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For this week’s discussion, the question still arises if adopting a set of standards limits or improves education for all students. This question will be answered through the lens of a classroom teacher. Using the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) as an example, as a teacher, I may have mixed emotions towards adopting a set of standards. During the adoption of CCSS, teachers were not provided with a trial period to measure the effectiveness of CCSS; this, in turn, did not provide teachers with concrete evidence that the CCSS were designed to execute their goals intended for student success (Laureate Education, 2014c). As an educator, I am going to wonder how a set of standards will support the needs of my English Language Learner (ELL) students. For ELLs, it is imperative that instruction builds upon students’ academic English and social English. Acquiring knowledge of academic language is essential for ELLs because it is related to standards-based curriculum in math, science, social studies, and language arts (Colorín Colorado, n.d.). For Special Education (SPED) students, I would have to work closely with SPED teachers to provide instruction that reflects the exceptionalities of my students. Raising expectations for all students is a positive in that supports must be used to ensure such goals are attainable for all students. For instance, professional developments can be provided to teachers where they can learn how to apply instructional strategies that reflect the goal of CCSS and the needs of students. However, concerns arise in preparation. When adopting a set of standards, an emphasis on the resources needed for SPED students must be known and accessible to teachers. Without this, the expectation of wanting all students to be college and career ready may not follow-through effectively (Laureate Education, 2014a). I believe the information provided in documents 5 – 8 of this week’s resources provided reliable sources because as a teacher, I am going to wonder how teaching these standards will look like in a classroom with ELL or SPED students. Through these resources, I learned how ELLs academic language can be supported using Tier 2 instruction that promotes higher-order thinking skills, critical thinking skills, and problem-solving skills with additional supports provided in their home language (Laureate Education, 2014b). Additionally, I learned the importance of collaboration between general education and SPED teachers when ensuring instruction aligns with students’ academic needs to promote student success. The next steps I might take to follow up on this information as a teacher would be to determine what resources are provided to teachers so that they can periodically assess student achievement throughout the year. With the adoption of CCSS came changes in high stakes testing. Issues with CCSS and testing were that tests were developed before standards could be implemented to reflect if student knowledge gained from standard-b.

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For this week’s discussion, the question still arises if adopting a set of standards limits or improves education for all students. This question will be answered through the lens of a classroom teacher. Using the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) as an example, as a teacher, I may have mixed emotions towards adopting a set of standards. During the adoption of CCSS, teachers were not provided with a trial period to measure the effectiveness of CCSS; this, in turn, did not provide teachers with concrete evidence that the CCSS were designed to execute their goals intended for student success (Laureate Education, 2014c). As an educator, I am going to wonder how a set of standards will support the needs of my English Language Learner (ELL) students. For ELLs, it is imperative that instruction builds upon students’ academic English and social English. Acquiring knowledge of academic language is essential for ELLs because it is related to standards-based curriculum in math, science, social studies, and language arts (Colorín Colorado, n.d.). For Special Education (SPED) students, I would have to work closely with SPED teachers to provide instruction that reflects the exceptionalities of my students. Raising expectations for all students is a positive in that supports must be used to ensure such goals are attainable for all students. For instance, professional developments can be provided to teachers where they can learn how to apply instructional strategies that reflect the goal of CCSS and the needs of students. However, concerns arise in preparation. When adopting a set of standards, an emphasis on the resources needed for SPED students must be known and accessible to teachers. Without this, the expectation of wanting all students to be college and career ready may not follow-through effectively (Laureate Education, 2014a). I believe the information provided in documents 5 – 8 of this
week’s resources provided reliable sources because as a teacher, I am going to wonder how teaching these standards will look like in a classroom with ELL or SPED students. Through these resources, I learned how ELLs academic language can be supported using Tier 2 instruction that promotes higher-order thinking skills, critical thinking skills, and problem-solving skills with additional supports provided in their home language (Laureate Education, 2014b). Additionally, I learned the importance of collaboration between general education and SPED teachers when ensuring instruction aligns with students’ academic needs to promote student success. The next steps I might take to follow up on this information as a teacher would be to determine what resources are provided to teachers so that they can periodically assess student achievement throughout the year. With the adoption of CCSS came changes in high stakes testing. Issues with CCSS and testing were that tests were developed before standards could be implemented to reflect if student knowledge gained from standard-based instruction aligned with assessments (Laureate Education, 2014c). Flannery (2019) emphasized how the CCSS must go hand and hand with appropriate student assessment (Flannery, 2019); this assures that curriculum provided reflects the end of the year assessment goals. To level-the-playing field for all students, teachers must ensure that students are continuously meeting objective goals that will be reflected on end of the year assessments; this cannot be done if proper measurements of student growth are not apart of their on-going evaluation of progress. References Colorín Colorado. What is the difference between social and academic English?. Retrieved from https://www.colorincolorado.org/article/what-difference-
between-social-and-academic-english Flannery, M. (2019). Bringing Common Sense to Common Core. Retrieved from http://www.nea.org/grants/55932.htm Laureate Education. (2014a). Case study issues K-12 education document 8 CCSS and special education [PDF] (p.1). Retrieved from https://class.content.laureate.net/81bd0ca9b4e8f76bd793c4598f 8e696f.pdf Laureate Education. (2014b). Case study issues K-12 education document 6 English language learner instruction [PDF] (p.1). Retrieved from https://class.content.laureate.net/7c74db1df30c15b0d9a18f6e11 5d0092.pdf Laureate Education. (2014c). Case study issues K-12 document 5 letter to the editor issues with the common core [PDF] (p.1). Retrieved from https://class.content.laureate.net/81bd0ca9b4e8f76bd793c4598f 8e696f.pdf For this week’s discussion, the question
still arises if adopting a set of standards limits or improves education for all students. This question will
be answered through the lens of a classroom teacher. Using the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) as an
e xample, as a teacher, I may have mixed emotions towards adopting a set of standards. During the adoption
of CCSS, teachers were not provided with a trial period to measure the effectiveness of CCSS; this, in
turn, did not provide teachers with concrete evi dence that the CCSS were designed to execute their goals
intended for student success (Laureate Education, 2014c) . As an educator, I am going to wonder how a
set of standards will support the needs of my English Language Learner (ELL) students. For ELLs, i t
is imperative that instruction builds upon students’ academic English and social English. Acquiring knowledge of academic language is
essential for ELLs because it is related to standards - based curriculum in math, science, social studies, and language
ar ts (Colorín Colorado, n.d.) . For Special Education (SPED) students, I would have to work closely with SPED
teachers to provide instruction that reflects the exceptionalities of my students. Raising expectations for all students is a
positive in that suppor ts must be used to ensure such goals are attainable for all students. For instance,
professional developments can be provided to teachers where they can learn how to apply instructional strategies that reflect
the goal of CCSS and the needs of students. Ho wever, concerns arise in preparation. When adopting a
set of standards, an emphasis on the resources needed for SPED students must be known and accessible to
teachers. Without this, the expectation of wanting all students to be college and career ready may not follow -
through effectively (Laureate Education, 2014a) . I believe the information provided in documents 5 – 8 of this week’s
resources provided reliable sources because as a teacher, I am going to wonder how teaching these standards will
look like in a classroom with ELL or SPED students. Through these resources, I learned how ELLs academic
language can be supported using Tier 2 instruction that promotes higher - order thinking skills, critical thinking skills, and
problem - solving skills with additional supports provided in their home language (Laureate Education, 2014b). Additionally, I learned the
importance of collaboration between general education and SPED teachers when ensuring instruction aligns with students’ academic needs to
promote student succ ess . The next steps I might take to follow up on this information as a
teacher would be to determine what resources are provided to teachers so that they can periodically assess student
achievement throughout the year. With the adoption of CCSS came change s in high stakes testing. Issues with
CCSS and testing were that tests were developed before standards could be implemented to reflect if student knowledge
gained from standard - based instruction aligned with assessments (Laureate Education, 2014c). Flanner y (2019) emphasized how the CCSS must
go hand and hand with appropriate student assessment (Flannery, 2019); this assures that curriculum provided reflects the end
of the year assessment goals. To level - the - playing field for all students, teachers must ens ure that
students are continuously meeting objective goals that will be reflected on end of the year assessments; this cannot
be done if proper measurements of student growth are not apart of their on - going evaluation of progress .
For this week’s discussion, the question still arises if adopting a set of standards limits or improves education for all students. This question will be answered through the lens of a classroom teacher. Using the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) as an example, as a teacher, I may have mixed emotions towards adopting a set of standards. During the adoption of CCSS, teachers were not provided with a trial period to measure the effectiveness of CCSS; this, in turn, did not provide teachers with concrete evidence that the CCSS were designed to execute their goals intended for student success (Laureate Education, 2014c). As an educator, I am going to wonder how a set of standards will support the needs of my English Language Learner (ELL) students. For ELLs, it is imperative that instruction builds upon students’ academic English and social English. Acquiring knowledge of academic language is essential for ELLs because it is related to standards-based curriculum in math, science, social studies, and language arts (Colorín Colorado, n.d.). For Special Education (SPED) students, I would have to work closely with SPED teachers to provide instruction that reflects the exceptionalities of my students. Raising expectations for all students is a positive in that supports must be used to ensure such goals are
attainable for all students. For instance, professional developments can be provided to teachers where they can learn how to apply instructional strategies that reflect the goal of CCSS and the needs of students. However, concerns arise in preparation. When adopting a set of standards, an emphasis on the resources needed for SPED students must be known and accessible to teachers. Without this, the expectation of wanting all students to be college and career ready may not follow-through effectively (Laureate Education, 2014a). I believe the information provided in documents 5 – 8 of this week’s resources provided reliable sources because as a teacher, I am going to wonder how teaching these standards will look like in a classroom with ELL or SPED students. Through these resources, I learned how ELLs academic language can be supported using Tier 2 instruction that promotes higher-order thinking skills, critical thinking skills, and problem-solving skills with additional supports provided in their home language (Laureate Education, 2014b). Additionally, I learned the importance of collaboration between general education and SPED teachers when ensuring instruction aligns with students’ academic needs to promote student success. The next steps I might take to follow up on this information as a teacher would be to determine what resources are provided to teachers so that they can periodically assess student achievement throughout the year. With the adoption of CCSS came changes in high stakes testing. Issues with CCSS and testing were that tests were developed before standards could be implemented to reflect if student knowledge gained from
standard-based instruction aligned with assessments (Laureate Education, 2014c). Flannery (2019) emphasized how the CCSS must go hand and hand with appropriate student assessment (Flannery, 2019); this assures that curriculum provided reflects the end of the year assessment goals. To level- the-playing field for all students, teachers must ensure that students are continuously meeting objective goals that will be reflected on end of the year assessments; this cannot be done if proper measurements of student growth are not apart of their on-going evaluation of progress. 2 NEW YORK CITY TASK FORCE ON QUALITY INCLUSIVE SCHOOLING MISSION STATEMENT The mission of the New York City Task Force On Quality Inclusive Schooling (NYCTFQIS) is to support preparation of teachers and related services providers for inclusive urban classrooms by using research based practices and pedagogy; collaboration among Institutes for Higher
Education (IHEs), schools, parents/families, and professional organizations; and support professional development efforts in high need schools. The NYCTFQIS recognizes the impact of disability on the classroom and the family; appreciates the willingness and courage of school personnel who undertake inclusive practices, and commitment of schools to receive professional development, implement strategies to improve inclusive practice, and host practicum students and student teachers in inclusive settings. Dr. Brenda Dressler, Touro College, Co-liaison, New York City Region Dr. Stephen Levy, Touro College, and Dean of Education of American International School Systems, Co-liaison, New York City Region New York City Task Force on Quality Inclusive Schooling Additional copies can be downloaded from www.inclusion- ny.org/region/nyc The New York City Task Force on Quality Inclusive Schooling is supported through a partnership between New York State School Improvement Grant Activities and the New York
State Higher Education Support Center for SystemsChange, located at Syracuse University. This booklet is made possible through the ongoing support of Matt Giugno, Gerry Mager, Wilma Jozwiak, Steve Wirt, Peter Kozik, and Iris Maxon. 3 Dedication To families, students, teachers, administrators, and all other members of the community who strive to make inclusive education a success. 4 Foreword Gerald M. Mager, Ph.D., Professor Co-director of New York State’s Higher Education Support Center School of Education, Syracuse University Moving mountains. I sometimes wonder what it takes to move the education enterprise from where it is to a better place. We have witnessed and enacted some such movements in the past half-century: school desegregation, the reconceptualization
of school curricula, reductions in class size, the recognition of the importance of teacher quality and quality teacher preparation. Surely, the emergence of commitment to educating all children and youth – the movement toward inclusive schooling – is another example of the transformations we continue to work on and witness taking place in this most-central societal institution. All these changes have taken time, indeed decades to realize. But what does it demand of people to move mountains? I know that it takes courage. One has to be courageous to stand up, and sometimes to stand alone, for what one believes. But courage is not enough. It takes vision: vision that comes from rich, first-hand experience; vision that grasps the relevant knowledge base; vision that captures insight; vision that reflects deep understanding of one’s common practice; vision that is not bound by that practice, but that may be inspired to be otherwise. Vision provides direction to one’s courage. I think moving mountains also requires energy. Routine work takes most of our energy. Those who have moved the enterprise forward have found extra energy to do the extra work that mountain moving requires. And collaboration, of course. Transforming the education enterprise is not a one-person venture. In fact, a grace of this enterprise is its valuing of collaborative effort and accomplishment. We move mountains together, over time. Moving the enterprise, not surprisingly, requires action. Without action, nothing gets
done. Mountains stay where they are. Action draws on our vision, energy, collaboration, and courage. When we have moved mountains in the past, we have deliberately taken action. The New York State Higher Education Support Center (NYHESC) for Systems Change and its Task Force on Quality Inclusive Schooling have been acting to create the conditions that would allow dedicated teacher educators, teachers and administrators, policy makers and community agencies to move mountains. We have been inching the education enterprise forward, simultaneously on many fronts in the system, with the goal of a quality education for all learners. In the HESC, we have committed ourselves to developing high quality inclusive teacher preparation programs in our colleges and universities, so that the next generation of teachers is better able to serve the wide range of learners who enroll in American public schools. Those learners need good teachers if they are to succeed academically and build lives for themselves that are productive and satisfying. We share that different vision of teacher preparation and practice, one that leads to teaching that is inclusive of all learners. Further, we are committed to partnering with regional schools and districts where learners struggle to achieve. In our partnerships, we collaborate across colleges and universities, and engage local teachers and administrators, community groups, professional development providers, and often our pre-service teachers as well. These schools and districts are the sites
where our future teachers will claim their first teaching assignments. Engaging in these schools, working with the dedicated professionals already there, and witnessing success and challenge are 5 part of their preparation for that first year. Through the partnerships, we, as teacher educators, learn from our field-based colleagues and share in their efforts. Working in inclusive teacher preparation and working with high-need schools are linked. Our vision is that quality inclusive teaching, at which the next generation of teachers must be adept, will also address the challenge of high-need schools in serving all learners. Being in high- need schools and districts will ground teacher preparation and make it more powerful in addressing the persistent challenges of student learning. The New York City Task Force on Quality Inclusive Schooling has been moving mountains--developing quality inclusive teacher preparation programs in its colleges and universities and engaging with teachers, administrators, support personnel, and parents in many schools and districts of the city. They have shared their vision, brought their energies to bear on the issues at hand, and collaborated with each other and with their partner schools. They have displayed the courage of their conviction that if all children and adolescents of the city are to be well served by their schools, then inclusive policies and
practices must become the standard. This booklet represents the actions of teachers, administrators, support personnel and parents. In the sections of this booklet, you will come to understand better their vision, and to witness their courage. You will sense the energy that they bring to this work. They invite you, through this booklet, to collaborate with them--in moving mountains. © DJC Acknowledgements 6 Thank you to: Matt Giugno Program Associate, New York State Education Department/VESID Project Co-director, Higher Education Support Center for Systems Change Gerald Mager, Project Co-director, Higher Education Support Center for Systems Change
Steve Wirt Iris Maxon Peter Kozik Wilma Jozwiak Coordinator of Statewide Field Facilitation, S3TAIR Project Touro College Carol Haupt & UFT Teacher Center Parent-to-Parent Students and Staff of the Cooke Center for Learning and Development Mercy College Student Government Dania Cheddie, Shelly Klainberg, & Teri Buch Art Blaser
Brooke Barr Matthew Joffe Contributing Students, Teachers, & Parents Dr. Nicholas A. Aiello, Touro College Dan Stein All Colleges that Support the Task Force Book cover and illustrations by David J. Connor Supporting Inclusive Classrooms: A Resource (Volume I, 2008) 7 CONTENTS Section 1: Who We Are and What We Are Trying to Accomplish by this Booklet………....9 David J. Connor Section 2: Why People Support
Inclusion……......................................................................... 11 Task Force Members Section 3: A (Brief) History of Inclusion in the USA................................................................14 David J. Connor Section 4: Making Inclusion Work…………………………………………..……………..….21 Susan Mariano-Lapidus Section 5: Working in Inclusive Classrooms …………………………………………………24 Teacher Voices Section 6: Administrative Support of Inclusive Practices……………………………...……27 Roger Zeeman Section 7: Strategies for Elementary School……...…………………………………………..30 Mapy Chavez-Brown Section 8: Strategies for Junior High School ………………..………………………………..33 Elizabeth Haller Section 9: Strategies for Building an Inclusive Culture in Secondary School………...…...39
Joan Washington & Stephen Levy T. Shawn Welcome Section 10: Overcoming Barriers to Inclusion ……….…………………………..…..……....45 Victoria Rodriguez & Nancy S. Maldonado Section 11: How Related Services Can Support Inclusion ……………………..…..………..48 Meira Orentlicher Section 12: Parent Perspectives ………….……………………………………………………53 Mary Beth Fadelici & Ellen McHugh Brook Barr Section 13: Collaborative Team Teaching………………………………….............................56 Student Voices Section 14: Students with Disabilities and Statewide Tests………………………………….60 8 Gloria Wolpert Section 15: Students with Disabilities Transitioning into College…………………………...61 Matthew Joffe
Dianne Zager, Dania Cheddie, Shelly Klainberg, & Teri Buch Section 16: New York City: A Snapshot……………………………………………………...64 David J. Connor Section 17: Resources to Support Success………………………………..………………….69 A. Children’s Books Eileen Brennan B. Videotapes C. Teacher Text Books D. Education Journals E. Selected Articles F. Webpages Task Force Members Section 18: Awareness Days: Some Alternatives to Simulation Exercises………………….84 Art Blaser Section 19: Glossary of Terms……………………………………………………………..….. 86 Brenda Dressler & Kathy Simic Template Samples……………………………………………………………… ……..………..94 Sample of Co-Teaching Plan Sample of Lesson Plan David J. Connor ___________________________
9 Section 1: Who We Are and What We Are Trying to Accomplish by this Booklet David J. Connor, Ed.D. Hunter College, CUNY “Those kids don’t belong here.” “That’s what I’ll do for my kids…what about your kids?” “Whose bright idea was this…someone who’s never stepped into a school at all?” “There’s a reason why we have special ed!” “I can’t teach a kid with a disability, I haven’t been trained…” “Those kids will take away all the attention from the other kids. It’s not fair.” “I don’t want to share a classroom with anybody else.” While inclusive education has come a long way in the last few decades, such comments as those listed above are still commonplace. However, nowadays these sentiments are more likely to be counterbalanced with: “I believe children with disabilities have a right to be with their non-disabled friends...” “As a team teacher, I have come to see all kids as ‘our’ kids…” “There are many reasons to support inclusion. After all, if children with disabilities are not included in schools, how does that impact their ‘perceived place’ and value in society--by themselves and by others?” “Special ed. was intended as a service, not a place…”
“Disability is part of life. ‘Special’ training is learned as you go along…” “With flexible approaches to teaching, and the use of differentiated instruction, all kids can learn in classrooms. It does not have to be the same thing, the same way, at the same time…” “Working with another professional helps me be a more reflective teacher. Having a partner is common in most other professions…” Clearly, the inclusion of students with disabilities foregrounds multiple issues, raises numerous questions, and provokes many responses. It has done so since the passage of legislation in 1975 (P.L. 94-142) to ensure an education for all students…and will continue to do so. The intention of this booklet is to provide basic information and share ways of supporting inclusive practices in New York City. The contributors of each section are representatives from New York City who are part of a statewide network called The Task Force on Quality Inclusive Schooling. This network is largely composed of university faculty supportive of inclusive education, along with other representatives from a variety of organizations, including the United Federation of Teachers, Parent-to-Parent, and the Department of Education. While the majority of us currently work within a university setting, we have been teachers, professional development specialists, service providers, and administrators in the public school system. We meet as a group six times a year; four times in New York City, and twice in Albany.
