”
Figure 4. Self-activity by Potency of “A Mentally Ill Person”
24. 202 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLY
cy. Specifically, the association between the
potency of “a mentally ill person” and reflect-
ed appraisal potency remains nonsignificant
for affective and adjustment patients (b = .08,
se = .10, p = .395) but is negative and signifi-
cant for schizophrenic patients (b = –.67, se =
.24, p = .006). Model 6 also shows a cross-
dimensional effect applicable to all patients:
the activity of “a mentally ill person” is posi-
tively related to reflected appraisal potency at
a marginally significant level (b = .20, se =
.10, p = .063).
Reflected appraisal activity. Model 8 shows
that the activity of “a mentally ill person” is
positively related to reflected appraisal activi-
ty at a marginally significant level (b = .21, se
= .11, p = .056), results consistent with the
stigma sentiment hypotheses. This relation-
ship does not differ by diagnosis.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
According to the modified labeling theory of
mental illness (Link 1987; Link et al. 1989), the
negative effects of psychiatric labeling are rooted
in the meanings associated with the cultural cate-
gory “a mentally ill person.” When an individual
is diagnosed with a mental illness, two social psy-
chological processes are expected to occur. First,
the cultural conceptions of the mentally ill (e.g.,
incompetent, dangerous) become self-relevant
and are transformed into negative self-feelings.
25. Second, the self-relevant cultural meanings gener-
ate expectations of rejection, which then trigger
defensive behaviors (concealing, educating, and
withdrawing) aimed at warding off rejection.
These coping behaviors often backfire, however,
Table 3. OLS Regressions of Psychiatric Patients’ Evaluation,
Potency, and Activity Ratings of “Myself As Others See
Me” on Controls and Stigma Sentiments (N = 142)
Myself As Others See Me
Independent Variables Evaluation Potency Activity
Models .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8
Adjustment disorder –.31 –.30 –.29 .04 .33 .43 –.17 –.07
(0 = affective disorder) (.34) (.36) (.35) (.33) (.36) (.35) (.34)
(.37)
Schizophrenic disorder .57 1.27** .86† –.71† –.88† –1.50** –
.23 –.12
(0 = affective disorder) (.44) (.46) (.48) (.42) (.46) (.49) (.44)
(.47)
Global assessment of functioning .003 .005 –.01 –.01 –.004
(.01) (.01) (.01) (.01) (.01)
Female .31 .22 –.57† –.50† .32
(.30) (.30) (.30) (.29) (.31)
Age –.01 –.01 .01 .01 –.03†
(.01) (.01) (.01) (.01) (.01)
Black (0 = white) –.31 –.33 –.03 .15 –.42
(.34) (.33) (.34) (.33) (.35)
Years of schooling .21** .22** .04 .05 .14*
26. (.07) (.07) (.07) (.06) (.07)
Evaluation .34** .44*** .09 .09 –.08
(.11) (.11) (.11) (.10) (.11)
A mentally ill person Potency .16 .16† –.01 .08 –.09
(.10) (.10) (.10) (.10) (.10)
Activity –.09 –.09 .14 .20† .21†
(.11) (.10) (.11) (.10) (.11)
Schizophrenic disorder � –.77*
—evaluation of “a mentally ill person” (.30)
Schizophrenic disorder � –.76**
—potency “a mentally ill person” (.25)
Intercept .72 –1.77 –1.79 .30 .62 .55 .17 –.62
(.17) (1.01) (.99) (.17) (1.01) (.98) (.17) (1.03)
R2 .02 .18 .22 .02 .11 .16 .003 .11
Adjusted R2 .01 .12 .16 .01 .04 .09 –.01 .04
Note: Coefficients are unstandardized; standard errors are in
parentheses; † p < .10; * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001
(two-tailed tests).
}
DIAGNOSIS IN THE MODIFIED LABELING THEORY 203
and fail to improve the well-being of psychiatric
patients (Link et al. 1989, 1991). Thus, according
to the modified labeling theory, psychiatric label-
27. ing damages patients by fostering negative self-
feelings and by prompting patients to behave in
counter-productive ways.
Figure 5. Reflected Appraisal Evaluation by Evaluation of “A
Mentally Ill Person”
Figure 6. Reflected Appraisal Potency by Potency of “A
Mentally Ill Person”
204 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLY
We examined the first of these processes
by examining the association between the cul-
tural conceptions of the mentally ill and
patients’ self-feelings. But, unlike other inves-
tigations, we explored the way that diagnostic
category shapes the process. We found that
both stigma sentiments (the evaluation, poten-
cy, and activity associated with the cultural
category “a mentally ill person”) and diagnos-
tic category (adjustment, affective, and schiz-
ophrenic) are related to the evaluation, poten-
cy, and activity of psychiatric patients’ self-
identities (“myself as I really am”) and reflect-
ed appraisals (“myself as other see me”).
Among affective patients, five of the six asso-
ciations between the EPA of “a mentally ill
person” and the corresponding dimension of
self-meanings were positive and hence consis-
tent with our (Kroska and Harkness 2006)
stigma sentiment hypotheses. Among adjust-
ment and schizophrenic patients, however, we
28. found more negative and cross-dimensional
relationships, results inconsistent with (the
negative associations) or not anticipated by
(the cross-dimensional associations) the stig-
ma sentiment hypotheses. We examined these
associations while controlling for symptom
severity and the demographic characteristics
of gender, age, race, and education. The con-
trol for symptom severity is important,
because it suggests that diagnostic category is
not simply a proxy for symptom severity.
Results Overview
We found that diagnostic category moder-
ates the relationship between stigma senti-
ments and six self-meanings. Table 4 sum-
maries the results by listing the direction of all
the stigma sentiment to self-meaning relation-
ships that are at least marginally significant.
An empty cell indicates a nonsignificant asso-
ciation. Each row shows the relationships
between the evaluation, potency, and activity
of “a mentally ill person” and each self-mean-
ing within a diagnostic category. Each column
shows the relationships for each self-meaning
across diagnoses. Positive signs in the left-
diagonal are positive, within-dimension (e.g.,
evaluation-evaluation) associations and are
consistent with the stigma sentiment hypothe-
ses. Because high values on the EPA of “a
mentally ill person” indicate low stigma senti-
ments, a positive sign in this table indicates a
negative relationship between stigma senti-
ments and self-meaning, while a negative sign
29. indicates a positive relationship.
Three of the six within-dimension rela-
tionships–those between a stigma sentiment
and its corresponding self-meaning–apply in
the same way to patients in all three diagnos-
tic groups (adjustment, affective, and schizo-
phrenic). Among all patients, (1) the potency
of “a mentally ill person” is positively related
to self-potency at a marginally significant
level; (2) the activity of “a mentally ill person”
is positively related to self-activity; and (3) the
activity of “a mentally ill person” is positively
related to reflected appraisal activity at a mar-
ginally significant level. Thus, diagnostic cat-
egory does not moderate these three within-
dimension associations. Instead, the stigma
sentiment hypotheses pertaining to self-poten-
cy, self-activity, and reflected appraisal activi-
ty apply to patients in all three diagnostic
groups.