10 What motivates us to come together is our belief in providing quality inclusive education as a valid option for students in New York City. As our time is limited, to date we have focused on projects that allow us to unite and share our resources with educators. In June 2006, we hosted a conference on Inclusion at Pace University. In May 2007, we co-hosted a conference on Autism, Attention Deficit Disorder, and Inclusion at City College. At these events we met educators hungry for more information, and so we decided to create a booklet that • Provides a background and context of inclusive education in NYC • Offers tips, suggestions, and strategies to make inclusion work in the classroom • Shares information that can spark discussions in schools • Includes perspectives of teachers and teacher educators • Lists resources in the form of books, videos, articles, and web pages The format of the book is straightforward. Each section is based on a question asked, and is purposefully short (between one to four pages) so educators can ‘sample’ the issues. At the end of most sections are more questions designed to prompt increased reflection and/or stimulate group discussion. Finally, at the end of booklet are sections that provide multiple resources that we have used in our own classrooms.
It is our hope that this booklet will help further attempts at providing quality inclusive classrooms that benefit all students. Whether read as an individual, discussed as a group in school meetings, or sampled in a university classroom, we believe this short text can be helpful in framing inclusion as a worthwhile, complex endeavor that values all children equally. © DJC 11 Section 2: Why People Support Inclusion Task Force Members “We are all different from one another. Yet, in the diversified classroom all of us belong. Belonging is essential to human nature. Without a feeling of belonging we cannot move on in harmony to accomplish team projects, which is vital in today’s ever-changing global environment. Belonging is the foundation for understanding and respect and the building block toward wiping out stereotyping.” Elizabeth Haller “I value the diversity in the inclusion programs. I support inclusion because it is the moral and right thing to do.”
Victoria Rodriguez “I believe in inclusion because it allows all children the opportunity to see that differences can become similarities. In other words, we are all different and unique individuals” Nancy S. Maldonado “Inclusion in community schools is part of our basic commitment to provide all students with the opportunity to actively participate in school and society. It is the responsibility of educators to utilize evidence-based practices and appropriate supports so that all students can be successful learners” Dianne Zager “It would be easy to tout inclusive education as a cure all for what ails education. It isn’t. It is hard work. It is commitment to a child, not a philosophy. Inclusive education is incremental: one class at a time, one semester at a time, one child at a time. Until, finally, a community dedicated to the education of our children, is suddenly and irrevocably there.” Ellen McHugh “Inclusion is about everybody’s understanding of human difference--who is valued, who belongs. If we are to have a society that is inclusive, then it must start in schools. Inclusion is not about every child doing the same thing, in the same way, at the same time…those committed to
inclusive education value and accept human variation as a natural occurrence--not viewing it as abnormality, deviation, and disorder that justifies segregation within education.” David J. Connor “Diversity is a fact of life. If you carefully look at the whole universe no entity of creation is the same, no species is the same, no two specimens within a species are the same. That fact of endless variation points to a social truth: we need to respect this fact as we look at all who are born human, and who deserve our full attention to reach their full potential. The human table isn't a square or a rectangle or even an oval but a widening circle. We as educators to the best 12 our abilities are committed to widening the table to fit all who come to its bounty. That's inclusion: a daunting but necessary goal. Every step toward it defines the human condition as it should be lived. Every step away diminishes us and fails to celebrate the diversity within the universe.” Grace Ibanez Friedman “Inclusion is a philosophy that promotes the equity of access for all people. One’s ability to access that which we need and want is a powerful and important human right. Through the inclusion of historically marginalized groups into quality
educational settings, we may begin to realize this philosophy.” Susan Mariano-Lapidus “Inclusion drives democratic education. A commitment to inclusive schooling hallows the listening space within which the spoken and unspoken of the learning community is heard, seen, reflected on. The energy of each student empowers the opportunity to teach inclusively.” Eileen E. Brennan “I use the following in my signature block...I got it in Albany at the Task Force conference....don't know its attribution, and don't know who distributed it, but it says it all: ‘We could learn a lot from crayons; some are sharp, some are pretty, some are dull, some have weird names, and all are different colors....but they all exist very nicely in the same box.’” Stephen Levy “This generation has already begun to understand inclusion. They see it in their everyday life, curb cuts, wheelchair lifts on buses, automatic doors, designated parking spots, etc. They see it, they live it, they get it. Why should school be any different?” Mary Beth Fadelici “We are in a new push in America--no child left behind--and we all need to remember that no child should be cast aside in a separate room to never experience that very valuable social part
of education that occurs when students interact with each other in and out of the classroom. With the exception of extreme cases that pose real safety concerns for the student with special needs, it is incumbent upon us to provide heterogeneous classroom structures that allow all students to develop as they relate to real world experiences and learn that the world is diverse. It requires experience with all, compassion for all, and an ever evolving sense of tolerance, acceptance and inclusion.” T. Shawn Welcome “Legal support for inclusion is based on Public Law 94-142 and IDEA, which defines the right to education for all children. Inclusive education promotes a sense of belonging, encourages collaboration, advances justice, values diversity and creates opportunity for conflict resolution. Inclusive education values the individual learner and provides an individualized balanced education between academic and social development.” Brenda Dressler 13 “‘When everyone is included, we all learn more,’ is the motto of the Cooke Center for Learning and Development where I have worked for almost 20 years. At Cooke, we envision a world where all children and adolescents with special needs are recognized as valued members of their
communities and provided with the inclusive education necessary to assume the roles of their choosing. One of the ways we share our vision is by increasing community awareness through our annual celebrations of National Inclusive Schools Week. December 3-7, 2007 was the 7th annual national celebration. The theme was year will be ‘Lessons from the World: Including All Children.’ Besides holding celebrations in our partner schools, in December 2007 we hosted a conference on international accomplishments and challenges. Get your school involved by going to <www.inclusiveschools.org>. They have a wealth of materials to help each school raise awareness of this important civil right.” Kathy Simic © DJC 14 Section 3: A (Brief) History of Inclusion in the USA David Connor, Ed.D. Hunter College, CUNY The decision of Brown v. Board of Education (1954) was rooted in the Fourteenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution: “No state shall make or enforce any law which shall...deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the
laws” (1868). In other words, “If states have undertaken to provide an education to its citizenry, then they must do so for all its citizens” (Yell, Rogers, & Rogers, 1998, p. 219). This sharply contrasted to educational policies regarding students with disabilities as “laws in most states allowed school districts to refuse to enroll any student they considered ‘uneducable,’ a term generally defined by local school administrators” (Martin, Martin, & Terman, 1996, p. 26). Parents and advocates of children with disabilities saw the wider implications of Brown--the need to have the rights of such children encoded within law. In 1975, their combined efforts resulted in Congress passing the hallmark legislation of P.L. 94-142 mandating a “free and appropriate education for all handicapped children” (FAPE). Contained within this law was the concept of Least Restrictive Environment1 (LRE). This meant each student had to be individually evaluated and placed on a continuum of options including general education classes, separate classes, separate schools, home, or a hospital setting for part or all of the day. Although P.L. 94-142 can be viewed as enormously successful in giving students with disabilities access to public education, the preponderance of decisions that placed students in separate facilities created a largely segregated system, often referred to as “parallel.” The mechanism of LRE has been interpreted as a legal and valid option of not placing a student with a disability in a general education classroom. To disability rights advocates (Lipsky & Gartner, 1997) and activists (Linton, 1998), LRE is a
loophole that allows institutions of education to maintain the non-integration of people with disabilities into schools, and society at large. To other scholars (Kauffman & Hallahan, 1995) and parents (Carr, 1993), LRE is a necessary protection that ensures flexibility and individualization of placement for students who are often overlooked and/or overwhelmed in general education. By all accounts, “There is a persistent tension between the requirements of appropriate education and the least restrictive environment” (Martin, Martin, & Terman, 1996, p.35). Early criticism of placement options outlined in P.L. 94-142 were criticized by Reynolds (1976) who viewed them as too restrictive and counterproductive to the intent of the law. Semmel, Gottleib, and Robinson (1979) concluded that there was no “conclusive body of evidence which confirms that special education services appreciably enhance the academic and/or social accomplishments of handicapped children beyond what can be expected without special education” (p. 267, cited in Reynolds, 1989). Stainback and Stainback (1984) asserted that “the instructional needs of students do not warrant the operation of a dual system” (p. 102), further criticizing expenditure and inefficiencies associated with two systems, classification of disability as a form of tracking, and labeling students as deviant. Challenging the notion of two “types” of students, they called for a merger of both systems that would unite and support all 1 The definition of LRE in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act is: "To the maximum extent appropriate, children
with disabilities, including children in public or private institutions or other care facilities, are [1] educated with children who are not disabled, and [2] special classes, separate schooling, or other removal of children with disabilities from the regular educational environment occurs only when the nature or severity of the disability of a child is such that education in regular classes with the use of supplementary aids and services cannot be achieved satisfactorily." 15 educators, because, as Lortie points out (1978), the “historical separation of special and regular educators has taken its toll in the relations between them” (p. 236, cited in Stainback & Stainback, p. 104, 1984). By the mid-1980s, Wang, Reynolds, and Warburg (1986) noticed the growing enrollments of minority students in special education, along with pedagogical inflexibility demonstrated to struggling learners, overreliance on measurement tools used to determine disability (and placement), and “the continuation of segregation of many students in disjointed programs” (p. 26). It was around this time that the Regular Education Initiative (REI) began. Developed by Madeline Will, Assistant Secretary to the U.S. Department of Education in charge of special education and rehabilitation programs, the REI
proposed the collaboration between general and special educators. A primary goal was to include students with mild to moderate disabilities because schools had “unwittingly, [created] barriers to their successful education” (Will, 1986, p. 412). Elaboration on these barriers was provided by Gardner and Lipsky (1987) as they described “myriad faults” with the special education system, such as the provision of financial incentives provided to local education authorities when students with disabilities were placed in more restrictive environments. Though this appeared to counteract the spirit of the original legislation, it helped explain why “overall, 74 percent of special education students are in pull-out or separate programs” (p. 374). Sapon-Shevin (1987) also expressed concern over … Nature vs. Nurture Debate 1 Nature vs. Nurture Debate in Language Acquisition MOHAMMED SHANAWAZ ID: 1120697055 ENG 555: Advanced Psycholinguistics
Assistant Professor Abdus Selim 22 August 2011 North South University Nature vs. Nurture Debate 2 Abstract How humans possess the language ability is a matter of long controversy among the linguists. Some of them believe that the ability of language is the result of innate knowledge. Unlike other species humans possess that innate ability which is genetically coded. To them language is the outcome of nature (genes). Conversely, others claim that the ability of language is learned through experience extracting all the linguistic information from the
outside environment. It is the outcome of nurture (environmental factors/stimuli). At present, there is no clear winner regarding the debate as both genes and environmental factors/stimuli seem to play a vital and important role in language acquisition. Nature vs. Nurture Debate 3 Nature vs. Nurture Debate in Language Acquisition
A popular Bible story “The Tower of Babel” narrates, the whole world had one language—one common speech for all people before mankind decided to build a tower that would reach all the way to heaven. God punished mankind for the hubris of building this tower by turning their one universal language into dozens of different languages. The inability to communicate in each other’s languages finally resulted in mass confusion and the ultimate destruction of the tower. Well, we do not know whether the story as a whole is a fact or fiction and which is also not the matter of concern here. What noteworthy in the story is the significance of language among humans. Truly, how significant the language is for us! Language is arguably the most unique feature of humans that distinguishes them from any other living species. We, humans use language as a remarkable tool for communicating with each other—let’s say for
sharing our thoughts, opinions and views; or expressing our liking, disliking or desires. Other animals lack that ability of language. Barber (1997) further says about the significance of language: It is language, more obviously than anything else, that distinguishes humankind from rest of the animal world. At one time it was common to define a human as a thinking animal, but we can hardly imagine thought without words – no thought that is at all precise, anyway. More recently, humans have often been described as tool-making animals: but language itself is the most remarkable tool that they have invented, and is the one that makes most of the others possible. The most primitive tools, admittedly, may have come earlier than language: the higher apes sometimes use sticks as elementary tools, and even break them for this purpose. But tools of any greater sophistication demand the
kind of human co-operation and division of labour which is hardly possible without language. Language, in fact, is the great machine-tool which makes human culture possible. (p.1) Nature vs. Nurture Debate 4 So, language is the most significant remarkable tool that humans possess unlike any other living species. But, question could raise that how we, humans acquire that ability of language which other species cannot. It is a matter of long controversy among the linguists that how humans possess the language ability. We find different approaches regarding language acquisition. Some of the linguists believe that the language ability is the result of innate knowledge. Unlike other species humans possess that innate ability which is
genetically coded. These linguists believe that language is the outcome of nature (genes). Conversely, others claim that the ability of language is learned through experience extracting all the linguistic information from the outside environment. According to them language is the outcome of nurture (environmental factors/stimuli). The difference between these innate and learned approaches to language acquisition or the ability of language that humans possess is known as nature vs. nurture debate. The study will short the debate out logically investigating whether nature or nurture or little bit of both play a vital role in language acquisition. The first approach concerning nature-nurture debate in language acquisition is called “nativism”. It is generally the idea that language acquisition is an innate ability of humans. Thus, the approach is also known as “innatism”. The idea of “nativism” actually goes back to
philosopher Plato and Kant whose belief was that knowledge originates in human nature. But in modern times this concept is clearly associated with the renowned linguist Noam Chomsky who is a strong proponent of the “nativist or innatist theory of language acquisition” (Bates, n.d.). Chomsky (1988) further clarifies the tie between his views on the innateness of language and Plato’s original position on the nature of mind: How can we interpret [Plato’s] proposal in modern terms? A modern variant would be that certain aspects of our knowledge and understanding are innate, part of our biological endowment, genetically Nature vs. Nurture Debate 5 determined, on a par with the elements of our common nature that cause us to grow arms and legs rather than wings. This version of the
classical doctrine is, I think, essentially correct. (p. 4) Nativists/Innatists deeply believe that language acquisition is the result of the innate knowledge of the language within an infant. Innate is something which is already there in mind since birth. They also claim that the underlying principle of language is deeply rooted in human brain. It is genetically coded among humans since birth unlike other living species. This enable us to possess the unique language ability which is absent among other species. According to various articles (“Nature versus Nurture,” n.d.; “Innate or Learned,” n.d.; “Chomsky’s Theories,” n.d.) on Chomsky’s language acquisition theory it is found that he has spent a lot of time in developing a theory of grammar which is widely known “Universal Grammar (UG)”. UG basically asserts that underlying all the different languages there are some basic
principles. Chomsky also postulated that children are born with a “Language Acquisition Device (LAD)”. According to him, LAD allows a child to pick up the underlying grammatical principles of the language concerned. Nativists claim that “Universal Grammar” is too complex to be acquirable through environmental stimuli/factors. The proponents of innateness hence believe that the human brain develops certain brain structures for language acquisition and use as a result of Darwinian evolution and the “survival of the fittest” principle. Chomsky often calls the innate knowledge of language by language faculty considering this as a biologically autonomous system in the brain that has an initial state which is genetically determined. Nativists further claims about the innateness of the language ability that humans possess: The fact that every known human culture developed some sort of
language suggests that there is a genetic basis for the ability to construct and produce language. Furthermore all human languages seem to have Nature vs. Nurture Debate 6 some characteristics in common. They all have large vocabularies of words whose meaning is mediated through a phonological system, they all have a grammatical system that governs the way in which words are combined and they change through time by adding new words and losing old ones. (“Nature versus Nurture,” n.d.) Conversely, the second approach regarding the nature-nurture controversy in language acquisition is known as “empiricism”. Empiricists believe that children learn the language by extracting all the linguistic information from the environment. To then language acquisition is all about
habit formation and the outcome of nurture. Hence, this approach is also known as “behaviorism” (Bates, n.d.). This approach is also an ancient one, going back (at least) to Aristotle, but in modern times it is closely associated with the psychologist B.F. Skinner who is the well-known proponents of behaviorism/empiricism. Bates (n.d.) in one of his studies mentions B.F. Skinner’s view regarding language acquisition: According to Skinner, there are no limits to what a human being can become, given time, opportunity and the application of very general laws of learning. Humans are capable of language because we have the time, the opportunity and (perhaps) the computing power that is required to learn 50,000 words and the associations that link those words together. (p. 2) Various articles on behaviorism (“Nature versus Nurture,” n.d.;
“Innate or Learned,” n.d.) asserts that the infant can draw sufficient linguistic information from the well-structured environment. According to behaviorists/empiricist, language is learned by association and thus, they claim language acquisition as the associative process. To them language acquisition is similar as any other learning process related to cognitive development. They also claim that the beneficial quality of language is Nature vs. Nurture Debate 7 responsible for the ubiquitous distribution. People who came in contact with it, adopted it because of its beneficial effects and in this way, language spread across the earth. Mahoney (n.d.) in one of his articles emphasis the significance of usage and experience in language acquisition supporting behaviorists’ claim:
Not all linguists believe that the innate capacities are most important in language learning. Some researchers place greater emphasis on the influence of usage and experience in language acquisition. They argue that adults play an important role in language acquisition by speaking to children—often in a slow, grammatical and repetitious way. In turn, children discern patterns in the language and experiment with speech gradually—uttering single words at first and eventually stringing them together to construct abstract expressions. At first glance, this may seem reminiscent of how language is traditionally taught in classrooms. But most scientists think children and adults learn language differently. While they may not do it as quickly and easily as children seem to, adults can learn to speak new languages proficiently. However, few
would be mistaken for a native speaker of the non-native tongue. Childhood may be a critical period for mastering certain aspects of language such as proper pronunciation. What factors account for the different language learning capabilities of adults and children? Researchers suggest accumulated experience and knowledge could change the brain over time, altering the way language information is organized and/or processed. (p. 2) Nature vs. nurture controversy regarding the question how humans possess language ability has been ongoing for long since among the linguists. At present, there is no clear winner regarding the debate as both genes (nature) and environmental factors/stimuli (nurture) seem to play a vital and important role in language acquisition. We cannot ignore the fact that human behavior is actually a collaboration of both genetic and environmental aspects. Maybe this
Nature vs. Nurture Debate 8 true for language acquisition as well. Perhaps, some genetic features, such as our large brain or nutritional requirements have predestined us in some way to develop vocal communication, which in turn has grown to a full language as a consequence of environmental factors, such as upbringing, social system or the use of symbols (“Nature versus Nurture,” n.d.) In an article (“How Do Nature and Nurture,” n.d.) it has found that how both nature and nurture are equally important for human development: The question, “how do nature and nurture influence human development” has been an ongoing debate for a very long time and at present there is no clear winner, as both nature (genes) and nurture (environmental factors) both seem to play a vital and important role in
human development…Nature can be loosely defined as genetic inheritance or the genetic makeup (the information encoded in your genes) which a person inherits from both parents at the time of conception and carries throughout life…The concept of nature thus refers to biologically inherited tendencies and abilities that people have and which may get revealed later on as they grow up. In contrast, nurture can be defined as the different environmental factors to which a person is subjected from birth to death. Environmental factors involve many dimensions. They include both physical environments (a good example is prenatal nutrition) and social environments (such as the neighborhood, media and peer pressure.) Also, environmental factors have different levels of impact on human development as they involve multiple layers of action, ranging from most immediate
(families, friends, and neighborhoods) to bigger societal contexts (school systems and local governments) as well as macro factors such as politics on the international level or say global warming. (p. 2) From the discussion on different approaches concerning language acquisition, one thing is obvious that not solely nature (genes) or nurture Nature vs. Nurture Debate 9 (environmental factors/stimuli) rather little bit of both are important for language acquisition. Not solely the belief of “nativist or innatist” is enough to answer the question of how humans possess the language ability. The claim of “behaviorists/empiricist” can also not be ignored regarding the matter. The innate knowledge of language faculty that children are born with is not enough to acquire language unless they trigger or get output from the
outside environment. The well-studied case of Genie (O’Grady, W. D., O’Grady, W., Dobrovolsky, M., & Katamba, F., 1996) is worthwhile to understand the importance of both innate knowledge and environmental output in language acquisition. Nature vs. Nurture Debate 10 References Barber, C. (1997). English Language: a historical introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. Bates, E. (n.d.). On The Nature and Nurture of Language. Retrieved August 09, 2011, from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.140.3 229&rep=rep1&type=pdf Chomsky, N. (1988). Language and problems of knowledge. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Chomsky's Theories on Language. (n.d.). Retrieved August 09, 2011, from http://www.brighthub.com/education/languages/articles/71728.a spx How Do Nature and Nurture Influence Human Development. (n.d.). Retrieved August 09, 2011, from http://www.brighthub.com/science/genetics/articles/110288.asp x Is Language Innate or Learned. (n.d.). Retrieved August 10, 2011, from http://www.brighthub.com/education/languages/articles/71285.a
spx Mahoney, N. (n.d.). Language Learning. Retrieved August 10, 2011, from http://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/linguistics/learn.jsp Nature versus Nurture in Language Acquisition. (n.d.). Retrieved August 10, 2011, from http://www.brighthub.com/science/genetics/articles/82090.aspx O’Grady, W. D., O’Grady, W., Dobrovolsky, M., & Katamba, F. (1996). Contemporary Linguistics: An Introduction. London: Longman. Acta Scientiae et Intellectus ISSN 2410-9738 (Print), 2519- 1896 (Online) GIFTED STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES: A CURRENT REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Shyanne Sansom
Eastern New Mexico University, USA E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT Students who are both gifted, and learning disabled, face challenges that most of their peers do not. Their disabilities and their strengths are often overlooked. Teachers may only focus on a student’s weakness and fail to see high intelligence, or the giftedness may mask the disability and cause the child to appear average. Even when they are correctly identified, gifted and learning disabled students’ social, emotional, and intellectual needs are often overlooked in the effort to remediate their disability. These students must be correctly identified as being gifted and having a learning disability in order for their needs to be adequately met. Effective programming for gifted and learning disabled students also includes social and emotional support, as well as interventions which focus on strengths, rather than weaknesses. These students will meet their potential only when their needs are appropriately met. Keywords: gifted students, learning disabled
REVIEW OF LITERATURE This paper reviewed literature which addressed the characteristics and needs of students who are gifted and learning disabled. A discussion of the academic needs as well as the social and emotional needs of these students was included. Gifted and learning disabled students’ social, emotional and intellectual needs are often overlooked in the effort to remediate their disability. Identification of these students and the challenges associated with it were examined. Often, a student’s giftedness, or their learning disability, or both, remain undiagnosed, and these students do not receive appropriate interventions. Even when they are identified, it is common for the learning disability to be the only need that is acknowledged. These students must be correctly identified, both for their giftedness and for their learning disability, in order for their unique needs to be adequately met. Effective programming for gifted and learning disabled students includes social and emotional support, and interventions which focus on strengths rather than weaknesses. Only when their needs are appropriately met will these students meet their potential.
Acta Scientiae et Intellectus ISSN 2410-9738 (Print), 2519- 1896 (Online) CHARACTERISTICS AND NEEDS Children who are highly intelligent, but who also have learning disabilities are different than both their gifted peers and their learning disabled peers. The asynchronous development typical of gifted students is often exaggerated in the presence of a learning disability, leading to frustration and stress. It is important for teachers and parents to be able to understand the unique characteristics and needs of these students. In their examination of the dual characteristics of gifted students with learning disabilities, Baum, Cooper, and Neu (2001) reported that students rarely reached their academic potential because the learning disability rather than the strength was addressed. They found that the characteristic behaviors of gifted children, including high interest, high ability, and creativity were ignored while the learning disability was remediated. Failing to address all the characteristics of these students led to low self-confidence, behavior problems, and feelings of frustration (Baum et al., 2001).
Barber and Mueller (2011) studied the characteristics and needs of gifted students with learning disabilities. They found that these students face challenges not only in learning, but with other skills, as well. Gifted and learning disabled students often lack the ability to understand social cues and effectively participate in classroom activities. This lack of social ability is a result of the asynchronous development typical of highly intelligent youth. Their cognitive function has developed more quickly than their social and emotional capabilities, putting them at a higher risk for peer rejection, another cause of poor self- concept (Barber & Mueller, 2011). Barber and Mueller (2011) also discussed how pressure to achieve, which is typical of gifted students, may be even worse for gifted students with learning abilities. For instance, frustration often results from high expectations paired with the inability to do something because of a disability, causing stress both at home and at school. These students often display characteristics of underachieving and learning disabled students such as disruptive classroom behaviors and poor social skills, rather than the high academic achievement shown by other gifted children. The authors suggested that this poor classroom behavior might be, in part, a result of not being able to find peers in any classroom setting. These
students are unlike both learning disabled and gifted students. Not only do they suffer from social difficulty, but their giftedness results in a heightened awareness of being different. This study also found that the self-perceptions of these students were more similar to students with learning disabilities than to other gifted children (Barber and Mueller, 2011). King (2005) addressed reasons why gifted and learning disabled students have social and emotional needs which are different from any of their peer groups. They experience a continuous struggle between academic difficulties and intellectual strengths. In fact, they face even more difficulties than their gifted peers. They have the heightened emotional sensitivity common in gifted children, as well as the pressure from others and themselves to achieve. These pressures, combined with a learning disability than can impair that achievement, leads to Acta Scientiae et Intellectus ISSN 2410-9738 (Print), 2519- 1896 (Online)
frustration. The battle between academic success and intellectual ability can make school a difficult place for gifted students with learning disabilities (King, 2005). In addition to frustrations from the inability to achieve academic goals, gifted students with learning disabilities struggle to fit in with peers. King (2005) suggested that for gifted children, high intelligence can act as a buffer in difficult social situations, but gifted students with learning disabilities may not be able to protect themselves from social problems in the same way. The resulting social isolation from both gifted peers and average peers can cause lowered self-concept and emotional stress. The disappointment they feel when they see that their academic goals are not being met can exacerbate this problem. Therefore, addressing the learning difficulty alone is not sufficient in helping these students succeed. Focusing on weakness alone simply makes this emotional problem worse. Instead, focusing on a student's strengths can boost their self- confidence, leading to more successes. Because of these distinctive problems, addressing the social and emotional needs of these students is just as important as addressing their academic needs (King, 2005). Wellisch and Brown (2012) considered the social, emotional, and motivational problems which exist in some students who are
gifted and learning disabled. They suggest that attachment difficulties and maternal depression might be the cause of these problems, leading to academic underachievement. It is critical for schools to recognize and address the needs of gifted and learning disabled students. Correct identification and programming for these students leads to success, which in turn helps with adjustment, emotional problems, and self- concept (Wellisch & Brown, 2012). Assouline, Nicpon, and Dockery (2012) discuss gifted children with autism spectrum disorders. Autism spectrum disorders are one of the most common learning disabilities in gifted children. The needs of these children are distinctly different from either gifted students, or students with learning disabilities. For these students, the assumption that high ability predicts achievement is not true. The conventional methods of measuring achievement, such as RtI, and IQ and achievement tests, may not accurately measure the strengths and learning potential of gifted children with autism spectrum disorders. In addition, Assouline, et al. explained how the unique social challenges faced by individuals with autism spectrum disorders combined with the higher cognitive ability of the gifted challenge these students even more than typical social abilities of this disability. They found that correctly identifying both the learning
disability and the giftedness were essential in providing successful interventions. Addressing the learning disability alone was not effective in helping either academic achievement or social interactions in these students (Assouline et al., 2012). IDENTIFICATION Identifying gifted with learning disabilities is difficult. Often, either the giftedness or the learning disability is more apparent, and these students are not evaluated beyond their initial diagnosis. Conversely, the giftedness and the Acta Scientiae et Intellectus ISSN 2410-9738 (Print), 2519- 1896 (Online) learning disability might mask each other and make the child appear to have average academic ability. The identification and assessment of gifted students with disabilities was examined by Ruban and Reis (2005). They found that, although there is more information about gifted students with learning disabilities than
there has ever been, there is disagreement about the appropriate way to assess, identify, and provide programming for these individuals. However, agreement does exist in the belief that it is important to minimize weakness and encourage strengths in these individuals. There must be a broadened definition of giftedness in order to appropriately find and help these students. Solely focusing on IQ scores, argued Ruban and Reis, does not properly identify these individuals. Rather, teachers and parents should be educated about the characteristics of individuals who are gifted and learning disabled. Ruban and Reis (2005) compiled a list of characteristics of gifted students with learning disabilities which helps teachers correctly identify students who may otherwise be overlooked. They listed the characteristics which hamper identification as gifted as well as the characteristic strengths of gifted students. Frustration with the inability to master a skill was shown to hamper identification, as was learned helplessness and a general lack of motivation. Disruptive classroom behavior and a lack of organizational skills was also a common characteristic which lowered the likelihood that a student was identified as gifted. In contrast, certain characteristic strengths of gifted students, such as advanced vocabulary use, high levels of creativity and productivity, and a wide
variety of interests, helped students become recognized and identified as gifted. Ruban and Reis (2005) suggested that teachers consider both types of common characteristics when working with students. Silverman (2003) addressed the idea of masking, or compensation, and explained how it works in the brains of gifted and learning disabled children. The asynchronous development typical of gifted children is exaggerated when high levels of intelligence are combined with a disability. It is difficult, Silverman argued, to identify these children as either gifted or learning disabled because one trait compensates for the other. This compensation is the ability of the brain to solve a problem (the learning disability) in a different way. Gifted individuals excel at problem-solving and those with disabilities are no exception. The problem- solving ability of gifted children allows them to create ways to overcome their learning disabilities, making the students appear to be average in class work and test scores. It may also be difficult to determine whether a highly intelligent child actually does have a disability or whether their asynchrony is just extreme (Silverman, 2003). In an article which examined the relationship between the learning disability label and gifted referrals, Bianco and Leech (2010) found that
teachers were less likely to refer a child who had been labeled as learning disabled to be tested for gifted identification. Teachers who had been trained in gifted education, regular classroom teachers, and special education teachers were given profiles of students and asked to identify which should be referred for gifted programming. Most of the students labeled learning disabled were identified as being gifted far less often Acta Scientiae et Intellectus ISSN 2410-9738 (Print), 2519- 1896 (Online) than those students with the same characteristics but no label. Teachers trained in gifted education were the best at identifying gifted children with learning disabilities, and special education teachers were the worst. Their focus was on identifying skills deficits and remediation of the disability rather than identifying strengths. The authors proposed inadequate teacher training as the reason for the under identification of gifted and learning disabled students. They argued that teachers need to receive better training and become aware of how their personal
biases effect student identification and access to appropriate programming. Failure to do so will allow continued focus on accommodations of disabilities and lowered expectations by both the teachers and the students themselves (Bianco & Leech, 2010). Lovett (2013) contradicted most of the literature on gifted and learning disabled students and proposed that the label of “gifted and learning disabled” is being misused. The author claimed that the idea of high intelligence and learning disabilities masking each other is flawed. This assumption results in students being identified as gifted and learning disabled who do not actually meet the criteria of either. The student’s IQ is not sufficiently high, and their skills deficit sufficiently low. Because identifying giftedness and learning disabilities is so complex and vague, it is being exploited by those advantaged individuals who want to make their average children seem like they are actually gifted. Lovett claims that being labeled both gifted and learning disabled, allows those children to take advantage of both labels. This not only leads to misidentification for these children, but leads to greater social inequality in school programs (Lovett, 2013). Other disabilities According to a study by Wood (2012), the Connors behavior rating scale used
in identifying ADHD is an inaccurate tool for identifying ADHD in gifted children. Although the American Psychological Association lists ADHD as the most common behavioral disorder in children, there is no exact way to measure it. The Connors behavior rating scale diagnoses ADHD by comparing teacher and parent responses about behavior with that of normal children. But some behavioral traits of gifted children are similar to those associated with ADHD, such as inattention and social difficulties. Inattention may not be caused by ADHD, but by boredom from unstimulating classroom content, and social difficulties may be cause by the asynchronous development typical of gifted children. Rather than being identified as gifted, those children might be labeled as having ADHD, leading to misdiagnosis and over diagnosis (Wood, 2012). Conversely, the ability of highly gifted children to hyper-focus on a task they are interested in may mask characteristics of both ADHD and high intelligence. This not only leads to a missed diagnosis of ADHD, but could also lead to a gifted child remaining unidentified. As a result of these factors, Wood (2012) suggested an ADHD test for gifted students which compares their behavior to that of their gifted peers, not with average children. This new test would more accurately assess behavior of gifted students and prevent the over-
diagnosis and misdiagnosis of ADHD in this population (Wood, 2012). Acta Scientiae et Intellectus ISSN 2410-9738 (Print), 2519- 1896 (Online) 1 (2015) www.actaint.com Stein, Hetzel and Beck (2012) proposed that being an English language learner can mask giftedness in the same way in which having a learning disability can. They argued that the current identification procedures are inaccurate for identifying gifted English language learners. They advocate for varied methods of identifying giftedness for diverse populations of students. Just as is the case for students with disabilities, teachers focus on the label of ELL when planning programming for these students. If there were better procedures for identifying these gifted students, their strengths rather than their weakness would be addressed (Stein et al., 2012). Gifted children with dyslexia are often overlooked because their giftedness is masked, much like children with other disabilities. According to Peer and Tresman (2005), dyslexic children’s giftedness is hard to identify because there is often a
large difference between IQ tests and achievement due to the nature of the disability. The individual components of a test should be examined in order to gain a better understanding of a dyslexic student’s strengths and weaknesses, rather than use the typical model of gifted identification for dyslexic students. This would result in a better understanding of a student’s overall functioning (Peer & Tresman, 2005). Response to Intervention Response to Intervention, or RtI, is a process used in schools to provide early intervention to students experiencing academic and/or behavioral challenges. While there is no Federal mandate about how to implement RtI, most states utilize it in some form. Typically there are three tiers of behavioral and academic interventions, and each tier becomes progressively more intense. In tier one, schools screen all students for health, language, and academic proficiency. The curriculum and instruction are adjusted for those students who have not mastered these skills. If students do not respond to tier one, they are referred to tier two, which consists of progressively more aggressive interventions, such as behavior intervention plans, and more frequent monitoring. Students who do not respond to tier two intervention are referred to tier three, otherwise known
as special education. The goals of RtI are for the simultaneous occurrence of both assessment and academic interventions tailored to the needs of the student. Horne and Shaughnessy (2013) suggest that, because defining giftedness is complex and controversial, RtI can be used as a way to identify and address the needs of gifted students without the need for a label of “gifted”. RtI is meant to limit the time a student spends outside the classroom on specialized instruction. The assessments and educational interventions used in RtI, which are tailored to a student’s individual needs, are ideal for identifying and implementing appropriate programming for gifted students in the regular classroom (Horne & Shaughnessy, 2013). Yssel, Adams, Clark & Jones (2014) supported the use of RtI for gifted students, suggesting that it is a better method for identifying those gifted students who have learning disabilities than previous methods. They argued that, because using RtI replaces the “wait for failure” method, skills deficiencies are uncovered which otherwise might have gone unnoticed because of the masking ability of high Acta Scientiae et Intellectus ISSN 2410-9738 (Print), 2519-
1896 (Online) intelligence. Additionally, those schools who use RtI for low achieving students could use it for high achieving students in the same way. Through RtI, skills discrepancies can be discovered and proper programming implemented to help students remediate weaknesses and increase strengths. Yssel et al. (2014) did admit, however, that with RtI, the social and emotional needs of gifted and learning disabled students are not met, and therefore, appropriate programming must follow the initial identification. Crepeau-Hobson and Bianco (2011) observed that RtI alone is not an effective way to identify and meet the needs of twice exceptional students. With the increased use of RtI in identifying learning disabilities, the talents and the weakness of gifted and learning disabled students are going unidentified because one masks the other. Instead, the authors recommend an approach which uses standardized assessments for measuring giftedness inserted into the RtI framework to more accurately identify and address the needs of these students (Crepeau-Hobson & Bianco, 2011).