In addition, we found one cross-dimen-
sional result that applies to all patients, albeit
at a marginally significant level: the activity of
“a mentally ill person” is positively associated
with reflected appraisal potency. This associa-
tion may be related to the association between
patient activity and observers’ perceptions of
danger. Riskind and Wahl (1992) showed that
observers perceive mentally ill individuals
who are highly active as more dangerous than
nonpatients engaged in the same highly active
behaviors. Given the association between dan-
ger and power, the relationship between the
activity of “a mentally ill person” and reflect-
30. ed appraisal power may reflect patients’
understanding of this perception.
Yet, diagnosis does moderate six relation-
ships. Three of the interactions are within-
dimensions: diagnosis moderates the relation-
ships between evaluation of “a mentally ill
person” and self-evaluation (Figure 1),
between the evaluation of “a mentally ill per-
son” and reflected appraisal evaluation
(Figure 5), and between the potency of “a
mentally ill person” and reflected appraisal
potency (Figure 6). And three are cross-
DIAGNOSIS IN THE MODIFIED LABELING THEORY 205
dimensional: diagnosis moderates the associa-
tions between the potency of “a mentally ill
person” and self-evaluation (Figure 2),
between the evaluation of “a mentally ill per-
son” and self-potency (Figure 3), and between
the potency of “a mentally ill person” and self-
activity (Figure 4). In the next three sections
we discuss the distinctive results for each
diagnostic group, highlighting the implica-
tions of the findings for the stigma sentiment
hypotheses derived from the modified label-
ing theory.
Diagnostic-specific Patterns
Affective diagnosis. Among affective patients,
five of the six within-dimension relationships
are positive and significant or marginally sig-
31. nificant. Thus, most of the cultural concep-
tions of the mentally ill, particularly the good-
ness and activity components, are self-rele-
vant to affective patients in the way expected
by the stigma sentiment hypotheses. Thus,
these hypotheses offer reasonable explana-
tions of some of the self and stigma processes
among individuals diagnosed with an affective
disorder.
Yet, we also found two distinctive cross-
dimensional results among affective patients.
First, the potency that patients see in “a men-
tally ill person” is positively related to self-
evaluation, indicating that patients who see the
mentally ill as especially powerful have partic-
ularly high self-esteem. This effect, also found
among schizophrenic patients, is relatively
large and significant. It may, therefore, be
appropriate to expand the stigma sentiment
hypotheses to include this cross-dimensional
effect, at least for patients with affective and
schizophrenic disorders.
Second, the potency of “a mentally ill
person” is negatively related to self-activity.
This second cross-dimensional effect, shared
with adjustment patients, is not clearly com-
patible with the stigma sentiments hypotheses,
at least not if high activity is considered a
desirable trait for all psychiatric patients.
However, as we observe (Kroska and
Harkness 2006), activity has multifaceted and
complex meanings among psychiatric
patients. For example, low activity may be a
32. healthy feeling for some patients, particularly
those whose mental illness induces feelings of
mania (e.g., bipolar disorder), suggesting that
the potency patients associate with “a mental-
ly ill person” may be linked with low (rather
than high) feelings of activity. This finding
Table 4. Summary of Relationships between the Evaluation,
Potency, and Activity of “A Mentally Ill Person” and Self-
meanings Reported in the Final Models of Tables 2 and 3
Affective Patients:
Myself As I Really Am Myself As Others See Me
Evaluation Potency Activity Evaluation Potency Activity
A mentally ill person Evaluation + +
Potency + + –
Activity + + +
Adjustment Patients:
Myself As I Really Am Myself As Others See Me
Evaluation Potency Activity Evaluation Potency Activity
A mentally ill person Evaluation – +
Potency + –
Activity + + +
Schizophrenic Patients:
Myself As I Really Am Myself As Others See Me
Evaluation Potency Activity Evaluation Potency Activity
33. A mentally ill person Evaluation – +
Potency + + –
Activity + + +
Notes: + indicates a positive relationship with at least p < .10; –
indicates a negative relationship with at least p < .10.
206 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLY
suggests more work may be needed to refine
the meaning of high and low levels of self-
activity within each diagnostic category.
Adjustment diagnosis. The results for adjust-
ment patients are the same as the results for
affective patients with two exceptions: the
evaluation of “a mentally ill person” is nega-
tively (not positively) related to self-evalua-
tion at a marginally significant level, and the
potency of “a mentally ill person” is unrelated
to self-evaluation. Thus, the stigma sentiments
hypotheses are somewhat less effective at pre-
dicting stigma and self-processes among
adjustment patients. The cultural conceptions
associated with the mentally ill may have less
influence on the way adjustment patients see
themselves, because adjustment disorders,
unlike most affective and schizophrenic disor-
ders, are often temporary. Future work could
explore the effect of disorder chronicity on
these processes.
Schizophrenic diagnosis. Four of the five
34. associations between stigma sentiments and
schizophrenic self-identity (“myself as I really
am”) meanings are positive, and two of these
four are cross-dimensional effects involving
evaluation and potency. These patterns under-
score the value of incorporating positive
potency-to-evaluation and evaluation-to-
potency effects into the stigma sentiment
hypotheses. Hence, among schizophrenic
patients, the stigma sentiment hypotheses
offer reasonable predictions regarding stigma
and self-identity processes if these hypotheses
are expanded to include positive cross-dimen-
sional relationships between potency and eval-
uation.
However, the relationships between stig-
ma sentiments and schizophrenic patients’
reflected appraisals are less consistent with
the stigma sentiment hypotheses and most dis-
tinct from the other two groups. Unlike the
other patients, schizophrenic patients’ evalua-
tion of “a mentally ill person” is unrelated to
reflected appraisal evaluation, and unlike the
other patients, the potency they see in “a men-
tally ill person” is negatively related to their
reflected appraisal potency, an effect that is
relatively large and significant. Thus, schizo-
phrenic patients’ evaluation of the mentally ill
is irrelevant to their understanding of others’
evaluation of them. And schizophrenic
patients’ view of the potency of the mentally
ill is negatively related to the power they feel
others see in them. The stigma sentiment
hypotheses, then, provide little guidance for
35. understanding the role of stigma in schizo-
phrenic patients’ sense of how others see
them.
Future Investigations of Diagnosis
as a Moderator
Researchers should explore the origin of
the differential relationship between stigma
sentiments and self-meaning found for each
type of psychiatric patient: adjustment, affec-
tive, and schizophrenic. We found these differ-
ential relationships when controlling for symp-
tom severity (the global assessment of func-
tioning). Thus, although future studies with
additional controls for symptom severity are
important, our results suggest that the modera-
tor role of diagnosis is not simply a function of
the severity of patients’ symptoms. Instead,
something other than symptom severity within
each diagnostic category affects the way that
stigma sentiments shape self-meanings.