McKenzie (2010) also discussed why RtI is insufficient for identifying gifted students with learning disabilities. If RtI is being used as the only way to diagnose a disability, students who have had short-term, intensive one-to- one instruction will be falsely identified as being responsive. Rather being identified and accommodated through RtI, students’ learning disabilities and high intelligence will remain unidentified. McKenzie argues that there should be continued use of IQ and achievement testing to understand and identify discrepancies between achievement and potential rather than using RtI as the sole method for identifying learning disabilities and high intelligence. Instead of using one or the other, RtI and traditional assessment can complement each other in correctly identifying gifted students with learning disabilities (McKenzie, 2011). PROGRAMMING The programming needs of gifted students varies from student to student, and so do the needs of those gifted students who also have learning disabilities. There is no one-size fits-all program for these students, and attempting to solely address the learning disability, or the giftedness, will result in inadequate instruction. There are many ideas about how best to help these students, but the
point on which nearly every expert agrees is that both the weaknesses and the strengths of the student should be addressed simultaneously. Waiting until a learning disability is remediated,, at the expense of nurturing the strength, can cause disappointment, frustration, and low self-confidence. Ignoring the disability, and focusing on the strength alone, will also result in frustration, underachievement, and stress. It is also important that programming meet the unique social and emotional needs of these students. Talent development In a review of programming for gifted and learning disabled students, Reis and Ruban (2005) suggested that there has been a move toward providing these students with programming that is individualized, comprehensive, and focuses on Acta Scientiae et Intellectus ISSN 2410-9738 (Print), 2519- 1896 (Online) strengths rather than weaknesses. The authors maintain that many gifted and learning disabled students have strengths and weakness which
often remain unidentified until college. In order to help these students achieve, teachers must not simply remediate their learning disability, but help them learn compensation strategies to help them overcome their weaknesses and capitalize on their strengths. The authors recommended three types of interventions: school-based, partial pull-out programs, and self-contained programs (Reis & Ruban, 2005). Schools must focus on strengths, not weaknesses (Reis & Ruban, 2005). In order to achieve this, IEPs must be written to provide classroom accommodations which address both. Reis and Ruban also emphasized extracurricular opportunities as an opportunity for a gifted and learning disabled student to be successful. Mentors, after school clubs, and independent projects that are hands-on and in their areas of interest, should be provided to give these students a chance to be successful in doing what they enjoy. Opportunities for students to be successful should also be provided within the regular classroom, not just in pull-out programs. Additionally, counseling and personal support must be provided depending on the needs of the student (Reis & Ruban, 2005). Nielsen and Higgins (2005) compared the experience of a gifted and learning disabled student entering school to a storm in which they are bombarded by
experiences of failure; where they do not fit in with peers, have challenges academically, and cannot live up to teacher, parent and self- expectations. These students cannot balance their areas of giftedness with their areas of difficulty. The teacher can be the eye of the storm for these students by providing a “safe haven in the eye of the educational storm” (Nielsen & Higgins, 2005, p.15). This “safe haven” requires teachers to understand the student’s emotional needs, and provide appropriate programming which addresses strengths and well as weakness, is consistent from year to year, and is coordinated between gifted and special education. These teachers also need to teach students how to become their own “eye of the storm” and weather future challenges independently (Nielsen & Higgins, 2005). Baum, Cooper, and Neu (2001) and Crepeau-Hobson and Bianco (2011) suggested a dual differentiation approach to meeting the needs of gifted students with learning disabilities. They advocated for programming that simultaneously addressed strengths and weaknesses through talent development. Baum, et al. (2001) presented Project High Hopes as a model of successful dually differentiated curriculum adapted to the needs of individual students. Students in the program did not work on remediation of their learning difficulties, but instead, learned how
to use their specific talents to compensate. In order to achieve this, Project High Hopes provided opportunities for authentic problem-solving in real world situations, an area where gifted students excel Students were exposed to new topics and receive lessons from mentors and professionals. As students become more independent, they begin to use their problem-solving skills to use their strengths and create alternative solutions. The learning environment of Project High Hopes is one of high expectations and successes. Social and emotional difficulties commonly found in gifted and learning disabled students were greatly reduced when they were surrounded by an environment which emphasized their Acta Scientiae et Intellectus ISSN 2410-9738 (Print), 2519- 1896 (Online) strengths rather than on remediating weaknesses. The Baum, et al. (2001) also noted that when education is focused on success, the motivation for learning increases as well Crepau-Hobson and Bianco (2011) suggested that this approach
actually allows gifted students to overcome their learning disabilities. Alternate methods of assessment are also important in this model. Rather than relying on test scores, which often fail to adequately measure the strengths of gifted students with learning disabilities, Project High Hopes focuses on student projects (Crepeau- Hobson & Bianco, 2011). Wellisch and Brown (2012) used a modified version of Gagne’s model of Giftedness and Talent to describe a path for gifted achievers and gifted underachievers to participate in an academic talent development program. Whereas Gagne’s model allowed only highly achieving children to participate in talent development programs, and any disability was to be remediated before a student could participate, Wellisch and Brown’s version was much more inclusive. Their model, the “Inclusive Identification and Progression Model”, outlined a program which can support children’s giftedness as well as address their learning disabilities. It recommended that schools use approaches which protect and develop student's self-esteem. The social and emotional needs of gifted students with learning disabilities are not separate from their academic needs, and must be addressed. The authors stress that schools will do a better job of challenging these students if the needs of the whole child are met, as opposed to
Gagne's model of focusing on strengths only after learning difficulties have been corrected (Wellisch & Brown, 2012). Ruban and Reis (2005) suggested that the identification of gifted and learning disabled students is not the end point of the assessment process, but the beginning. The identification and assessment of these students obtained through RtI should be linked to programs, such as the talent pool approach, in the schoolwide enrichment model (SEM). The authors propose that Renzulli’s model of talent development fosters creative productivity, and is useful in developing programming for gifted students with learning disabilities who may struggle to find their strengths in regular … 9 781292 022581 ISBN 978-1-29202-258-1 Exceptional Learners An Introduction to Special Education Hallahan Kauffman Pullen Twelfth Edition Exceptional Learners H allahan et al. Tw
elfth Edition Exceptional Learners An Introduction to Special Education Hallahan Kauffman Pullen Twelfth Edition Pearson Education Limited Edinburgh Gate Harlow Essex CM20 2JE England and Associated Companies throughout the world Visit us on the World Wide Web at: www.pearsoned.co.uk © Pearson Education Limited 2014 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners. The use of any trademark in this text does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownership rights in such trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any affi
liation with or endorsement of this book by such owners. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Printed in the United States of America ISBN 10: 1-292-02258-2 ISBN 13: 978-1-292-02258-1 ISBN 10: 1-292-02258-2 ISBN 13: 978-1-292-02258-1 Table of Contents P E A R S O N C U S T O M L I B R A R Y I Glossary 1 1Daniel P. Hallahan/James M. Kauffman/Paige C. Pullen 1. Exceptionality and Special Education 13 13Daniel P. Hallahan/James M. Kauffman/Paige C. Pullen 2. Current Practices for Meeting the Needs of Exceptional
Learners 37 37Daniel P. Hallahan/James M. Kauffman/Paige C. Pullen 3. Multicultural and Bilingual Aspects of Special Education 69 69Daniel P. Hallahan/James M. Kauffman/Paige C. Pullen 4. Parents and Families 97 97Daniel P. Hallahan/James M. Kauffman/Paige C. Pullen 5. Learners with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities 125 125Daniel P. Hallahan/James M. Kauffman/Paige C. Pullen 6. Learners with Learning Disabilities 163 163Daniel P. Hallahan/James M. Kauffman/Paige C. Pullen 7. Learners with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 201 201Daniel P. Hallahan/James M. Kauffman/Paige C. Pullen
8. Learners with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 239 239Daniel P. Hallahan/James M. Kauffman/Paige C. Pullen 9. Learners with Autism Spectrum Disorders 275 275Daniel P. Hallahan/James M. Kauffman/Paige C. Pullen 10. Learners with Communication Disorders 311 311Daniel P. Hallahan/James M. Kauffman/Paige C. Pullen 11. Learners Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing 343 343Daniel P. Hallahan/James M. Kauffman/Paige C. Pullen 12. Learners with Blindness or Low Vision 381 381Daniel P. Hallahan/James M. Kauffman/Paige C. Pullen II 13. Learners with Low-Incidence, Multiple, and Severe Disabilities
423 423Daniel P. Hallahan/James M. Kauffman/Paige C. Pullen 14. Learners with Physical Disabilities and Other Health Impairments 457 457Daniel P. Hallahan/James M. Kauffman/Paige C. Pullen 15. Learners with Special Gifts and Talents 489 489Daniel P. Hallahan/James M. Kauffman/Paige C. Pullen Appendix 517 517Daniel P. Hallahan/James M. Kauffman/Paige C. Pullen 521 521Index A Acceleration An approach in which students with special gifts or talents are placed in grade levels ahead of their age peers in one or more academic subjects. Accessible pedestrian signal (APSs) Devices for people who
are blind to let them know when the “walk” signal is on at intersections; can be auditory, tactile, or both. Accommodations Changes in the delivery of instruction, type of student performance, or method of assessment which do not significantly change the content or conceptual difficulty of the curriculum. Acquired apraxia As in Developmental apraxia, there are problems in motor planning such that the child has difficulty in producing speech sounds and organizing words and word sounds for effective communication. However, the problem is known to be caused by neurological damage. Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDs) A virus- caused illness resulting in a breakdown of the immune system; currently, no known cure exists. Acute A serious state of illness or injury from which someone often recovers with treatment. Adaptations Changes in curricular content or conceptual difficulty or changes in instructional objectives and methods. Adapted signs Signs adapted for use by people who are deaf- blind; tactually based rather than visually based, such as American Sign Language for those who are deaf but sighted. Adaptive behavior The social and practical intelligence used in people’s everyday lives; along with IQ, is considered in making a determination of intellectual disability. Adaptive behavior skills Skills needed to adapt to one’s living environment (e.g., communication, self-care, home living, social skills, community use, self-direction, health and safety,
functional academics, leisure, and work); usually estimated by an adaptive behavior survey; one of two major components (the other is intellectual functioning) of the AAMR definition. Adaptive devices Special tools that are adaptations of common items to make accomplishing self-care, work, or recreation activities easier for people with physical disabilities. Adderall A psychostimulant for ADHD; its effects are longer acting than those of Ritalin. Adventitiously deaf Deafness that occurs through illness or accident in an individual who was born with normal hearing. Affective disorder A disorder of mood or emotional tone characterized by depression or elation. Aggression Behavior that intentionally causes others harm or that elicits escape or avoidance responses from others. Aim Line Used in CBM; based on expected growth norms, a line drawn from the baseline data point to the anticipated end of instruction. Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) Civil rights legislation for persons with disabilities ensuring nondiscrimination in a broad range of activities. GLOSSARY Amniocentesis A medical procedure that allows examination of the amniotic fluid around the fetus; sometimes recommended to determine the presence of abnormality. Androgen A hormone that is responsible for controlling the development of male characteristics.
Anoxia Deprivation of oxygen; can cause brain injury. Anxiety disorder A disorder characterized by anxiety, fearfulness, and avoidance of ordinary activities because of anxiety or fear. Aphonia Loss of voice. Applied behavior analysis (ABA) Highly structured approach that focuses on teaching functional skills and continuous assessment of progress; grounded in behavioral learning theory. Apraxia The inability to plan and coordinate speech. Aqueous humor A watery substance between the cornea and lens of the eye. Asperger syndrome One of five autistic spectrum disorders; a milder form of autism without significant impairments in language and cognition; characterized by primary problems in social interaction. Assistance card A relatively small card containing a message that alerts the public that the user is deaf-blind and needs assistance in crossing the street. Asthma A lung disease characterized by episodic difficulty in breathing, particularly exhaling, due to inflammation obstruction of the air passages. Astigmatism Blurred vision caused by an irregular cornea or lens. Atonic Lack of muscle tone; floppiness.
Atresia Absence or closure of a part of the body that is normally open. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) A condition characterized by severe problems of inattention, hyperactivity, and/or impulsivity; often found in people with learning disabilities. Audiologist An individual trained in audiology, the science dealing with hearing impairments, their detection, and remediation. Audiometric zero The lowest level at which people with normal hearing can hear. Auditory-oral approach A method of teaching communication to people who are deaf that stresses the use of visual cues, such as speechreading and cued speech. Auditory-verbal approach Part of the oral approach to teaching students who are hearing impaired; stresses teaching the person to use his or her remaining hearing as much as possible; heavy emphasis on use of amplification; heavy emphasis on teaching speech. Augmentative or alternative communication (AAC) Alternative forms of communication that do not use the oral sounds of speech or that augment the use of speech. From Glossary of Exceptional Learners: An Introduction to Special Education, 12/e. Daniel P. Hallahan. James M. Kauffman. Paige C. Pullen. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved. 1
Auricle The visible part of the ear, composed of cartilage; collects the sounds and funnels them via the external auditory canal to the eardrum. Autism One of five autistic spectrum disorders; characterized by extreme social withdrawal and impairment in communication; other common characteristics are stereotyped movements, resistance to environmental change or change in daily routines, and unusual responses to sensory experiences; usually evident before age of 3 years; a pervasive developmental disability characterized by extreme withdrawal, cognitive deficits, language disorders, self-stimulation, and onset before the age of 30 months. Autism or autistic spectrum disorder A pervasive developmental disability characterized by extreme withdrawal, cognitive deficits, language disorders, self-stimulation, and onset before the age of 30 months. Autism spectrum disorders Five similar conditions: autism, Asperger syndrome, Rett syndrome, childhood disintegrative disorder, and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified; all involve varying degrees of problems with communication skills, social interactions, and repetitive and stereotyped patterns of behavior. Autistic regression Phenomenon whereby a child appears to progress normally until about 16 to 24 months of age and, then, begins to show signs of being autistic and ultimately is diagnosed as autistic. Autistic savant A person with severe autism whose social and language skills are markedly delayed but who also has
advanced skills in a particular area, such as calculation or drawing. B Basal ganglia A set of structures within the brain that include the caudate, globus pallidus, and putamen, the first two being abnormal in people with ADHD; generally responsible for the coordination and control of movement. Baseline Data Point Used in CBM; the beginning score gathered before an intervention begins, e.g, the number of correct words per minute that a student reads before receiving a fluency intervention. Behavior management Strategies and techniques used to increase desirable behavior and decrease undesirable behavior. May be applied in the classroom, home, or other environment. Behavior modification Systematic control of environmental events, especially of consequences, to produce specific changes in observable responses. May include reinforcement, punishment, modeling, self-instruction, desensitization, guided practice, or any other technique for strengthening or eliminating a particular response. Behavioral inhibition The ability to stop an intended response, to stop an ongoing response, to guard an ongoing response from interruption, and to refrain from responding immediately; allows executive functions to occur; delayed or impaired in those with ADHD. Behavioral phenotype A collection of behaviors, including cognitive, language, and social behaviors as well as psychopathological symptoms, that tend to occur together in people with a specific genetic syndrome.
Bicultural-bilingual approach An approach for teaching students with hearing impairment that stresses teaching American Sign Language as a first language and English as a second language and promotes the teaching of Deaf culture. Braille A system in which raised dots allow people who are blind to read with their fingertips; each quadrangular cell contains from one to six dots, the arrangement of which denotes different letters and symbols. Braille bills Legislation passed in several states to make braille more available to students with visual impairment; specific provisions vary from state to state, but major advocates have lobbied for (1) making braille available if parents want it, and (2) ensuring that teachers of students with visual impairment are proficient in braille. Braille notetakers Portable devices that can be used to take notes in braille, which are then converted to speech, braille, or text. Brain stem-evoked response audiometry Measures electrical signals from the brain stem that are in response to an auditory stimulus, such as a click. C Cataracts A condition caused by clouding of the lens of the eye; affects color vision and distance vision. Caudate A structure in the basal ganglia of the brain; site of abnormal development in persons with ADHD. Center-based program A program implemented primarily in a school or center, not in the student’s home.
Central coherence The inclination to bring meaning to stimuli by conceptualizing it as a whole; thought to be weak in people with ASD. Cerebellum An organ at the base of the brain responsible for coordination and movement; site of abnormal development in persons with ADHD. Cerebral palsy (CP) A condition characterized by paralysis, weakness, lack of coordination, and/or other motor dysfunction; caused by damage to the brain before it has matured. CHARGE syndrome A genetic syndrome resulting in deaf- blindness; characterized by physical anomalies, often including coloboma (abnormalities of the pupil, retina and/or optic nerve), cranial nerves, heart defects, atresia (absence or closure) of the chonae (air passages from nose to throat), retardation in growth and mental development, genital abnormalities, ear malformation and/or hearing loss. Choanae Air passages from the nose to the throat. Choreoathetoid Characterized by involuntary movements and difficulty with balance; associated with choreoathetoid cerebral palsy. Chorionic villus sampling (CVS) A method of testing the unborn fetus for a variety of chromosomal abnormalities, such as Down syndrome; a small amount of tissue from the chorion (a membrane that eventually helps form the placenta) is extracted and tested; can be done earlier than amniocentesis but the risk of miscarriage is slightly higher. Chromosomal disorder Any of several syndromes resulting from abnormal or damaged chromosome(s); can result in
For this week’s discussion, the question still arises if adopting .docx
For this week’s discussion, the question still arises if adopting .docx
For this week’s discussion, the question still arises if adopting .docx
For this week’s discussion, the question still arises if adopting .docx
For this week’s discussion, the question still arises if adopting .docx
For this week’s discussion, the question still arises if adopting .docx
For this week’s discussion, the question still arises if adopting .docx
For this week’s discussion, the question still arises if adopting .docx
For this week’s discussion, the question still arises if adopting .docx
For this week’s discussion, the question still arises if adopting .docx
For this week’s discussion, the question still arises if adopting .docx
For this week’s discussion, the question still arises if adopting .docx

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  • 1. For this week’s discussion, the question still arises if adopting a set of standards limits or improves education for all students. This question will be answered through the lens of a classroom teacher. Using the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) as an example, as a teacher, I may have mixed emotions towards adopting a set of standards. During the adoption of CCSS, teachers were not provided with a trial period to measure the effectiveness of CCSS; this, in turn, did not provide teachers with concrete evidence that the CCSS were designed to execute their goals intended for student success (Laureate Education, 2014c). As an educator, I am going to wonder how a set of standards will support the needs of my English Language Learner (ELL) students. For ELLs, it is imperative that instruction builds upon students’ academic English and social English. Acquiring knowledge of academic language is essential for ELLs because it is related to standards-based curriculum in math, science, social studies, and language arts (Colorín Colorado, n.d.). For Special Education (SPED) students, I would have to work closely with SPED teachers to provide instruction that reflects the exceptionalities of my students. Raising expectations for all students is a positive in that supports must be used to ensure such goals are attainable for all students. For instance, professional developments can be provided to teachers where they can learn how to apply instructional strategies that reflect the goal of CCSS and the needs of students. However, concerns arise in preparation. When adopting a set of standards, an emphasis on the resources needed for SPED students must be known and accessible to teachers. Without this, the expectation of wanting all students to be college and career ready may not follow-through effectively (Laureate Education, 2014a). I believe the information provided in documents 5 – 8 of this
  • 2. week’s resources provided reliable sources because as a teacher, I am going to wonder how teaching these standards will look like in a classroom with ELL or SPED students. Through these resources, I learned how ELLs academic language can be supported using Tier 2 instruction that promotes higher-order thinking skills, critical thinking skills, and problem-solving skills with additional supports provided in their home language (Laureate Education, 2014b). Additionally, I learned the importance of collaboration between general education and SPED teachers when ensuring instruction aligns with students’ academic needs to promote student success. The next steps I might take to follow up on this information as a teacher would be to determine what resources are provided to teachers so that they can periodically assess student achievement throughout the year. With the adoption of CCSS came changes in high stakes testing. Issues with CCSS and testing were that tests were developed before standards could be implemented to reflect if student knowledge gained from standard-based instruction aligned with assessments (Laureate Education, 2014c). Flannery (2019) emphasized how the CCSS must go hand and hand with appropriate student assessment (Flannery, 2019); this assures that curriculum provided reflects the end of the year assessment goals. To level-the-playing field for all students, teachers must ensure that students are continuously meeting objective goals that will be reflected on end of the year assessments; this cannot be done if proper measurements of student growth are not apart of their on-going evaluation of progress. References Colorín Colorado. What is the difference between social and academic English?. Retrieved from https://www.colorincolorado.org/article/what-difference-
  • 3. between-social-and-academic-english Flannery, M. (2019). Bringing Common Sense to Common Core. Retrieved from http://www.nea.org/grants/55932.htm Laureate Education. (2014a). Case study issues K-12 education document 8 CCSS and special education [PDF] (p.1). Retrieved from https://class.content.laureate.net/81bd0ca9b4e8f76bd793c4598f 8e696f.pdf Laureate Education. (2014b). Case study issues K-12 education document 6 English language learner instruction [PDF] (p.1). Retrieved from https://class.content.laureate.net/7c74db1df30c15b0d9a18f6e11 5d0092.pdf Laureate Education. (2014c). Case study issues K-12 document 5 letter to the editor issues with the common core [PDF] (p.1). Retrieved from https://class.content.laureate.net/81bd0ca9b4e8f76bd793c4598f 8e696f.pdf For this week’s discussion, the question
  • 35. For this week’s discussion, the question still arises if adopting a set of standards limits or improves education for all students. This question will be answered through the lens of a classroom teacher. Using the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) as an example, as a teacher, I may have mixed emotions towards adopting a set of standards. During the adoption of CCSS, teachers were not provided with a trial period to measure the effectiveness of CCSS; this, in turn, did not provide teachers with concrete evidence that the CCSS were designed to execute their goals intended for student success (Laureate Education, 2014c). As an educator, I am going to wonder how a set of standards will support the needs of my English Language Learner (ELL) students. For ELLs, it is imperative that instruction builds upon students’ academic English and social English. Acquiring knowledge of academic language is essential for ELLs because it is related to standards-based curriculum in math, science, social studies, and language arts (Colorín Colorado, n.d.). For Special Education (SPED) students, I would have to work closely with SPED teachers to provide instruction that reflects the exceptionalities of my students. Raising expectations for all students is a positive in that supports must be used to ensure such goals are
  • 36. attainable for all students. For instance, professional developments can be provided to teachers where they can learn how to apply instructional strategies that reflect the goal of CCSS and the needs of students. However, concerns arise in preparation. When adopting a set of standards, an emphasis on the resources needed for SPED students must be known and accessible to teachers. Without this, the expectation of wanting all students to be college and career ready may not follow-through effectively (Laureate Education, 2014a). I believe the information provided in documents 5 – 8 of this week’s resources provided reliable sources because as a teacher, I am going to wonder how teaching these standards will look like in a classroom with ELL or SPED students. Through these resources, I learned how ELLs academic language can be supported using Tier 2 instruction that promotes higher-order thinking skills, critical thinking skills, and problem-solving skills with additional supports provided in their home language (Laureate Education, 2014b). Additionally, I learned the importance of collaboration between general education and SPED teachers when ensuring instruction aligns with students’ academic needs to promote student success. The next steps I might take to follow up on this information as a teacher would be to determine what resources are provided to teachers so that they can periodically assess student achievement throughout the year. With the adoption of CCSS came changes in high stakes testing. Issues with CCSS and testing were that tests were developed before standards could be implemented to reflect if student knowledge gained from
  • 37. standard-based instruction aligned with assessments (Laureate Education, 2014c). Flannery (2019) emphasized how the CCSS must go hand and hand with appropriate student assessment (Flannery, 2019); this assures that curriculum provided reflects the end of the year assessment goals. To level- the-playing field for all students, teachers must ensure that students are continuously meeting objective goals that will be reflected on end of the year assessments; this cannot be done if proper measurements of student growth are not apart of their on-going evaluation of progress. 2 NEW YORK CITY TASK FORCE ON QUALITY INCLUSIVE SCHOOLING MISSION STATEMENT The mission of the New York City Task Force On Quality Inclusive Schooling (NYCTFQIS) is to support preparation of teachers and related services providers for inclusive urban classrooms by using research based practices and pedagogy; collaboration among Institutes for Higher
  • 38. Education (IHEs), schools, parents/families, and professional organizations; and support professional development efforts in high need schools. The NYCTFQIS recognizes the impact of disability on the classroom and the family; appreciates the willingness and courage of school personnel who undertake inclusive practices, and commitment of schools to receive professional development, implement strategies to improve inclusive practice, and host practicum students and student teachers in inclusive settings. Dr. Brenda Dressler, Touro College, Co-liaison, New York City Region Dr. Stephen Levy, Touro College, and Dean of Education of American International School Systems, Co-liaison, New York City Region New York City Task Force on Quality Inclusive Schooling Additional copies can be downloaded from www.inclusion- ny.org/region/nyc The New York City Task Force on Quality Inclusive Schooling is supported through a partnership between New York State School Improvement Grant Activities and the New York
  • 39. State Higher Education Support Center for SystemsChange, located at Syracuse University. This booklet is made possible through the ongoing support of Matt Giugno, Gerry Mager, Wilma Jozwiak, Steve Wirt, Peter Kozik, and Iris Maxon. 3 Dedication To families, students, teachers, administrators, and all other members of the community who strive to make inclusive education a success. 4 Foreword Gerald M. Mager, Ph.D., Professor Co-director of New York State’s Higher Education Support Center School of Education, Syracuse University Moving mountains. I sometimes wonder what it takes to move the education enterprise from where it is to a better place. We have witnessed and enacted some such movements in the past half-century: school desegregation, the reconceptualization
  • 40. of school curricula, reductions in class size, the recognition of the importance of teacher quality and quality teacher preparation. Surely, the emergence of commitment to educating all children and youth – the movement toward inclusive schooling – is another example of the transformations we continue to work on and witness taking place in this most-central societal institution. All these changes have taken time, indeed decades to realize. But what does it demand of people to move mountains? I know that it takes courage. One has to be courageous to stand up, and sometimes to stand alone, for what one believes. But courage is not enough. It takes vision: vision that comes from rich, first-hand experience; vision that grasps the relevant knowledge base; vision that captures insight; vision that reflects deep understanding of one’s common practice; vision that is not bound by that practice, but that may be inspired to be otherwise. Vision provides direction to one’s courage. I think moving mountains also requires energy. Routine work takes most of our energy. Those who have moved the enterprise forward have found extra energy to do the extra work that mountain moving requires. And collaboration, of course. Transforming the education enterprise is not a one-person venture. In fact, a grace of this enterprise is its valuing of collaborative effort and accomplishment. We move mountains together, over time. Moving the enterprise, not surprisingly, requires action. Without action, nothing gets
  • 41. done. Mountains stay where they are. Action draws on our vision, energy, collaboration, and courage. When we have moved mountains in the past, we have deliberately taken action. The New York State Higher Education Support Center (NYHESC) for Systems Change and its Task Force on Quality Inclusive Schooling have been acting to create the conditions that would allow dedicated teacher educators, teachers and administrators, policy makers and community agencies to move mountains. We have been inching the education enterprise forward, simultaneously on many fronts in the system, with the goal of a quality education for all learners. In the HESC, we have committed ourselves to developing high quality inclusive teacher preparation programs in our colleges and universities, so that the next generation of teachers is better able to serve the wide range of learners who enroll in American public schools. Those learners need good teachers if they are to succeed academically and build lives for themselves that are productive and satisfying. We share that different vision of teacher preparation and practice, one that leads to teaching that is inclusive of all learners. Further, we are committed to partnering with regional schools and districts where learners struggle to achieve. In our partnerships, we collaborate across colleges and universities, and engage local teachers and administrators, community groups, professional development providers, and often our pre-service teachers as well. These schools and districts are the sites
  • 42. where our future teachers will claim their first teaching assignments. Engaging in these schools, working with the dedicated professionals already there, and witnessing success and challenge are 5 part of their preparation for that first year. Through the partnerships, we, as teacher educators, learn from our field-based colleagues and share in their efforts. Working in inclusive teacher preparation and working with high-need schools are linked. Our vision is that quality inclusive teaching, at which the next generation of teachers must be adept, will also address the challenge of high-need schools in serving all learners. Being in high- need schools and districts will ground teacher preparation and make it more powerful in addressing the persistent challenges of student learning. The New York City Task Force on Quality Inclusive Schooling has been moving mountains--developing quality inclusive teacher preparation programs in its colleges and universities and engaging with teachers, administrators, support personnel, and parents in many schools and districts of the city. They have shared their vision, brought their energies to bear on the issues at hand, and collaborated with each other and with their partner schools. They have displayed the courage of their conviction that if all children and adolescents of the city are to be well served by their schools, then inclusive policies and
  • 43. practices must become the standard. This booklet represents the actions of teachers, administrators, support personnel and parents. In the sections of this booklet, you will come to understand better their vision, and to witness their courage. You will sense the energy that they bring to this work. They invite you, through this booklet, to collaborate with them--in moving mountains. © DJC Acknowledgements 6 Thank you to: Matt Giugno Program Associate, New York State Education Department/VESID Project Co-director, Higher Education Support Center for Systems Change Gerald Mager, Project Co-director, Higher Education Support Center for Systems Change
  • 44. Steve Wirt Iris Maxon Peter Kozik Wilma Jozwiak Coordinator of Statewide Field Facilitation, S3TAIR Project Touro College Carol Haupt & UFT Teacher Center Parent-to-Parent Students and Staff of the Cooke Center for Learning and Development Mercy College Student Government Dania Cheddie, Shelly Klainberg, & Teri Buch Art Blaser
  • 45. Brooke Barr Matthew Joffe Contributing Students, Teachers, & Parents Dr. Nicholas A. Aiello, Touro College Dan Stein All Colleges that Support the Task Force Book cover and illustrations by David J. Connor Supporting Inclusive Classrooms: A Resource (Volume I, 2008) 7 CONTENTS Section 1: Who We Are and What We Are Trying to Accomplish by this Booklet………....9 David J. Connor Section 2: Why People Support
  • 46. Inclusion……......................................................................... 11 Task Force Members Section 3: A (Brief) History of Inclusion in the USA................................................................14 David J. Connor Section 4: Making Inclusion Work…………………………………………..……………..….21 Susan Mariano-Lapidus Section 5: Working in Inclusive Classrooms …………………………………………………24 Teacher Voices Section 6: Administrative Support of Inclusive Practices……………………………...……27 Roger Zeeman Section 7: Strategies for Elementary School……...…………………………………………..30 Mapy Chavez-Brown Section 8: Strategies for Junior High School ………………..………………………………..33 Elizabeth Haller Section 9: Strategies for Building an Inclusive Culture in Secondary School………...…...39
  • 47. Joan Washington & Stephen Levy T. Shawn Welcome Section 10: Overcoming Barriers to Inclusion ……….…………………………..…..……....45 Victoria Rodriguez & Nancy S. Maldonado Section 11: How Related Services Can Support Inclusion ……………………..…..………..48 Meira Orentlicher Section 12: Parent Perspectives ………….……………………………………………………53 Mary Beth Fadelici & Ellen McHugh Brook Barr Section 13: Collaborative Team Teaching………………………………….............................56 Student Voices Section 14: Students with Disabilities and Statewide Tests………………………………….60 8 Gloria Wolpert Section 15: Students with Disabilities Transitioning into College…………………………...61 Matthew Joffe
  • 48. Dianne Zager, Dania Cheddie, Shelly Klainberg, & Teri Buch Section 16: New York City: A Snapshot……………………………………………………...64 David J. Connor Section 17: Resources to Support Success………………………………..………………….69 A. Children’s Books Eileen Brennan B. Videotapes C. Teacher Text Books D. Education Journals E. Selected Articles F. Webpages Task Force Members Section 18: Awareness Days: Some Alternatives to Simulation Exercises………………….84 Art Blaser Section 19: Glossary of Terms……………………………………………………………..….. 86 Brenda Dressler & Kathy Simic Template Samples……………………………………………………………… ……..………..94 Sample of Co-Teaching Plan Sample of Lesson Plan David J. Connor ___________________________
  • 49. 9 Section 1: Who We Are and What We Are Trying to Accomplish by this Booklet David J. Connor, Ed.D. Hunter College, CUNY “Those kids don’t belong here.” “That’s what I’ll do for my kids…what about your kids?” “Whose bright idea was this…someone who’s never stepped into a school at all?” “There’s a reason why we have special ed!” “I can’t teach a kid with a disability, I haven’t been trained…” “Those kids will take away all the attention from the other kids. It’s not fair.” “I don’t want to share a classroom with anybody else.” While inclusive education has come a long way in the last few decades, such comments as those listed above are still commonplace. However, nowadays these sentiments are more likely to be counterbalanced with: “I believe children with disabilities have a right to be with their non-disabled friends...” “As a team teacher, I have come to see all kids as ‘our’ kids…” “There are many reasons to support inclusion. After all, if children with disabilities are not included in schools, how does that impact their ‘perceived place’ and value in society--by themselves and by others?” “Special ed. was intended as a service, not a place…”
  • 50. “Disability is part of life. ‘Special’ training is learned as you go along…” “With flexible approaches to teaching, and the use of differentiated instruction, all kids can learn in classrooms. It does not have to be the same thing, the same way, at the same time…” “Working with another professional helps me be a more reflective teacher. Having a partner is common in most other professions…” Clearly, the inclusion of students with disabilities foregrounds multiple issues, raises numerous questions, and provokes many responses. It has done so since the passage of legislation in 1975 (P.L. 94-142) to ensure an education for all students…and will continue to do so. The intention of this booklet is to provide basic information and share ways of supporting inclusive practices in New York City. The contributors of each section are representatives from New York City who are part of a statewide network called The Task Force on Quality Inclusive Schooling. This network is largely composed of university faculty supportive of inclusive education, along with other representatives from a variety of organizations, including the United Federation of Teachers, Parent-to-Parent, and the Department of Education. While the majority of us currently work within a university setting, we have been teachers, professional development specialists, service providers, and administrators in the public school system. We meet as a group six times a year; four times in New York City, and twice in Albany.