We see two features of the diagnostic cat-
egory that may create these varied relation-
ships. First, the contrasting effects of stigma
sentiments on self-meaning may be due to the
unique symptoms of each type of disorder. For
example, the disordered thinking and delu-
sions that can accompany schizophrenia
(Goodwin and Guze 1996) may distort schiz-
ophrenics’ perceptions of how others see
them. And the alexithymia that can accompa-
ny schizophrenia (Maggini and Raballo 2004;
van ’t Wout et al. 2007) may inhibit these
patients’ ability to recognize and/or describe
36. their own self-feelings in the same way as
adjustment and affective patients. Therefore,
the cultural conceptions of the mentally ill
may only become personally relevant to schiz-
ophrenics in the expected way after extended
treatment when some of schizophrenic
patients’ distinctive symptoms are reduced.
Hence, it will be valuable in future research to
DIAGNOSIS IN THE MODIFIED LABELING THEORY 207
assess the relationship between stigma senti-
ments and self-meanings both before and after
psychiatric treatment. Second, the contrasting
effects of stigma sentiments on self-meaning
may be due to uncontrolled variation in the
cultural conceptions associated with each dis-
order. Each diagnosis may carry its own cul-
tural meanings that were not captured with the
broad category of “a mentally ill person.”
Future work could explore the association
between diagnosis-specific sentiments (e.g.,
the EPA of “a person with schizophrenia”) and
self-meanings.
More generally, this study suggests the
importance of examining the way that diagno-
sis moderates the effects of stigma on mental
patients. Future investigations should continue
to explore these moderated effects using at
least a three-category operationalization of
diagnosis. Our study included a small sample,
especially among schizophrenic patients (N =
17), so future studies using larger samples of
37. each diagnostic group will be especially
important. Future studies could also explore
these processes among patients with axis II
diagnoses (i.e., personality disorders, such as
antisocial personality disorder or avoidant per-
sonality disorder) as well as the axis I disor-
ders examined in this study.
Future Investigations of Labeling Processes
We also see fruitful avenues for future
research on the effects of stigma sentiments on
labeling processes. As noted previously, the use
of stigma sentiments to operationalize the cul-
tural conceptions of the mentally ill offers sev-
eral advantages: EPA profiles are an estab-
lished and parsimonious technique for measur-
ing cultural meanings; EPA dimensions can be
used to measure cultural conceptions cross-cul-
turally; EPA measures are unlikely to contain
historically, culturally, or researcher specific
features; and the three-dimensional representa-
tion provides a multifaceted representation of
stigma that can help distinguish among differ-
ent types of stigma. Further, our previous work
(Kroska and Harkness 2006) provides evidence
of the validity of using stigma sentiments as a
measure of stigma beliefs by showing that
scores on the stigma beliefs index (Link 1987;
Link et al. 1997) are correlated with two stigma
sentiments: evaluation and potency. A key
premise of affect control theory is that all social
cognitions evoke affective associations
(MacKinnon 1994). Our validation assessment
suggests that cognitions on the stigma beliefs
38. index evoke the affective meanings associated
with “a mentally ill person,” that is, stigma sen-
timents.
Future studies could use stigma sentiments
and self-meanings to explore the modified
labeling theory hypothesis that stigma beliefs
increase the use of three stigma coping behav-
iors: concealing psychiatric treatment history,
educating others about mental illness, and
withdrawing from social interaction. This
exploration could be done using Interact, a
computer program that simulates social interac-
tion using the principles of affect control theo-
ry (Heise 1979, 2007). Researchers could run
Interact simulations with actors represented by
the self-EPAs of patients with high- and low-
stigma sentiments to determine if patients with
high stigma sentiments (low EPA ratings of “a
mentally ill person”) are more likely to than
patients with low stigma sentiments (high EPA
ratings of “a mentally ill person”) to engage in
these coping behaviors. Given the varied rela-
tionships between stigma sentiments and self-
meaning within each diagnostic category, these
analyses could be further elaborated by using
diagnosis-specific self-meanings within the
high- and low-stigma sentiment categories.
Futures studies could also explore the way
that nonpatients’ stigma sentiments affect
their behavior toward mental patients. While
the cognitions that are part of the stigma
beliefs index may evoke stigma sentiments, as
we noted above, stigma sentiments may, in
turn, evoke interaction patterns consistent
39. with the behavioral items in the index. That is,
stigma sentiments may, in essence, “store” or
“code” the behaviors measured in that index.
Researchers could explore this idea using
Interact as well. Specif ically, researchers
could examine if nonpatients with high stigma
sentiments interact with psychiatric patients in
ways that more closely match those behaviors
(e.g., not befriending, trusting, or hiring psy-
chiatric patients) than do nonpatients with low
stigma sentiments. Such examinations would
208 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLY
Amy Kroska is an associate professor in the sociology
department at Kent State University. Her
research interests include social psychology, mental health,
family, and gender. Her current research
examines the effect of stigma sentiments on psychiatric
patients’ behavior, the effect of stigma senti-
ments on juvenile delinquents’ self-meanings, and the factors
that shape individuals’ gender ideology.
She is moving to the University of Oklahoma in August of 2008.
Sarah K. Harkness is a PhD Candidate in the sociology
department at Stanford University. In addi-
tion to stigma sentiments, she is currently studying status
processes and forms of exchange, with a
focus on status construction and reward expectations.
further reveal the nature of the connection
between the affective stigma sentiments and
the cognitive stigma beliefs. The research
would also show if nonpatients’ stigma senti-
40. ments predict the devaluation and discrimina-
tory behaviors that psychiatric patients fear.
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Heise, David R. 1979. Understanding Events: Affect
and the Construction of Social Action. New
York: Cambridge University Press.
———. 2007. Expressive Order: Confirming
Sentiments in Social Actions. New York:
Springer.
Heise, David R. and Cassandra Calhan. 1995.
“Emotion Norms in Interpersonal Events.”
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Kroska, Amy and Sarah K. Harkness. 2006. “Stigma
Sentiments and Self-Meanings: Exploring the
Modified Labeling Theory of Mental Illness.”
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Langford, Tom and Neil J. MacKinnon. 2000. “The
Affective Bases for the Gendering of Traits:
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Patrick E. Shrout, and Bruce P. Dohrenwend.
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400–23.
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Cullen. 1991. “The Effectiveness of Stigma
Coping Orientations: Can Negative
Consequences of Mental Illness Labeling Be
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Behavior 32:302–20.
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C. Phelan, and Larry Nuttbrock. 1997. “On
Stigma and Its Consequences: Evidence From a
Longitudinal Study of Men With Dual
Diagnoses of Mental Illness and Substance
Abuse.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior
38:177–90.
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Affect Control. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.
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Miron. 1975. Cross-Cultural Universals of
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and René S. Kahn. 2007. “No Words for
Feelings: Alexithymia in Schizophrenia Patients
and First-Degree Relatives.” Comprehensive
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43. 1
Labelling Theory
(Societal Reaction Theory)
John Hamlin
Department of Sociology and Anthropology
UMD
One of the most promising approaches to develop in deviance
has been the labelling
approach. Coming into prominence in the 1960s it produced a
great deal or research and
inspired an incredible amount of debate. It has lost in recent
years much of its early luster
but so much of what it has given to theoretical criminology
remains as truisms.
Becker’s statement provides the nucleus of what has come to be
tagged the labelling or
societal reaction perspective. I will first give an overview of
the labelling approach. Second, I
will look at the notion of career deviance, and finally ;I will
44. look at some of the evidence,
which empirically attempts to test this theory.
The intellectual heritage of labelling is directly traceable to the
symbolic interactionist
school of thought as expressed by W. I. Thomas, G.H. Mead,
Dewey, etc. The more
immediate intellectual antecedents who, at least in part,
formulated an approach based on
labelling were Frank Tannenbaum’s use of tagging in his
analysis of Juvenile Delinquency in
1938 (same year as Merton’s Anomie Theory comes to light).
Juveniles held one conception
of their behavior and the community held another. The
community brought social control
measures to bear on the youngsters as the idea of wrong shifted
from the act to the actor.
The young person may come to see him/herself as delinquent.
The young person begins to
act even more delinquent and the community reacts reinforcing
that identity even more.
Second, Lindesmith’s study of opiate use demonstrated how
persons became aware of their
addiction. In essence it is not the drug that makes the person an
addict, rather addiction is a
45. social definition. When a significant other (another user) labels
him/herself as an addict, the
person comes to define him/herself as an addict.
2
The labelling perspective had a large number of followers in
the 1960s and early
1970s. Some of the more notable members who came to define
and outline most of the
major tenants of this approach were Edwin M. Lemert, Howard
S. Becker, Kai Erikson, and
John Kitsuse.
Labelling theory as those scholars elaborated it was sociology
of the underdog. As
Becker expressed it in his presidential address to the Society for
the Study of Social Problems,
we have to proclaim whose side we are on. The persons who
are considered deviant are
actually victims ‘more sinned against than sinning.’ Persons
are not inherently deviant nor is
deviance inherent in any particular behavior as noted by Erikson
in his “notes on deviance”
46. and again the introduction to Wayward Puritans, stressing the
point that the social audience
confers the label deviance on behavior. This social audience
could be the community in
general or particular agents of social control, e.g. the police (or
teachers). In other words
behavior is not inherently deviant or normal but is defined and
labeled that way by people in
charge of defining and labelling. The key component of the
process is the social audience,
regardless of how social audience comes to be defined.
There are two aspects of becoming deviant we can see in
Erikson and which are clearly
stated by Becker. The social group creates deviance. The
group makes the rule and then
applies it to the person labelling that person and ‘outsider.’
Even though there is a
connection between norm violation and being labeled deviant, it
need not be a direct one.
For example, in order for someone to be labeled a shoplifter
there must be a norm
prohibiting shoplifting. If private property did not exist,
shoplifting would not exist and
neither could the deviant label of shoplifter. Just because a
47. norm does exist does not mean
everybody labeled shoplifter has actually violated the norm.
There is a basic difference
between rule breakers/rule breaking behavior and deviants/
deviant behavior. The term
deviant is reserved for those who have had the label
successfully applied to him and deviant
3
behavior is that behavior so labeled regardless of whether or not
any norms had actually been
violated. An example of this might be people who have been
placed in mental institutions
and labeled mentally ill when they were really only hard of
hearing, a case of the ’bum rap.’
(Becker by 1970 scraps the use of the terminology rule-
breaking, instead relying on the term
commission.)
If the social rules are made in an interaction process as Lemert
maintains, it is one of
unequal interaction. Becker clearly states that in order for ones
views to be enforced they
must have economic or political power. There is not one
48. particular power elite forcing their
will on others. There are many imperatively coordinated
associations. In looking at the
Marihuana Tax Act of 1937, Becker analyzes how political
power works. The Bureau of
narcotics, then part of the Treasury Department saw marihuana
as coming under their
jurisdiction and by working with others who saw it in their
interests to have laws regulating
the weed, e.g. legitimate hemp growers, marihuana use as a
deviant label, was created. The
powerful as Becker talks about them are moral entrepreneurs.
These guardians of moral
order are found in two types, those who create or destroy laws
and those who apply the laws.
The two groups may not have the same outlook on the rules.
One may be dedicated to the
morality of the rules while the other, e.g. a police person, may
be more concerned with
having a job.
The effects of being labeled are numerous but of primary
concern for many theorists in
this tradition, for example Lemert, are the effect being labeled
has on the sense of self or
49. identity. Primary deviance happens for a number of reasons and
has very little effect on self.
Secondary deviance comes about as a response to societal
reaction to primary deviance. The
self-concept is change from normal to deviant. The person
takes on a new identity or
acquires a stigma, in Goffman’s terms; the person becomes a
shoplifter first and foremost
even in his or her own mind.
4
This portrayal of labelling is essentially the theoretical
implications of the second part
of Becker’s quote. The brief discussion of primary and
secondary deviance provides an
entrance point for stating the implications of the first part of
Becker’s quote. For here he
begins to carry the implications of secondary deviance to the
next logical step, that is, career
deviance. Becker is not concerned with primary deviance. He
like Lemert sees primary
deviance occurring for many reasons. It is much more
important to look at career deviance.
50. Becker’s own study of marihuana users is an example of this
process. One of the most
important steps of becoming deviant is being publicly labeled as
deviant. For being such a
key component of labelling theory it is also one of the hardest
to pin down. A person does
not really have to be publicly labeled but may label him/herself.
The labelling process
becomes hard to disprove as the process moves from public to
self-application. It is even
harder to disprove as the conception of subconscious desire (in
terms of being caught and
labeled) is added in. In any case being caught ad labeled
deviant leads to a change in
identity. The deviant acquires a new master status such as
homosexual (perhaps touching
someone’s foot with your own). The master status carries with
it a number of secondary
statuses, which seem to always be associated with it. It creates
problems for people when
the status doesn’t match up. For example, when the homosexual
turns out to be a big,
strong husky voiced football player, or a long time husband or
wife. The problem is that
51. master status characterizes one’s life rather completely rather
than merely being part of
one’s identity. The process of a self-fulfilling prophecy begins
as it becomes harder and
harder for the person to act contrary to or associate with, other
people than the social
reaction expects. The last step in the making of a career deviant
comes about when the
deviants are organized into a group. A deviant subculture is
produced. Once the person
becomes a member his/her deviant identity becomes solidified,
one prime example is
becoming being part of a juvenile gang.
5
Although it often seems as if there is never enough empirical
testing of theories, there
has actually been quite a bit done on labelling theory in
comparison to many others. Some of
the empirical findings are supportive while others are not.
Labelling theory states that there are a multitude of factors that
affect who gets labeled
52. and treated as deviant. There appears to be a great deal of
support for this contention. It
ranges from characteristics of the actor, see Pivliavin and briar,
“Police encounters with
Juveniles” to characteristics of the audience, Defleur’s work on
biasing influences on the
records of those arrested for drugs, to characteristics of the
victim, see Cohen ,Deviance and
Control.
The importance of the label for career deviance can be seen in
the work of Goffman
when he looks at how stigmas like ‘crippled’ or ‘blind’ effects
social behavior. Much of the
research done has been in terms of criminal labels. Schwartz
and Skolnick in two studies of
legal stigmas found that being legally accused will most likely
affect a persons chances of
finding employment, result in a loss of social status, and
consequently bring on further
contact with law enforcement personnel. Similarly Chiricos,
Jackson, and Waldo, found that
persons with previous criminal records are treated differently
supplying more of an
opportunity for those persons to transform their identities and
53. become career deviants. So
there does seem to be support in the contention that being
labeled does lead to career
deviance at least in terms of criminal labels.