  • 51. 10 What motivates us to come together is our belief in providing quality inclusive education as a valid option for students in New York City. As our time is limited, to date we have focused on projects that allow us to unite and share our resources with educators. In June 2006, we hosted a conference on Inclusion at Pace University. In May 2007, we co-hosted a conference on Autism, Attention Deficit Disorder, and Inclusion at City College. At these events we met educators hungry for more information, and so we decided to create a booklet that • Provides a background and context of inclusive education in NYC • Offers tips, suggestions, and strategies to make inclusion work in the classroom • Shares information that can spark discussions in schools • Includes perspectives of teachers and teacher educators • Lists resources in the form of books, videos, articles, and web pages The format of the book is straightforward. Each section is based on a question asked, and is purposefully short (between one to four pages) so educators can ‘sample’ the issues. At the end of most sections are more questions designed to prompt increased reflection and/or stimulate group discussion. Finally, at the end of booklet are sections that provide multiple resources that we have used in our own classrooms.
  • 52. It is our hope that this booklet will help further attempts at providing quality inclusive classrooms that benefit all students. Whether read as an individual, discussed as a group in school meetings, or sampled in a university classroom, we believe this short text can be helpful in framing inclusion as a worthwhile, complex endeavor that values all children equally. © DJC 11 Section 2: Why People Support Inclusion Task Force Members “We are all different from one another. Yet, in the diversified classroom all of us belong. Belonging is essential to human nature. Without a feeling of belonging we cannot move on in harmony to accomplish team projects, which is vital in today’s ever-changing global environment. Belonging is the foundation for understanding and respect and the building block toward wiping out stereotyping.” Elizabeth Haller “I value the diversity in the inclusion programs. I support inclusion because it is the moral and right thing to do.”
  • 53. Victoria Rodriguez “I believe in inclusion because it allows all children the opportunity to see that differences can become similarities. In other words, we are all different and unique individuals” Nancy S. Maldonado “Inclusion in community schools is part of our basic commitment to provide all students with the opportunity to actively participate in school and society. It is the responsibility of educators to utilize evidence-based practices and appropriate supports so that all students can be successful learners” Dianne Zager “It would be easy to tout inclusive education as a cure all for what ails education. It isn’t. It is hard work. It is commitment to a child, not a philosophy. Inclusive education is incremental: one class at a time, one semester at a time, one child at a time. Until, finally, a community dedicated to the education of our children, is suddenly and irrevocably there.” Ellen McHugh “Inclusion is about everybody’s understanding of human difference--who is valued, who belongs. If we are to have a society that is inclusive, then it must start in schools. Inclusion is not about every child doing the same thing, in the same way, at the same time…those committed to
  • 54. inclusive education value and accept human variation as a natural occurrence--not viewing it as abnormality, deviation, and disorder that justifies segregation within education.” David J. Connor “Diversity is a fact of life. If you carefully look at the whole universe no entity of creation is the same, no species is the same, no two specimens within a species are the same. That fact of endless variation points to a social truth: we need to respect this fact as we look at all who are born human, and who deserve our full attention to reach their full potential. The human table isn't a square or a rectangle or even an oval but a widening circle. We as educators to the best 12 our abilities are committed to widening the table to fit all who come to its bounty. That's inclusion: a daunting but necessary goal. Every step toward it defines the human condition as it should be lived. Every step away diminishes us and fails to celebrate the diversity within the universe.” Grace Ibanez Friedman “Inclusion is a philosophy that promotes the equity of access for all people. One’s ability to access that which we need and want is a powerful and important human right. Through the inclusion of historically marginalized groups into quality
  • 55. educational settings, we may begin to realize this philosophy.” Susan Mariano-Lapidus “Inclusion drives democratic education. A commitment to inclusive schooling hallows the listening space within which the spoken and unspoken of the learning community is heard, seen, reflected on. The energy of each student empowers the opportunity to teach inclusively.” Eileen E. Brennan “I use the following in my signature block...I got it in Albany at the Task Force conference....don't know its attribution, and don't know who distributed it, but it says it all: ‘We could learn a lot from crayons; some are sharp, some are pretty, some are dull, some have weird names, and all are different colors....but they all exist very nicely in the same box.’” Stephen Levy “This generation has already begun to understand inclusion. They see it in their everyday life, curb cuts, wheelchair lifts on buses, automatic doors, designated parking spots, etc. They see it, they live it, they get it. Why should school be any different?” Mary Beth Fadelici “We are in a new push in America--no child left behind--and we all need to remember that no child should be cast aside in a separate room to never experience that very valuable social part
  • 56. of education that occurs when students interact with each other in and out of the classroom. With the exception of extreme cases that pose real safety concerns for the student with special needs, it is incumbent upon us to provide heterogeneous classroom structures that allow all students to develop as they relate to real world experiences and learn that the world is diverse. It requires experience with all, compassion for all, and an ever evolving sense of tolerance, acceptance and inclusion.” T. Shawn Welcome “Legal support for inclusion is based on Public Law 94-142 and IDEA, which defines the right to education for all children. Inclusive education promotes a sense of belonging, encourages collaboration, advances justice, values diversity and creates opportunity for conflict resolution. Inclusive education values the individual learner and provides an individualized balanced education between academic and social development.” Brenda Dressler 13 “‘When everyone is included, we all learn more,’ is the motto of the Cooke Center for Learning and Development where I have worked for almost 20 years. At Cooke, we envision a world where all children and adolescents with special needs are recognized as valued members of their
  • 57. communities and provided with the inclusive education necessary to assume the roles of their choosing. One of the ways we share our vision is by increasing community awareness through our annual celebrations of National Inclusive Schools Week. December 3-7, 2007 was the 7th annual national celebration. The theme was year will be ‘Lessons from the World: Including All Children.’ Besides holding celebrations in our partner schools, in December 2007 we hosted a conference on international accomplishments and challenges. Get your school involved by going to <www.inclusiveschools.org>. They have a wealth of materials to help each school raise awareness of this important civil right.” Kathy Simic © DJC 14 Section 3: A (Brief) History of Inclusion in the USA David Connor, Ed.D. Hunter College, CUNY The decision of Brown v. Board of Education (1954) was rooted in the Fourteenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution: “No state shall make or enforce any law which shall...deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the
  • 58. laws” (1868). In other words, “If states have undertaken to provide an education to its citizenry, then they must do so for all its citizens” (Yell, Rogers, & Rogers, 1998, p. 219). This sharply contrasted to educational policies regarding students with disabilities as “laws in most states allowed school districts to refuse to enroll any student they considered ‘uneducable,’ a term generally defined by local school administrators” (Martin, Martin, & Terman, 1996, p. 26). Parents and advocates of children with disabilities saw the wider implications of Brown--the need to have the rights of such children encoded within law. In 1975, their combined efforts resulted in Congress passing the hallmark legislation of P.L. 94-142 mandating a “free and appropriate education for all handicapped children” (FAPE). Contained within this law was the concept of Least Restrictive Environment1 (LRE). This meant each student had to be individually evaluated and placed on a continuum of options including general education classes, separate classes, separate schools, home, or a hospital setting for part or all of the day. Although P.L. 94-142 can be viewed as enormously successful in giving students with disabilities access to public education, the preponderance of decisions that placed students in separate facilities created a largely segregated system, often referred to as “parallel.” The mechanism of LRE has been interpreted as a legal and valid option of not placing a student with a disability in a general education classroom. To disability rights advocates (Lipsky & Gartner, 1997) and activists (Linton, 1998), LRE is a
  • 59. loophole that allows institutions of education to maintain the non-integration of people with disabilities into schools, and society at large. To other scholars (Kauffman & Hallahan, 1995) and parents (Carr, 1993), LRE is a necessary protection that ensures flexibility and individualization of placement for students who are often overlooked and/or overwhelmed in general education. By all accounts, “There is a persistent tension between the requirements of appropriate education and the least restrictive environment” (Martin, Martin, & Terman, 1996, p.35). Early criticism of placement options outlined in P.L. 94-142 were criticized by Reynolds (1976) who viewed them as too restrictive and counterproductive to the intent of the law. Semmel, Gottleib, and Robinson (1979) concluded that there was no “conclusive body of evidence which confirms that special education services appreciably enhance the academic and/or social accomplishments of handicapped children beyond what can be expected without special education” (p. 267, cited in Reynolds, 1989). Stainback and Stainback (1984) asserted that “the instructional needs of students do not warrant the operation of a dual system” (p. 102), further criticizing expenditure and inefficiencies associated with two systems, classification of disability as a form of tracking, and labeling students as deviant. Challenging the notion of two “types” of students, they called for a merger of both systems that would unite and support all 1 The definition of LRE in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act is: "To the maximum extent appropriate, children
  • 60. with disabilities, including children in public or private institutions or other care facilities, are [1] educated with children who are not disabled, and [2] special classes, separate schooling, or other removal of children with disabilities from the regular educational environment occurs only when the nature or severity of the disability of a child is such that education in regular classes with the use of supplementary aids and services cannot be achieved satisfactorily." 15 educators, because, as Lortie points out (1978), the “historical separation of special and regular educators has taken its toll in the relations between them” (p. 236, cited in Stainback & Stainback, p. 104, 1984). By the mid-1980s, Wang, Reynolds, and Warburg (1986) noticed the growing enrollments of minority students in special education, along with pedagogical inflexibility demonstrated to struggling learners, overreliance on measurement tools used to determine disability (and placement), and “the continuation of segregation of many students in disjointed programs” (p. 26). It was around this time that the Regular Education Initiative (REI) began. Developed by Madeline Will, Assistant Secretary to the U.S. Department of Education in charge of special education and rehabilitation programs, the REI
  • 61. proposed the collaboration between general and special educators. A primary goal was to include students with mild to moderate disabilities because schools had “unwittingly, [created] barriers to their successful education” (Will, 1986, p. 412). Elaboration on these barriers was provided by Gardner and Lipsky (1987) as they described “myriad faults” with the special education system, such as the provision of financial incentives provided to local education authorities when students with disabilities were placed in more restrictive environments. Though this appeared to counteract the spirit of the original legislation, it helped explain why “overall, 74 percent of special education students are in pull-out or separate programs” (p. 374). Sapon-Shevin (1987) also expressed concern over … Nature vs. Nurture Debate 1 Nature vs. Nurture Debate in Language Acquisition MOHAMMED SHANAWAZ ID: 1120697055 ENG 555: Advanced Psycholinguistics
  • 62. Assistant Professor Abdus Selim 22 August 2011 North South University Nature vs. Nurture Debate 2 Abstract How humans possess the language ability is a matter of long controversy among the linguists. Some of them believe that the ability of language is the result of innate knowledge. Unlike other species humans possess that innate ability which is genetically coded. To them language is the outcome of nature (genes). Conversely, others claim that the ability of language is learned through experience extracting all the linguistic information from the
  • 63. outside environment. It is the outcome of nurture (environmental factors/stimuli). At present, there is no clear winner regarding the debate as both genes and environmental factors/stimuli seem to play a vital and important role in language acquisition. Nature vs. Nurture Debate 3 Nature vs. Nurture Debate in Language Acquisition
  • 64. A popular Bible story “The Tower of Babel” narrates, the whole world had one language—one common speech for all people before mankind decided to build a tower that would reach all the way to heaven. God punished mankind for the hubris of building this tower by turning their one universal language into dozens of different languages. The inability to communicate in each other’s languages finally resulted in mass confusion and the ultimate destruction of the tower. Well, we do not know whether the story as a whole is a fact or fiction and which is also not the matter of concern here. What noteworthy in the story is the significance of language among humans. Truly, how significant the language is for us! Language is arguably the most unique feature of humans that distinguishes them from any other living species. We, humans use language as a remarkable tool for communicating with each other—let’s say for
  • 65. sharing our thoughts, opinions and views; or expressing our liking, disliking or desires. Other animals lack that ability of language. Barber (1997) further says about the significance of language: It is language, more obviously than anything else, that distinguishes humankind from rest of the animal world. At one time it was common to define a human as a thinking animal, but we can hardly imagine thought without words – no thought that is at all precise, anyway. More recently, humans have often been described as tool-making animals: but language itself is the most remarkable tool that they have invented, and is the one that makes most of the others possible. The most primitive tools, admittedly, may have come earlier than language: the higher apes sometimes use sticks as elementary tools, and even break them for this purpose. But tools of any greater sophistication demand the
  • 66. kind of human co-operation and division of labour which is hardly possible without language. Language, in fact, is the great machine-tool which makes human culture possible. (p.1) Nature vs. Nurture Debate 4 So, language is the most significant remarkable tool that humans possess unlike any other living species. But, question could raise that how we, humans acquire that ability of language which other species cannot. It is a matter of long controversy among the linguists that how humans possess the language ability. We find different approaches regarding language acquisition. Some of the linguists believe that the language ability is the result of innate knowledge. Unlike other species humans possess that innate ability which is
  • 67. genetically coded. These linguists believe that language is the outcome of nature (genes). Conversely, others claim that the ability of language is learned through experience extracting all the linguistic information from the outside environment. According to them language is the outcome of nurture (environmental factors/stimuli). The difference between these innate and learned approaches to language acquisition or the ability of language that humans possess is known as nature vs. nurture debate. The study will short the debate out logically investigating whether nature or nurture or little bit of both play a vital role in language acquisition. The first approach concerning nature-nurture debate in language acquisition is called “nativism”. It is generally the idea that language acquisition is an innate ability of humans. Thus, the approach is also known as “innatism”. The idea of “nativism” actually goes back to
  • 68. philosopher Plato and Kant whose belief was that knowledge originates in human nature. But in modern times this concept is clearly associated with the renowned linguist Noam Chomsky who is a strong proponent of the “nativist or innatist theory of language acquisition” (Bates, n.d.). Chomsky (1988) further clarifies the tie between his views on the innateness of language and Plato’s original position on the nature of mind: How can we interpret [Plato’s] proposal in modern terms? A modern variant would be that certain aspects of our knowledge and understanding are innate, part of our biological endowment, genetically Nature vs. Nurture Debate 5 determined, on a par with the elements of our common nature that cause us to grow arms and legs rather than wings. This version of the
  • 69. classical doctrine is, I think, essentially correct. (p. 4) Nativists/Innatists deeply believe that language acquisition is the result of the innate knowledge of the language within an infant. Innate is something which is already there in mind since birth. They also claim that the underlying principle of language is deeply rooted in human brain. It is genetically coded among humans since birth unlike other living species. This enable us to possess the unique language ability which is absent among other species. According to various articles (“Nature versus Nurture,” n.d.; “Innate or Learned,” n.d.; “Chomsky’s Theories,” n.d.) on Chomsky’s language acquisition theory it is found that he has spent a lot of time in developing a theory of grammar which is widely known “Universal Grammar (UG)”. UG basically asserts that underlying all the different languages there are some basic
  • 70. principles. Chomsky also postulated that children are born with a “Language Acquisition Device (LAD)”. According to him, LAD allows a child to pick up the underlying grammatical principles of the language concerned. Nativists claim that “Universal Grammar” is too complex to be acquirable through environmental stimuli/factors. The proponents of innateness hence believe that the human brain develops certain brain structures for language acquisition and use as a result of Darwinian evolution and the “survival of the fittest” principle. Chomsky often calls the innate knowledge of language by language faculty considering this as a biologically autonomous system in the brain that has an initial state which is genetically determined. Nativists further claims about the innateness of the language ability that humans possess: The fact that every known human culture developed some sort of
  • 71. language suggests that there is a genetic basis for the ability to construct and produce language. Furthermore all human languages seem to have Nature vs. Nurture Debate 6 some characteristics in common. They all have large vocabularies of words whose meaning is mediated through a phonological system, they all have a grammatical system that governs the way in which words are combined and they change through time by adding new words and losing old ones. (“Nature versus Nurture,” n.d.) Conversely, the second approach regarding the nature-nurture controversy in language acquisition is known as “empiricism”. Empiricists believe that children learn the language by extracting all the linguistic information from the environment. To then language acquisition is all about
  • 72. habit formation and the outcome of nurture. Hence, this approach is also known as “behaviorism” (Bates, n.d.). This approach is also an ancient one, going back (at least) to Aristotle, but in modern times it is closely associated with the psychologist B.F. Skinner who is the well-known proponents of behaviorism/empiricism. Bates (n.d.) in one of his studies mentions B.F. Skinner’s view regarding language acquisition: According to Skinner, there are no limits to what a human being can become, given time, opportunity and the application of very general laws of learning. Humans are capable of language because we have the time, the opportunity and (perhaps) the computing power that is required to learn 50,000 words and the associations that link those words together. (p. 2) Various articles on behaviorism (“Nature versus Nurture,” n.d.;
  • 73. “Innate or Learned,” n.d.) asserts that the infant can draw sufficient linguistic information from the well-structured environment. According to behaviorists/empiricist, language is learned by association and thus, they claim language acquisition as the associative process. To them language acquisition is similar as any other learning process related to cognitive development. They also claim that the beneficial quality of language is Nature vs. Nurture Debate 7 responsible for the ubiquitous distribution. People who came in contact with it, adopted it because of its beneficial effects and in this way, language spread across the earth. Mahoney (n.d.) in one of his articles emphasis the significance of usage and experience in language acquisition supporting behaviorists’ claim:
  • 74. Not all linguists believe that the innate capacities are most important in language learning. Some researchers place greater emphasis on the influence of usage and experience in language acquisition. They argue that adults play an important role in language acquisition by speaking to children—often in a slow, grammatical and repetitious way. In turn, children discern patterns in the language and experiment with speech gradually—uttering single words at first and eventually stringing them together to construct abstract expressions. At first glance, this may seem reminiscent of how language is traditionally taught in classrooms. But most scientists think children and adults learn language differently. While they may not do it as quickly and easily as children seem to, adults can learn to speak new languages proficiently. However, few
  • 75. would be mistaken for a native speaker of the non-native tongue. Childhood may be a critical period for mastering certain aspects of language such as proper pronunciation. What factors account for the different language learning capabilities of adults and children? Researchers suggest accumulated experience and knowledge could change the brain over time, altering the way language information is organized and/or processed. (p. 2) Nature vs. nurture controversy regarding the question how humans possess language ability has been ongoing for long since among the linguists. At present, there is no clear winner regarding the debate as both genes (nature) and environmental factors/stimuli (nurture) seem to play a vital and important role in language acquisition. We cannot ignore the fact that human behavior is actually a collaboration of both genetic and environmental aspects. Maybe this