However there are those studies that bring into question the
idea that the label is a key
aspect of becoming a career deviant. Oddly enough, work done
by two major proponents of
labelling, Lemert and Becker (although it appears that Lemert
has given up on this approach)
raise doubts about this labelling contention. Lemerts study of
check forgers show that often
they take part in systematic and habitual behavior long before
they are caught and labeled as
deviant or criminal. In other words, their career was
established before the labelling process
6
took place. Becker’s example of marihuana users seems to
indicate that it is not the creation
of a new identity, which results in career smoking. Rather in
the process of finding pleasure
in smoking, as Mankoff points out, one becomes a career
54. deviant. There are other studies,
which indicate that labelling has little effect. Robins, Deviant
Children Grow Up, shows that
the impact of being labeled mentally ill or having some sort of
psychiatric diagnoses when
young had very little connection (16%) with being labeled after
becoming an adult. Cameron
points out how being caught shoplifting and labeled a thief
resulted in people easing that
behavior rather then the labeled person becoming a career
deviant.
Evidence does not conclusively support labelling theories
contentions. It appears as if
the effect of a label on self identity applies more to specific
situations in the labelling
process, all else is still highly questionable.
Becker, Howard S. Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of
Deviance. New York: Free Press,
1963.
——————, ed. The Other Side: Perspectives on Deviance.
New York: The Free Press, 1964.
Braithwaite, John. Crime, Shame, and Reintegration.
Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University
Press, 1989.
55. Erickson, Kai T. "Notes on the Sociology of Deviance." [1962].
In The Other Side: Perspectives
on Deviance, edited by Howard S. Becker. New York: The Free
Press, 1964.
Goffman, Erving. Asylums: Essays on the Social Situation of
Mental Patients and Other
Inmates. New York: Anchor Books, 1961.
——————. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. New
York: Anchor Books, 1961.
——————. Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled
Identity. New York: Simon and
Schuster, 1963.
Kitsuse, John I. "Societal Reaction to Deviant Behavior:
Problems of Theory and Method."
[1960]. In The Other Side: Perspectives on Deviance, edited by
Howard S. Becker. New York:
The Free Press, 1964.
Lemert, Edwin M. "Beyond Mead: The Societal Reaction to
Deviance." Social Problems 21 (April
1974): 457-68.
7
——————. Human Deviance, Social Problems and Social
Control. Second Edition. Prentice
Hall, 1972.
57. ALLAMAN ALLAMANI
Centro Alcologico, Gruppo Prevenzione e Ricerca, Florence
Health Agency,
Florence, Italy
Treatment of people who are alcohol-dependent and treatment
of users of illicit drugs
differ remarkably in Italy, in keeping with the perception of the
general public that
drinking alcoholic beverages is a time-honored behavior, while
consumption of illicit
drugs is a deviant behavior. From a clinical perspective, the
treatment for alcoholism
essentially stands on the principle of free choice, motivation to
change, and a family
approach, while the treatment of people who are illicit drug
users is characterized by
control, pharmacotherapy, and individual therapy approaches.
From a socio-political
viewpoint both were established in the 1970s, the former being
a “bottom-up” movement
that started as “spontaneous” responses that mutual help groups
and a few clinicians
and institutions gave to alcoholics and their families; while the
latter was provided “top-
down” as a political response of the Government confronting
the increase of illegal drug
consumption among youngsters.
Keywords addiction; alcohol addiction programs; illegal drug
addiction units; cultural
viewpoints; mutual help groups
“A te convien tenere altro viaggio”
58. Rispose poi che lagrimar mi vide
Se vuoi campar d’esto luogo selvaggio.
. . . Ond’io per lo tuo me’ penso e discerno
Che tu mi segui, ed io sarò tua guida
E trarrotti di qui per loco eterno
Ove udirai le disperate strida. . . ”
(Dante Divina Commedia, Inferno, I, 91–93;112–115)
“Thee it behoves to take another road,”
Responded he, when he beheld me weeping,
“If from this savage place thou wouldst escape.
Thanks to editors, Alexandra Laudet and Shlomo Einstein for
their patience and competence
in reading the manuscript and suggesting many appropriate
changes. This article is therefore luckily
affected by a challenging dialogue with the editors, while its
weakness is entirely due to the author.
Also, thanks to Donald Bathgate for his support in the English
translation, and to Ivana Pili for her
help in plotting the figures.
Address correspondence to Dr. Allaman Allamani, Centro
Alcologico, Gruppo Prevenzione e
Ricerca, Agenzia Sanitaria Locale, Villa Basilewsky, Firenze,
Italy. E-mail: [email protected]
1704
Views and Models About Addiction 1705
..Therefore I think and judge it for thy best
Thou follow me, and I will be thy guide,
And lead thee hence through the eternal place,
Where thou shalt hear the desperate lamentations”
59. (Dante’s Comedy with the Henry W. Longfellow trans.
DIGITALDANTE Institute for Learning Technologies
[email protected]
Copyright 1992—97
Last Modified November, 1997)
Viewpoints on Addiction
The aim of this paper is to describe the striking differences
between the treatment of
people who are alcohol-dependent and the treatment of illicit
drug users in Italy. In the last
analysis such differences, we posit, draw on the different
meanings that alcoholic beverage
consumption and illegal drug use have among the general public
and, more specifically,
on the values that alcoholic beverages—namely wine—
traditionally maintain among the
Italian population and among politicians and health
professionals as well. Also, in Southern
Europe, alcohol beverages are mainly drunk daily or nearly
daily at meals by the majority of
population, and are generally endowed with the aspects of taste,
pleasure, and conviviality.
Intoxication, or loosening of tensions, as it is typical in
Northern Europe or in United States,
is not generally sought by Italian drinkers. On the other hand
consumption of illicit drugs
is clearly considered to be a deviant behavior, as it is the case
all over the western world.
This paper discusses the different viewpoints existing in Italy
regarding addictions and
their treatment, how Italians and particularly clients and
caregivers perceive the problems
60. related to alcohol beverage, and drug consumption, and how
programs have been created
to respond to them and their various needs.
This section introduces the idea that there is no single
perspective with which one can
adequately understand the addiction phenomena; one needs to
consider several relevant
viewpoints including the clinical, the psycho-social, the moral,
the socio-political, and the
spiritual.
Indeed our conceptualization or view of reality, and of problems
of behavior, in partic-
ular, can be broadened by resorting to models of interpretation
that may reflect the different
aspects of human beings. These views are based on values with
different cultures—specific
to countries, communities, sectors, and professions, over time—
attribute to activities or
objects and, in the case of substances used, to the substances
themselves and the behaviors
by means of which people interact with them.
The Moral Viewpoint
There are certain circumstances in which these views are
obviously “graded”—a substance
which is acceptable in certain quantities becomes unacceptable
in higher quantities, such
as food, alcoholic beverages, and medicinal products. In other
circumstances, by contrast,
usage is not acceptable in any quantity, shape, or form such as,
for example, illicit drugs.
There are also considerations such as frequency of use, context
of use, meanings attributed
61. to the substance as well as its use and users or nonuse and
nonusers (i.e., being a temperate
person). With some minor variations, substance use in the
western world can be variously
perceived as being socially acceptable and good, or indicating
problematic acts, behavior
and even lifestyles, with medical, psychological and deviancy
implications, or immoral ones.
1706 Allamani
The Social Viewpoint
Considering the social aspects (one of the exogenous facets) of
substance use and misuse
with regard to the population as a whole it behooves us to ask:
Why should the social side
concern us when one considers the need for intervention
(treatment, prevention, control,
policies, research, etc.)? It can be, and is, perceived, for
example, as being an improvement
on the more traditional individual endogenously driven,
clinical-oriented approach. Indeed
the one-on-one clinical approach is still prevalent in the western
world especially in the
professional treatment1 of substance addiction, despite its
obvious limitations in dealing
with substance use and abuse2 on the one hand and on the other
its rigidity and repetitiveness
and consequent incapacity to produce or incorporate innovation,
hemmed in as it is between
the conception of biological medicine and psychological
causality.3
62. As a point of fact, in 1970s research in the systemic, family-
oriented approach in the
United States, successfully diffused in Italy in the 1980s, paved
the way for change of the
typical clinical one-on-one approach (see Kaufman and
Kaufmann 1979; Steinglass, 1987).
This perspective translated the alcoholism of the individual into
the “alcoholic family,”
changing the individual-oriented perception of the medicalized
“alcoholism” problem into
a family and social issue. Indeed, the Al-Anon, or family
members of alcoholics’ groups,
developed in 1952 in the United States, were the first means for
drawing attention to the
problems and symptoms of family members being involved in
and with the problems of the
“tagged” alcoholic individual.
In general, contextualizing addiction behavior implies
considering the parts and roles
which family, environment, and society can and do play in the
actual phenomenon of
addiction. For example, how each of these separately and in
combination are able to exert
some informal control on those modes of behavior and the
critical conditions which are
necessary for such behaviors to operate or not to operate. The
“tagged” substance, per se, is
unable to define the problem, e.g., detoxifying an individual
from heroin does not guarantee
that relapsing into dependence on alcohol, or medications—used
for nonmedical reasons and
purposes—will not occur.4 A reasonable explanation for this is
that whereas a detoxification
process “cleans” systems of the living organisms, abstinence—
however defined—harm
63. reduction, and quality-of-life based treatment goals and models
are behavioral and life-
style processes and outcomes.
1Treatment can be briefly and usefully defined as a planned,
goal-directed change process,
of adequate quality and appropriateness, which is bounded
(culture, place, time, etc.) and can be
categorized into professional-based, tradition-based, mutual-
help-based (AA, NA, etc.), and self-help
(natural recovery) models. There are no unique models or
techniques used with substance users—of
whatever types—and non-substance users. In the West, with the
relatively new ideology of “harm
reduction” and even the newer quality of life (QOL) treatment-
driven model, there are now a new
set of goals in addition to those derived from/associated with
the older tradition of abstinence-driven
models. Editor’s note.
2The journal’s style utilizes the category substance abuse as a
diagnostic category. Substances
are used or misused; living organisms are and can be abused.
Editor’s note.
3Sir Bradford Hill published the following nine criteria in 1965
to help assist researchers and
clinicians determine whether risk factors were causes of a
particular disease or were outcomes or
merely associated. The nine criteria include: strength of
association, consistency between studies,
temporality, biological gradient, biological plausibility,
coherence, specificity, experimental evidence,
and analogy. and are defined below (Hill, 1965). Editor’s note.
4One or few trials learning, in humans, is quite rare complex,
64. dynamic, multidimensional,
phase/level-structured, nonlinear processes/phenomenon—which
are also bounded (culture, time,
place, etc.). Thus a “lapse” or “relapse” may be a necessary
dimension for initiating, sustaining, and
integrating a change process. Editor’s note.
Views and Models About Addiction 1707
According to the system approach, a family is a system of
relationships which is based
upon how interaction is organized among its members. In such a
process, it continuously
determines and implements its own characteristics, dynamics,
and values. Family pathology
kicks in when family interactions become and/or show up to be
rigid. This means that even
when some values are discovered to be inadequate in certain
phases of family development,
they are perceived as, and all too often are experienced as
being, the only possible reality
with no other viable alternatives being deemed possible.
The main conflict of an “alcoholic family” occurs in the marital
arena with the actual
pharmacological as well as the anticipated effects5 of alcohol
consumption allowing emo-
tions to be expressed. Family members often are affected by
“co-dependency,” a relatively
recent “diagnosis”6 which has been characterized by a
pathologized addiction—like over
involvement with and a continuous “caring” about and a
concern for their alcoholic family
member who is a patient. In a paradoxical sense the concerned
65. family system needs the
person to continue being the family alcoholic, and s/he remains
in the family by playing
out this role; the system remains stable with clear role and
behavior definition. How-
ever, if the identified and “tagged” family member, but also a
so-called “healthy” mem-
ber, accepts help, e.g., by attending a therapeutic group or
program, a positive behavioral
change can be initiated. In this case, one or more family
members can be transformed into
needed therapeutic resources both for the individual “alcoholic”
as well as for the “sick”
system.
Thus, the behavior of the identified alcoholic person and his/her
family members man-
ifests itself either as being dependency-driven or as a reaction
to dependency.
In dependency, the individual complies with and depends on
others. In reaction to
dependency, the individual claims to be “dominant” or
“independent.”
Dependency is experienced as a weakness to reproach and is
likely to be connected to
the feeling of shame. Dominance, both by the individual and of
his/her family member, is
experienced as strength, which, however, is also to be
reproached since it is linked to the
feeling of guilt. Shame (concept, process, and outcome), which
in the United States is often
used interchangeably as guilt, is a powerful experience that has
been considered to contribute
to the development of as well as to the maintenance of
66. addiction-related problems; according
to a cyclical pattern humiliation and shame, because of loss of
control, are “sedated” by
the use of a substance, and the addiction to the substance
triggers increasing shame with
consequent use of the substance (Wiechelt, 2007), Such
behavior is rooted in the fact that
Western culture has developed a tendency to hide shame, or to
be ashamed of feeling shame
(Wiechelt, 2007). The psychology of shame and its theoretical
development is connected
with the issues of one’s struggle for identity, that is one of the
recurring problems of our age
(Kaufman, 1985). The case of Italy is peculiar since while in the
Italian culture the feeling of
guilt appears particularly underdeveloped, the shame seems a
much more diffused feeling,
5The effects of psychoactive substances in humans have been
categorized as being due to the
“drugs” chemical action (which has to do with a chemically
active substance entering an organism,
getting to a receptor, being metabolized, and then being
excreted) and what has been coded a “drug
experience”, which is the outcome of the interactions between
the human and his expectations, the
active chemical, and where this complex process is taking place.