  • 76. Nature vs. Nurture Debate 8 true for language acquisition as well. Perhaps, some genetic features, such as our large brain or nutritional requirements have predestined us in some way to develop vocal communication, which in turn has grown to a full language as a consequence of environmental factors, such as upbringing, social system or the use of symbols (“Nature versus Nurture,” n.d.) In an article (“How Do Nature and Nurture,” n.d.) it has found that how both nature and nurture are equally important for human development: The question, “how do nature and nurture influence human development” has been an ongoing debate for a very long time and at present there is no clear winner, as both nature (genes) and nurture (environmental factors) both seem to play a vital and important role in
  • 77. human development…Nature can be loosely defined as genetic inheritance or the genetic makeup (the information encoded in your genes) which a person inherits from both parents at the time of conception and carries throughout life…The concept of nature thus refers to biologically inherited tendencies and abilities that people have and which may get revealed later on as they grow up. In contrast, nurture can be defined as the different environmental factors to which a person is subjected from birth to death. Environmental factors involve many dimensions. They include both physical environments (a good example is prenatal nutrition) and social environments (such as the neighborhood, media and peer pressure.) Also, environmental factors have different levels of impact on human development as they involve multiple layers of action, ranging from most immediate
  • 78. (families, friends, and neighborhoods) to bigger societal contexts (school systems and local governments) as well as macro factors such as politics on the international level or say global warming. (p. 2) From the discussion on different approaches concerning language acquisition, one thing is obvious that not solely nature (genes) or nurture Nature vs. Nurture Debate 9 (environmental factors/stimuli) rather little bit of both are important for language acquisition. Not solely the belief of “nativist or innatist” is enough to answer the question of how humans possess the language ability. The claim of “behaviorists/empiricist” can also not be ignored regarding the matter. The innate knowledge of language faculty that children are born with is not enough to acquire language unless they trigger or get output from the
  • 79. outside environment. The well-studied case of Genie (O’Grady, W. D., O’Grady, W., Dobrovolsky, M., & Katamba, F., 1996) is worthwhile to understand the importance of both innate knowledge and environmental output in language acquisition. Nature vs. Nurture Debate 10 References Barber, C. (1997). English Language: a historical introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge
  • 80. University Press. Bates, E. (n.d.). On The Nature and Nurture of Language. Retrieved August 09, 2011, from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.140.3 229&rep=rep1&type=pdf Chomsky, N. (1988). Language and problems of knowledge. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Chomsky's Theories on Language. (n.d.). Retrieved August 09, 2011, from http://www.brighthub.com/education/languages/articles/71728.a spx How Do Nature and Nurture Influence Human Development. (n.d.). Retrieved August 09, 2011, from http://www.brighthub.com/science/genetics/articles/110288.asp x Is Language Innate or Learned. (n.d.). Retrieved August 10, 2011, from http://www.brighthub.com/education/languages/articles/71285.a
  • 81. spx Mahoney, N. (n.d.). Language Learning. Retrieved August 10, 2011, from http://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/linguistics/learn.jsp Nature versus Nurture in Language Acquisition. (n.d.). Retrieved August 10, 2011, from http://www.brighthub.com/science/genetics/articles/82090.aspx O’Grady, W. D., O’Grady, W., Dobrovolsky, M., & Katamba, F. (1996). Contemporary Linguistics: An Introduction. London: Longman. Acta Scientiae et Intellectus ISSN 2410-9738 (Print), 2519- 1896 (Online) GIFTED STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES: A CURRENT REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Shyanne Sansom
  • 82. Eastern New Mexico University, USA E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT Students who are both gifted, and learning disabled, face challenges that most of their peers do not. Their disabilities and their strengths are often overlooked. Teachers may only focus on a student’s weakness and fail to see high intelligence, or the giftedness may mask the disability and cause the child to appear average. Even when they are correctly identified, gifted and learning disabled students’ social, emotional, and intellectual needs are often overlooked in the effort to remediate their disability. These students must be correctly identified as being gifted and having a learning disability in order for their needs to be adequately met. Effective programming for gifted and learning disabled students also includes social and emotional support, as well as interventions which focus on strengths, rather than weaknesses. These students will meet their potential only when their needs are appropriately met. Keywords: gifted students, learning disabled
  • 83. REVIEW OF LITERATURE This paper reviewed literature which addressed the characteristics and needs of students who are gifted and learning disabled. A discussion of the academic needs as well as the social and emotional needs of these students was included. Gifted and learning disabled students’ social, emotional and intellectual needs are often overlooked in the effort to remediate their disability. Identification of these students and the challenges associated with it were examined. Often, a student’s giftedness, or their learning disability, or both, remain undiagnosed, and these students do not receive appropriate interventions. Even when they are identified, it is common for the learning disability to be the only need that is acknowledged. These students must be correctly identified, both for their giftedness and for their learning disability, in order for their unique needs to be adequately met. Effective programming for gifted and learning disabled students includes social and emotional support, and interventions which focus on strengths rather than weaknesses. Only when their needs are appropriately met will these students meet their potential.
  • 84. Acta Scientiae et Intellectus ISSN 2410-9738 (Print), 2519- 1896 (Online) CHARACTERISTICS AND NEEDS Children who are highly intelligent, but who also have learning disabilities are different than both their gifted peers and their learning disabled peers. The asynchronous development typical of gifted students is often exaggerated in the presence of a learning disability, leading to frustration and stress. It is important for teachers and parents to be able to understand the unique characteristics and needs of these students. In their examination of the dual characteristics of gifted students with learning disabilities, Baum, Cooper, and Neu (2001) reported that students rarely reached their academic potential because the learning disability rather than the strength was addressed. They found that the characteristic behaviors of gifted children, including high interest, high ability, and creativity were ignored while the learning disability was remediated. Failing to address all the characteristics of these students led to low self-confidence, behavior problems, and feelings of frustration (Baum et al., 2001).
  • 85. Barber and Mueller (2011) studied the characteristics and needs of gifted students with learning disabilities. They found that these students face challenges not only in learning, but with other skills, as well. Gifted and learning disabled students often lack the ability to understand social cues and effectively participate in classroom activities. This lack of social ability is a result of the asynchronous development typical of highly intelligent youth. Their cognitive function has developed more quickly than their social and emotional capabilities, putting them at a higher risk for peer rejection, another cause of poor self- concept (Barber & Mueller, 2011). Barber and Mueller (2011) also discussed how pressure to achieve, which is typical of gifted students, may be even worse for gifted students with learning abilities. For instance, frustration often results from high expectations paired with the inability to do something because of a disability, causing stress both at home and at school. These students often display characteristics of underachieving and learning disabled students such as disruptive classroom behaviors and poor social skills, rather than the high academic achievement shown by other gifted children. The authors suggested that this poor classroom behavior might be, in part, a result of not being able to find peers in any classroom setting. These
  • 86. students are unlike both learning disabled and gifted students. Not only do they suffer from social difficulty, but their giftedness results in a heightened awareness of being different. This study also found that the self-perceptions of these students were more similar to students with learning disabilities than to other gifted children (Barber and Mueller, 2011). King (2005) addressed reasons why gifted and learning disabled students have social and emotional needs which are different from any of their peer groups. They experience a continuous struggle between academic difficulties and intellectual strengths. In fact, they face even more difficulties than their gifted peers. They have the heightened emotional sensitivity common in gifted children, as well as the pressure from others and themselves to achieve. These pressures, combined with a learning disability than can impair that achievement, leads to Acta Scientiae et Intellectus ISSN 2410-9738 (Print), 2519- 1896 (Online)
  • 87. frustration. The battle between academic success and intellectual ability can make school a difficult place for gifted students with learning disabilities (King, 2005). In addition to frustrations from the inability to achieve academic goals, gifted students with learning disabilities struggle to fit in with peers. King (2005) suggested that for gifted children, high intelligence can act as a buffer in difficult social situations, but gifted students with learning disabilities may not be able to protect themselves from social problems in the same way. The resulting social isolation from both gifted peers and average peers can cause lowered self-concept and emotional stress. The disappointment they feel when they see that their academic goals are not being met can exacerbate this problem. Therefore, addressing the learning difficulty alone is not sufficient in helping these students succeed. Focusing on weakness alone simply makes this emotional problem worse. Instead, focusing on a student's strengths can boost their self- confidence, leading to more successes. Because of these distinctive problems, addressing the social and emotional needs of these students is just as important as addressing their academic needs (King, 2005). Wellisch and Brown (2012) considered the social, emotional, and motivational problems which exist in some students who are
  • 88. gifted and learning disabled. They suggest that attachment difficulties and maternal depression might be the cause of these problems, leading to academic underachievement. It is critical for schools to recognize and address the needs of gifted and learning disabled students. Correct identification and programming for these students leads to success, which in turn helps with adjustment, emotional problems, and self- concept (Wellisch & Brown, 2012). Assouline, Nicpon, and Dockery (2012) discuss gifted children with autism spectrum disorders. Autism spectrum disorders are one of the most common learning disabilities in gifted children. The needs of these children are distinctly different from either gifted students, or students with learning disabilities. For these students, the assumption that high ability predicts achievement is not true. The conventional methods of measuring achievement, such as RtI, and IQ and achievement tests, may not accurately measure the strengths and learning potential of gifted children with autism spectrum disorders. In addition, Assouline, et al. explained how the unique social challenges faced by individuals with autism spectrum disorders combined with the higher cognitive ability of the gifted challenge these students even more than typical social abilities of this disability. They found that correctly identifying both the learning
  • 89. disability and the giftedness were essential in providing successful interventions. Addressing the learning disability alone was not effective in helping either academic achievement or social interactions in these students (Assouline et al., 2012). IDENTIFICATION Identifying gifted with learning disabilities is difficult. Often, either the giftedness or the learning disability is more apparent, and these students are not evaluated beyond their initial diagnosis. Conversely, the giftedness and the Acta Scientiae et Intellectus ISSN 2410-9738 (Print), 2519- 1896 (Online) learning disability might mask each other and make the child appear to have average academic ability. The identification and assessment of gifted students with disabilities was examined by Ruban and Reis (2005). They found that, although there is more information about gifted students with learning disabilities than
  • 90. there has ever been, there is disagreement about the appropriate way to assess, identify, and provide programming for these individuals. However, agreement does exist in the belief that it is important to minimize weakness and encourage strengths in these individuals. There must be a broadened definition of giftedness in order to appropriately find and help these students. Solely focusing on IQ scores, argued Ruban and Reis, does not properly identify these individuals. Rather, teachers and parents should be educated about the characteristics of individuals who are gifted and learning disabled. Ruban and Reis (2005) compiled a list of characteristics of gifted students with learning disabilities which helps teachers correctly identify students who may otherwise be overlooked. They listed the characteristics which hamper identification as gifted as well as the characteristic strengths of gifted students. Frustration with the inability to master a skill was shown to hamper identification, as was learned helplessness and a general lack of motivation. Disruptive classroom behavior and a lack of organizational skills was also a common characteristic which lowered the likelihood that a student was identified as gifted. In contrast, certain characteristic strengths of gifted students, such as advanced vocabulary use, high levels of creativity and productivity, and a wide
  • 91. variety of interests, helped students become recognized and identified as gifted. Ruban and Reis (2005) suggested that teachers consider both types of common characteristics when working with students. Silverman (2003) addressed the idea of masking, or compensation, and explained how it works in the brains of gifted and learning disabled children. The asynchronous development typical of gifted children is exaggerated when high levels of intelligence are combined with a disability. It is difficult, Silverman argued, to identify these children as either gifted or learning disabled because one trait compensates for the other. This compensation is the ability of the brain to solve a problem (the learning disability) in a different way. Gifted individuals excel at problem-solving and those with disabilities are no exception. The problem- solving ability of gifted children allows them to create ways to overcome their learning disabilities, making the students appear to be average in class work and test scores. It may also be difficult to determine whether a highly intelligent child actually does have a disability or whether their asynchrony is just extreme (Silverman, 2003). In an article which examined the relationship between the learning disability label and gifted referrals, Bianco and Leech (2010) found that
  • 92. teachers were less likely to refer a child who had been labeled as learning disabled to be tested for gifted identification. Teachers who had been trained in gifted education, regular classroom teachers, and special education teachers were given profiles of students and asked to identify which should be referred for gifted programming. Most of the students labeled learning disabled were identified as being gifted far less often Acta Scientiae et Intellectus ISSN 2410-9738 (Print), 2519- 1896 (Online) than those students with the same characteristics but no label. Teachers trained in gifted education were the best at identifying gifted children with learning disabilities, and special education teachers were the worst. Their focus was on identifying skills deficits and remediation of the disability rather than identifying strengths. The authors proposed inadequate teacher training as the reason for the under identification of gifted and learning disabled students. They argued that teachers need to receive better training and become aware of how their personal
  • 93. biases effect student identification and access to appropriate programming. Failure to do so will allow continued focus on accommodations of disabilities and lowered expectations by both the teachers and the students themselves (Bianco & Leech, 2010). Lovett (2013) contradicted most of the literature on gifted and learning disabled students and proposed that the label of “gifted and learning disabled” is being misused. The author claimed that the idea of high intelligence and learning disabilities masking each other is flawed. This assumption results in students being identified as gifted and learning disabled who do not actually meet the criteria of either. The student’s IQ is not sufficiently high, and their skills deficit sufficiently low. Because identifying giftedness and learning disabilities is so complex and vague, it is being exploited by those advantaged individuals who want to make their average children seem like they are actually gifted. Lovett claims that being labeled both gifted and learning disabled, allows those children to take advantage of both labels. This not only leads to misidentification for these children, but leads to greater social inequality in school programs (Lovett, 2013). Other disabilities According to a study by Wood (2012), the Connors behavior rating scale used
  • 94. in identifying ADHD is an inaccurate tool for identifying ADHD in gifted children. Although the American Psychological Association lists ADHD as the most common behavioral disorder in children, there is no exact way to measure it. The Connors behavior rating scale diagnoses ADHD by comparing teacher and parent responses about behavior with that of normal children. But some behavioral traits of gifted children are similar to those associated with ADHD, such as inattention and social difficulties. Inattention may not be caused by ADHD, but by boredom from unstimulating classroom content, and social difficulties may be cause by the asynchronous development typical of gifted children. Rather than being identified as gifted, those children might be labeled as having ADHD, leading to misdiagnosis and over diagnosis (Wood, 2012). Conversely, the ability of highly gifted children to hyper-focus on a task they are interested in may mask characteristics of both ADHD and high intelligence. This not only leads to a missed diagnosis of ADHD, but could also lead to a gifted child remaining unidentified. As a result of these factors, Wood (2012) suggested an ADHD test for gifted students which compares their behavior to that of their gifted peers, not with average children. This new test would more accurately assess behavior of gifted students and prevent the over-
  • 95. diagnosis and misdiagnosis of ADHD in this population (Wood, 2012). Acta Scientiae et Intellectus ISSN 2410-9738 (Print), 2519- 1896 (Online) 1 (2015) www.actaint.com Stein, Hetzel and Beck (2012) proposed that being an English language learner can mask giftedness in the same way in which having a learning disability can. They argued that the current identification procedures are inaccurate for identifying gifted English language learners. They advocate for varied methods of identifying giftedness for diverse populations of students. Just as is the case for students with disabilities, teachers focus on the label of ELL when planning programming for these students. If there were better procedures for identifying these gifted students, their strengths rather than their weakness would be addressed (Stein et al., 2012). Gifted children with dyslexia are often overlooked because their giftedness is masked, much like children with other disabilities. According to Peer and Tresman (2005), dyslexic children’s giftedness is hard to identify because there is often a
  • 96. large difference between IQ tests and achievement due to the nature of the disability. The individual components of a test should be examined in order to gain a better understanding of a dyslexic student’s strengths and weaknesses, rather than use the typical model of gifted identification for dyslexic students. This would result in a better understanding of a student’s overall functioning (Peer & Tresman, 2005). Response to Intervention Response to Intervention, or RtI, is a process used in schools to provide early intervention to students experiencing academic and/or behavioral challenges. While there is no Federal mandate about how to implement RtI, most states utilize it in some form. Typically there are three tiers of behavioral and academic interventions, and each tier becomes progressively more intense. In tier one, schools screen all students for health, language, and academic proficiency. The curriculum and instruction are adjusted for those students who have not mastered these skills. If students do not respond to tier one, they are referred to tier two, which consists of progressively more aggressive interventions, such as behavior intervention plans, and more frequent monitoring. Students who do not respond to tier two intervention are referred to tier three, otherwise known
  • 97. as special education. The goals of RtI are for the simultaneous occurrence of both assessment and academic interventions tailored to the needs of the student. Horne and Shaughnessy (2013) suggest that, because defining giftedness is complex and controversial, RtI can be used as a way to identify and address the needs of gifted students without the need for a label of “gifted”. RtI is meant to limit the time a student spends outside the classroom on specialized instruction. The assessments and educational interventions used in RtI, which are tailored to a student’s individual needs, are ideal for identifying and implementing appropriate programming for gifted students in the regular classroom (Horne & Shaughnessy, 2013). Yssel, Adams, Clark & Jones (2014) supported the use of RtI for gifted students, suggesting that it is a better method for identifying those gifted students who have learning disabilities than previous methods. They argued that, because using RtI replaces the “wait for failure” method, skills deficiencies are uncovered which otherwise might have gone unnoticed because of the masking ability of high Acta Scientiae et Intellectus ISSN 2410-9738 (Print), 2519-
  • 98. 1896 (Online) intelligence. Additionally, those schools who use RtI for low achieving students could use it for high achieving students in the same way. Through RtI, skills discrepancies can be discovered and proper programming implemented to help students remediate weaknesses and increase strengths. Yssel et al. (2014) did admit, however, that with RtI, the social and emotional needs of gifted and learning disabled students are not met, and therefore, appropriate programming must follow the initial identification. Crepeau-Hobson and Bianco (2011) observed that RtI alone is not an effective way to identify and meet the needs of twice exceptional students. With the increased use of RtI in identifying learning disabilities, the talents and the weakness of gifted and learning disabled students are going unidentified because one masks the other. Instead, the authors recommend an approach which uses standardized assessments for measuring giftedness inserted into the RtI framework to more accurately identify and address the needs of these students (Crepeau-Hobson & Bianco, 2011).