Humans do and have described “drug
experiences” from nonpharmacological “drugs”. Editor’s note.
6Any diagnosis is a data gathering process designed to help
make needed decisions and is based,
medically, upon at least three bits of information: etiology,
process, and prognosis of that which
is being diagnosed. Whereas a “diagnosis” is part of a
nosological system all nosologies are not
67. diagnostic. The relatively recent diagnosis “substance use
disorder” can easily be understood by
“labeling theories” given its limitations of evidence-based
etiology, process, and prognosis. Editor’s
note.
1708 Allamani
linked as it is to the condition of not to being perceived as
being part of the social group
(Battacchi and Codispoti, 1992).
It was the family-based perspective that, together with
epidemiological studies in-
dicating a link between the various forms of substance abuse,2
especially the use of il-
legal drugs, alcohol, and food (see, e.g., Krahn, 1991; Schuckitt
et al., 1996), laid the
theoretical foundation for developing the concept of
transmission down through the gen-
erations, especially the intergenerational theory of substance
use (Framo, 1992). Obvi-
ously, this thesis also has to consider recent investigations
about genetic alterations in-
ducing addiction and their capability of being transmitted (see,
e.g., Begleiter and Kissan,
1995).
If we take one step back from the more traditional medical–
pharmacological approach
with its classical concepts and derived processes of diagnosis
and therapy, we can better
appreciate and understand how medications and physicians
have, in fact, been used and
68. co-opted as a means of keeping a tight rein on behaviors related
to pleasure-seeking
and on posited illness outcomes chronic in nature—which have
been and continue to be
deemed as unchangeable over time.7 In such a “substance use
disorder” illness, relapses
are considered to be predictable manifestations of the
underlying illness which emerge
from time to time. We may reflect on how the different
therapeutic communities in Italy
became a means for a total, purifying re-education against the
problematic behaviors of
“homogenized” and all too often stigmatized individuals who
are atoning for society’s
problems (Picchi and Caffarelli, 1991).
From a more traditional perspective substance
addiction/dependency/habituation have
become a “consensualized” scapegoat of our modern family
and/or globalized society and
are linked to the guilt or shame feelings which are generated
within our culture (Steinglass,
1979).
The Socio-Political Viewpoint
Politics and general awareness of social problems turn our
attention to the task of safeguard-
ing the disadvantaged. The social-political approach may
therefore be used to view and give
a macro-perspective to the world of addiction with its
“narcoscapes,” social networks of
users, and a range of stakeholders and gatekeepers.
However, the socio-political arena may not be “an appropriate
domain for understanding
69. the substances” (Kleinig and Einstein, 2006). It is much more a
site of “political power and
dominance” where “more or less restrictive ideologies” are
enshrined in legal format and the
fear of the substance consumers “leads to their disempowering,
marginalization, and stereo-
typing” (Kleinig and Einstein, 2006). Reflecting on the
meanings that politics and society
attribute to substance use, misuse, and addiction—when they
place it among the objectives
which they intend tackling—we can again refer to S. Einstein
who, summarizing his views
on the characteristics of “substance use disorder” treatment,
posits that “drug treatment”
and “alcohol treatment” are unethical given that (1) there are no
unique and/or specific
treatment models for substance users and non-substance users;
(2) there are many vested
interests opposed to needed change; (3) scientific veracity has
been turned into slogans;
(4) new and generalizable findings are generally not introduced
into viable intervention
efforts; and (5) substance users, representing a heterogeneous
group of people and patterns
7Readers interested in either of these processes are referred to
Brandt, A. M. and Rozin, P. (1997)
Morality and Health Routledge NYC, particularly to their
concept of secular morality as well as to
the recent literature about “disease mongering” which is easily
found on Google. Editor’s note.
Views and Models About Addiction 1709
70. of use, continue to be treated in “specialized” programs which
are distanced from the main-
stream of the treatment of non users—“normed treatment of
normed diseases”—all too
often manifesting imparity in availability and delivery of
needed services (Einstein, 2006).
The Recovery
The recovery may be defined as a “complex interaction of
mental, physical, and spiritual
actions that leads to living a conscious and sane life” (Schaub
and Schaub, 1997). Such con-
cept is influenced by the view of Alcoholic Anonymous (AA)
and implies a process or a path
that may be well described by the verses from Dante’s Divine
Comedy that opens this paper,
which define how to face your problems is not to escape fear—
as Dante appeared to do at the
moment he found himself in the deep forest—but to face it and
get in touch with it, with the
help of a guide, that is the Latin poet Virgil. Actually the whole
Divine Comedy is a metaphor
of the recovery process, as it is shown by a recent book by
Schaub and Schaub (2003).
The term recovery (recupero) is not common among Italian
Public Health Care Ad-
diction professionals who prefer the more neutral word
treatment (trattamento). This is in
keeping with the usual expectation in Italy that patients—the
diagnosed, chronic substance
use disorder—are to be treated for the rest of their lives by
health workers by means, e.g.,
of long-term methadone maintenance, the treatment being
essentially to control clients; or
71. that, notwithstanding the posited chronicity of their disease,
they will quit “illicit drug use”
completely by following the therapeutic community-based life
style. . . having sufficiently
matured. However, “recupero” is a usual term among Italian AA
members. The issues of
“natural recovery” (see Einstein, 2006) and of spontaneous
remissions (see Klingemann
et al., 2001) point to an as yet unresolved dilemma which
continues to exist. The broad “re-
covery” literature has not adequately considered and integrated
the documented processes
and outcomes of substance use cessation by a broad range of
types of users and patterns
of “drug” consumption without the use and help of tradition-
based, professional-based,
and/or mutual-help based treatment and support. How did they
“exit” from a posited, di-
agnosed, chronic disease and remain “recovered” in a field
which does not use the concept
“in remission?”
The “Risk”
Another aspect of “recovery” meriting consideration is the
perception of “risk” and its mea-
surable expression within and by society-at-large, and its health
workers. Worries about
risks seem to occur cyclically across years or even centuries,
independently from current
scientific information. For example, the report on the disasters
wreaked by alcohol con-
sumption in Italy that Guido Garofolini wrote about in 1887
(Garofolini, 1887) may be
identical to today’s pronouncements by the Ministry of Public
Health in Rome (see Italian
72. Ministry of Health, 2005). Or, going further back, the
exhortation of the Rule of St. Benedict
of the sixth century A.D. which provided that monks in good
health should not drink more
than a hemina (quarter litre) of wine, predates the preventative
recommendations of the
WHO by 1300 years.
. . . bearing in mind the condition of the weakest, we believe
that a quarter litre
of wine a day is sufficient. (Rule of Saint Benedict, 1985)
. . . Epidemiological data suggest that the risk of alcohol-related
problems grows
significantly when consumption is greater than 20 grams of pure
alcohol a day
(World Health Organisation, 2000)
1710 Allamani
The Spiritual Viewpoint
The spiritual aspect of substance use perceives the so-called
illness of addiction as being
actually a spiritual illness. In more specific terms, it is a
disturbance of the relationship
between body and spirit in which the individual lacks the
capacity to interpret or integrate.
In alcoholism, for example, this means that the individual seeks
the spirit of the grape or
the grain forgetting the Higher Spirit. The program of spiritual-
based therapy stems from
acknowledging the limits or fallacies of professional-based
models of therapy. This program
73. was established on the advice that the psychiatrist C. G. Jung
gave to an alcoholic patient
of his at the end of a psychotherapy process which was crowned
with failure.
In Bill’s words, Jung stated that “The healing process could not
be activated
by further medical and psychiatric treatment, but there could be
a hope only on
condition that the alcoholic could become the subject of a
spiritual or religious
experience—in short a genuine conversion”. (Alcoholics
Anonymous, 1984,
p. 382)
And according to a letter that Jung wrote as a reply to Bill,
“The only right and
legitimate way to such an experience is that it happens to you in
reality, and it
can only happen to you when you walk on a path which leads
you to higher
understanding. You might be led to that goal by an act of grace
or through a
personal and honest contact with friends, or through a higher
education of the
mind beyond the confines of mere rationalism”. (Alcoholic
Anonymous, 1984,
p. 384)
Perception of Alcoholic Beverages and of Related Problems in
the Italian
Society
Italy, like some other Latin populations, has a certain
sociological specificity compared to
the other European countries, especially north European ones,
74. in terms of family ties and
family dependency, which are a major accepted fact of Italian
society (see the chapter on the
“Mediterranean Mother” in Bernhard, 1969). Autonomy of the
individual on the other hand
is not such an eagerly sought-after asset as in other cultures.
This is likely to have effects in
a range of “addiction” behavior manifestations, albeit in an
increasingly globalized culture
that tends toward uniformity with the other cultures of the
western world.
The models for understanding substance addiction-dependency
generally and alcohol
misuse in its various categories in particular, have been
developed over time, beginning
with the perception, established at the end of the 1800s, that
alcohol misuse had become a
social issue which on the one hand was linked to the rise of the
urban proletariat and on the
other hand with the development of the temperance movement
from its north European and
north American counterparts, which in Italy was becoming
fairly well known for some time
(Cottino and Morgan, 1985). The onset and evolution of
Fascism in the 1920s and 1930s
stressed a moralistic model, that of the Italian male, strong and
virtuous, and those years
saw the earliest legislation sanctioning drunkenness.
In the 1970s, a well-defined, health-related perception of
alcohol “abuse” emerged
deriving mainly from the birth of specialization in hepatology
and gastroenterology and
the almost contemporary shut-down of the psychiatric hospitals
by the 1978 law tabled by
75. Franco Basaglia, to which alcoholics had been traditionally
confined up to the previous
decade (Cottino and Morgan, 1985). Whereas hospitalization in
psychiatric wards gave a
Views and Models About Addiction 1711
connotation of deviancy to the behavior of “the alcoholic,”
hospitalization in a medical
hospital first “normalized” the alcoholic who, here, shared
equal rights with other patients.
However, experience over time has adequately documented that
treating liver cirrhosis did
not mean treating “alcoholism” but only a few selected effects
of it. The need to diversify
treatment in order to tackle the issue of addiction and its
medical manifestations leads to
the present situation where hospital Toxicology Units, middle-
or long-term hospital pro-
grams, Emergency Departments have supervened with their in-
patient treatment programs.
Nevertheless, hospitalization in Italy is now less frequent, out-
patient community services
and community mutual help and volunteer resources being a
more frequent option for
individuals affected by alcohol addiction dependency.
AA drew Italy’s attention to the fact that alcoholism can be and
is conceptualized as
being an existential sickness which can be intervened with
separately from the health system
by group mutual help treatment support which is characterized
by spiritual rebirth. The first
public conference of AA in Italy was held in Palazzo Capponi,
76. in Florence, in July 1974
when addiction to illicit drugs and their use was beginning to
take root, and the television
film “Silvia è sola [Sylvia is on her own]” was broadcasted
some years later telling the
story of alcoholism of a woman who went on to join AA. This
drew Italy’s attention to
the fact that alcoholism is an existential sickness and can be
tackled by group treatment.
In a time when Italian culture was immersed in the values of
post-Fascism, post-Idealism,
and Marxism, the self-generation and the spirituality-based
model typical of AA took time
to gain ground. However, AA has a higher profile now than it
did 30 years ago, while the
12-step program brought about a turnaround in the approach to
addiction treatment in Italy,
too, as it became applicable to almost every posited
“addiction”: food, drugs, gambling, etc.
In short, alcoholism had been perceived for years as being the
problem of an unfortunate,
fairly easily identifiable few in a country or neighborhood. The
idea of becoming “one of
them” struck one with fear or shame, a moralistic-based
perception which continues to exist,
but less so over time. The fact that more women as compared to
those in the past are attending
alcohol addiction treatment services and groups like AA is a
sign that they, their husbands,
fathers, and sons, and our society as a whole, are less branded
by shame and are seeking
ways forward rather than sticking to the traditional behavior of
denial—covering up and not
seeing. Today, there are even fewer program administrators and
politicians getting waylaid
77. on this issue. Alcoholism is not perceived as being “the
problem” of a few, but rather is now
considered to somehow be an issue of social relevance for the
Italian community as a whole.
Accessible resources are now available in contemporary Italy to
treat persons mani-
festing problems related to their consumption of alcohol
beverages as well as for those who
are involved with such persons and who seek help and support.
Some cities have developed
needed services including alcohol addiction treatment facilities
as well as mutual help and
volunteer groups.
Today’s inadequacies are also visible. The media often confuses
alcoholism with the
misuse of alcohol by young people or members of the immigrant
community, associating
such use with causing road accidents or acts of violence, as well
as with illegal drug use.
These are surely significant problems, but information of this
kind contributes to lowering
concern about alcohol addiction, its consequences to and
implications for individuals and
systems by associating alcohol addiction and misuse to a certain
age-group or culture;
perceiving it as being something “separate from us” in the same
way as we talk about “drugs.”
Epidemiological research, instead, tells us that alcoholism is not
infrequent. Even if
reliable information about the number of individuals who are
affected by alcoholism in
Italy does not exist, according to the observatory on smoking,
alcohol, and drugs of the
78. Italian High Institute on Health, they are estimated to be
approximately 2% of the general
1712 Allamani
Table 1
Program sources to treat substance consumers and misusers in
Italy.
Professional 12-Step Voluntary Religious
Community Alcoholics Clubs for Therapeutic
programs Anonymous Alcoholics in Communities
Hospital beds Al-Anon Treatment
University beds Narcotics
Anonymous
Overeaters
Anonymous
population of Italians (approaching 60,000,000), namely
approximately 1 million (Scafato,
2005). Some other experts claim that they are 0.5%, and others
up to 5% of the total
population (cf. Voller, 2007). In two national surveys carried
out on the general population
by the Osservatorio Giovani e Alcool in 2000 and 2005,
attempts were made to measure
the dimension of alcohol dependence through the CAGE
questionnaire, and the results may
be considered as being consistent with the above-mentioned
rates. The results of the 2005
survey revealed that the number of people who gave three or
more positive answers to the