  • 99. McKenzie (2010) also discussed why RtI is insufficient for identifying gifted students with learning disabilities. If RtI is being used as the only way to diagnose a disability, students who have had short-term, intensive one-to- one instruction will be falsely identified as being responsive. Rather being identified and accommodated through RtI, students’ learning disabilities and high intelligence will remain unidentified. McKenzie argues that there should be continued use of IQ and achievement testing to understand and identify discrepancies between achievement and potential rather than using RtI as the sole method for identifying learning disabilities and high intelligence. Instead of using one or the other, RtI and traditional assessment can complement each other in correctly identifying gifted students with learning disabilities (McKenzie, 2011). PROGRAMMING The programming needs of gifted students varies from student to student, and so do the needs of those gifted students who also have learning disabilities. There is no one-size fits-all program for these students, and attempting to solely address the learning disability, or the giftedness, will result in inadequate instruction. There are many ideas about how best to help these students, but the
  • 100. point on which nearly every expert agrees is that both the weaknesses and the strengths of the student should be addressed simultaneously. Waiting until a learning disability is remediated,, at the expense of nurturing the strength, can cause disappointment, frustration, and low self-confidence. Ignoring the disability, and focusing on the strength alone, will also result in frustration, underachievement, and stress. It is also important that programming meet the unique social and emotional needs of these students. Talent development In a review of programming for gifted and learning disabled students, Reis and Ruban (2005) suggested that there has been a move toward providing these students with programming that is individualized, comprehensive, and focuses on Acta Scientiae et Intellectus ISSN 2410-9738 (Print), 2519- 1896 (Online) strengths rather than weaknesses. The authors maintain that many gifted and learning disabled students have strengths and weakness which
  • 101. often remain unidentified until college. In order to help these students achieve, teachers must not simply remediate their learning disability, but help them learn compensation strategies to help them overcome their weaknesses and capitalize on their strengths. The authors recommended three types of interventions: school-based, partial pull-out programs, and self-contained programs (Reis & Ruban, 2005). Schools must focus on strengths, not weaknesses (Reis & Ruban, 2005). In order to achieve this, IEPs must be written to provide classroom accommodations which address both. Reis and Ruban also emphasized extracurricular opportunities as an opportunity for a gifted and learning disabled student to be successful. Mentors, after school clubs, and independent projects that are hands-on and in their areas of interest, should be provided to give these students a chance to be successful in doing what they enjoy. Opportunities for students to be successful should also be provided within the regular classroom, not just in pull-out programs. Additionally, counseling and personal support must be provided depending on the needs of the student (Reis & Ruban, 2005). Nielsen and Higgins (2005) compared the experience of a gifted and learning disabled student entering school to a storm in which they are bombarded by
  • 102. experiences of failure; where they do not fit in with peers, have challenges academically, and cannot live up to teacher, parent and self- expectations. These students cannot balance their areas of giftedness with their areas of difficulty. The teacher can be the eye of the storm for these students by providing a “safe haven in the eye of the educational storm” (Nielsen & Higgins, 2005, p.15). This “safe haven” requires teachers to understand the student’s emotional needs, and provide appropriate programming which addresses strengths and well as weakness, is consistent from year to year, and is coordinated between gifted and special education. These teachers also need to teach students how to become their own “eye of the storm” and weather future challenges independently (Nielsen & Higgins, 2005). Baum, Cooper, and Neu (2001) and Crepeau-Hobson and Bianco (2011) suggested a dual differentiation approach to meeting the needs of gifted students with learning disabilities. They advocated for programming that simultaneously addressed strengths and weaknesses through talent development. Baum, et al. (2001) presented Project High Hopes as a model of successful dually differentiated curriculum adapted to the needs of individual students. Students in the program did not work on remediation of their learning difficulties, but instead, learned how
  • 103. to use their specific talents to compensate. In order to achieve this, Project High Hopes provided opportunities for authentic problem-solving in real world situations, an area where gifted students excel Students were exposed to new topics and receive lessons from mentors and professionals. As students become more independent, they begin to use their problem-solving skills to use their strengths and create alternative solutions. The learning environment of Project High Hopes is one of high expectations and successes. Social and emotional difficulties commonly found in gifted and learning disabled students were greatly reduced when they were surrounded by an environment which emphasized their Acta Scientiae et Intellectus ISSN 2410-9738 (Print), 2519- 1896 (Online) strengths rather than on remediating weaknesses. The Baum, et al. (2001) also noted that when education is focused on success, the motivation for learning increases as well Crepau-Hobson and Bianco (2011) suggested that this approach
  • 104. actually allows gifted students to overcome their learning disabilities. Alternate methods of assessment are also important in this model. Rather than relying on test scores, which often fail to adequately measure the strengths of gifted students with learning disabilities, Project High Hopes focuses on student projects (Crepeau- Hobson & Bianco, 2011). Wellisch and Brown (2012) used a modified version of Gagne’s model of Giftedness and Talent to describe a path for gifted achievers and gifted underachievers to participate in an academic talent development program. Whereas Gagne’s model allowed only highly achieving children to participate in talent development programs, and any disability was to be remediated before a student could participate, Wellisch and Brown’s version was much more inclusive. Their model, the “Inclusive Identification and Progression Model”, outlined a program which can support children’s giftedness as well as address their learning disabilities. It recommended that schools use approaches which protect and develop student's self-esteem. The social and emotional needs of gifted students with learning disabilities are not separate from their academic needs, and must be addressed. The authors stress that schools will do a better job of challenging these students if the needs of the whole child are met, as opposed to
  • 105. Gagne's model of focusing on strengths only after learning difficulties have been corrected (Wellisch & Brown, 2012). Ruban and Reis (2005) suggested that the identification of gifted and learning disabled students is not the end point of the assessment process, but the beginning. The identification and assessment of these students obtained through RtI should be linked to programs, such as the talent pool approach, in the schoolwide enrichment model (SEM). The authors propose that Renzulli’s model of talent development fosters creative productivity, and is useful in developing programming for gifted students with learning disabilities who may struggle to find their strengths in regular … 9 781292 022581 ISBN 978-1-29202-258-1 Exceptional Learners An Introduction to Special Education Hallahan Kauffman Pullen Twelfth Edition Exceptional Learners H allahan et al. Tw
  • 106. elfth Edition Exceptional Learners An Introduction to Special Education Hallahan Kauffman Pullen Twelfth Edition Pearson Education Limited Edinburgh Gate Harlow Essex CM20 2JE England and Associated Companies throughout the world Visit us on the World Wide Web at: www.pearsoned.co.uk © Pearson Education Limited 2014 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners. The use of any trademark in this text does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownership rights in such trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any affi
  • 107. liation with or endorsement of this book by such owners. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Printed in the United States of America ISBN 10: 1-292-02258-2 ISBN 13: 978-1-292-02258-1 ISBN 10: 1-292-02258-2 ISBN 13: 978-1-292-02258-1 Table of Contents P E A R S O N C U S T O M L I B R A R Y I Glossary 1 1Daniel P. Hallahan/James M. Kauffman/Paige C. Pullen 1. Exceptionality and Special Education 13 13Daniel P. Hallahan/James M. Kauffman/Paige C. Pullen 2. Current Practices for Meeting the Needs of Exceptional
  • 108. Learners 37 37Daniel P. Hallahan/James M. Kauffman/Paige C. Pullen 3. Multicultural and Bilingual Aspects of Special Education 69 69Daniel P. Hallahan/James M. Kauffman/Paige C. Pullen 4. Parents and Families 97 97Daniel P. Hallahan/James M. Kauffman/Paige C. Pullen 5. Learners with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities 125 125Daniel P. Hallahan/James M. Kauffman/Paige C. Pullen 6. Learners with Learning Disabilities 163 163Daniel P. Hallahan/James M. Kauffman/Paige C. Pullen 7. Learners with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 201 201Daniel P. Hallahan/James M. Kauffman/Paige C. Pullen
  • 109. 8. Learners with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 239 239Daniel P. Hallahan/James M. Kauffman/Paige C. Pullen 9. Learners with Autism Spectrum Disorders 275 275Daniel P. Hallahan/James M. Kauffman/Paige C. Pullen 10. Learners with Communication Disorders 311 311Daniel P. Hallahan/James M. Kauffman/Paige C. Pullen 11. Learners Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing 343 343Daniel P. Hallahan/James M. Kauffman/Paige C. Pullen 12. Learners with Blindness or Low Vision 381 381Daniel P. Hallahan/James M. Kauffman/Paige C. Pullen II 13. Learners with Low-Incidence, Multiple, and Severe Disabilities
  • 110. 423 423Daniel P. Hallahan/James M. Kauffman/Paige C. Pullen 14. Learners with Physical Disabilities and Other Health Impairments 457 457Daniel P. Hallahan/James M. Kauffman/Paige C. Pullen 15. Learners with Special Gifts and Talents 489 489Daniel P. Hallahan/James M. Kauffman/Paige C. Pullen Appendix 517 517Daniel P. Hallahan/James M. Kauffman/Paige C. Pullen 521 521Index A Acceleration An approach in which students with special gifts or talents are placed in grade levels ahead of their age peers in one or more academic subjects. Accessible pedestrian signal (APSs) Devices for people who
  • 111. are blind to let them know when the “walk” signal is on at intersections; can be auditory, tactile, or both. Accommodations Changes in the delivery of instruction, type of student performance, or method of assessment which do not significantly change the content or conceptual difficulty of the curriculum. Acquired apraxia As in Developmental apraxia, there are problems in motor planning such that the child has difficulty in producing speech sounds and organizing words and word sounds for effective communication. However, the problem is known to be caused by neurological damage. Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDs) A virus- caused illness resulting in a breakdown of the immune system; currently, no known cure exists. Acute A serious state of illness or injury from which someone often recovers with treatment. Adaptations Changes in curricular content or conceptual difficulty or changes in instructional objectives and methods. Adapted signs Signs adapted for use by people who are deaf- blind; tactually based rather than visually based, such as American Sign Language for those who are deaf but sighted. Adaptive behavior The social and practical intelligence used in people’s everyday lives; along with IQ, is considered in making a determination of intellectual disability. Adaptive behavior skills Skills needed to adapt to one’s living environment (e.g., communication, self-care, home living, social skills, community use, self-direction, health and safety,
  • 112. functional academics, leisure, and work); usually estimated by an adaptive behavior survey; one of two major components (the other is intellectual functioning) of the AAMR definition. Adaptive devices Special tools that are adaptations of common items to make accomplishing self-care, work, or recreation activities easier for people with physical disabilities. Adderall A psychostimulant for ADHD; its effects are longer acting than those of Ritalin. Adventitiously deaf Deafness that occurs through illness or accident in an individual who was born with normal hearing. Affective disorder A disorder of mood or emotional tone characterized by depression or elation. Aggression Behavior that intentionally causes others harm or that elicits escape or avoidance responses from others. Aim Line Used in CBM; based on expected growth norms, a line drawn from the baseline data point to the anticipated end of instruction. Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) Civil rights legislation for persons with disabilities ensuring nondiscrimination in a broad range of activities. GLOSSARY Amniocentesis A medical procedure that allows examination of the amniotic fluid around the fetus; sometimes recommended to determine the presence of abnormality. Androgen A hormone that is responsible for controlling the development of male characteristics.
  • 113. Anoxia Deprivation of oxygen; can cause brain injury. Anxiety disorder A disorder characterized by anxiety, fearfulness, and avoidance of ordinary activities because of anxiety or fear. Aphonia Loss of voice. Applied behavior analysis (ABA) Highly structured approach that focuses on teaching functional skills and continuous assessment of progress; grounded in behavioral learning theory. Apraxia The inability to plan and coordinate speech. Aqueous humor A watery substance between the cornea and lens of the eye. Asperger syndrome One of five autistic spectrum disorders; a milder form of autism without significant impairments in language and cognition; characterized by primary problems in social interaction. Assistance card A relatively small card containing a message that alerts the public that the user is deaf-blind and needs assistance in crossing the street. Asthma A lung disease characterized by episodic difficulty in breathing, particularly exhaling, due to inflammation obstruction of the air passages. Astigmatism Blurred vision caused by an irregular cornea or lens. Atonic Lack of muscle tone; floppiness.
  • 114. Atresia Absence or closure of a part of the body that is normally open. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) A condition characterized by severe problems of inattention, hyperactivity, and/or impulsivity; often found in people with learning disabilities. Audiologist An individual trained in audiology, the science dealing with hearing impairments, their detection, and remediation. Audiometric zero The lowest level at which people with normal hearing can hear. Auditory-oral approach A method of teaching communication to people who are deaf that stresses the use of visual cues, such as speechreading and cued speech. Auditory-verbal approach Part of the oral approach to teaching students who are hearing impaired; stresses teaching the person to use his or her remaining hearing as much as possible; heavy emphasis on use of amplification; heavy emphasis on teaching speech. Augmentative or alternative communication (AAC) Alternative forms of communication that do not use the oral sounds of speech or that augment the use of speech. From Glossary of Exceptional Learners: An Introduction to Special Education, 12/e. Daniel P. Hallahan. James M. Kauffman. Paige C. Pullen. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved. 1
  • 115. Auricle The visible part of the ear, composed of cartilage; collects the sounds and funnels them via the external auditory canal to the eardrum. Autism One of five autistic spectrum disorders; characterized by extreme social withdrawal and impairment in communication; other common characteristics are stereotyped movements, resistance to environmental change or change in daily routines, and unusual responses to sensory experiences; usually evident before age of 3 years; a pervasive developmental disability characterized by extreme withdrawal, cognitive deficits, language disorders, self-stimulation, and onset before the age of 30 months. Autism or autistic spectrum disorder A pervasive developmental disability characterized by extreme withdrawal, cognitive deficits, language disorders, self-stimulation, and onset before the age of 30 months. Autism spectrum disorders Five similar conditions: autism, Asperger syndrome, Rett syndrome, childhood disintegrative disorder, and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified; all involve varying degrees of problems with communication skills, social interactions, and repetitive and stereotyped patterns of behavior. Autistic regression Phenomenon whereby a child appears to progress normally until about 16 to 24 months of age and, then, begins to show signs of being autistic and ultimately is diagnosed as autistic. Autistic savant A person with severe autism whose social and language skills are markedly delayed but who also has
  • 116. advanced skills in a particular area, such as calculation or drawing. B Basal ganglia A set of structures within the brain that include the caudate, globus pallidus, and putamen, the first two being abnormal in people with ADHD; generally responsible for the coordination and control of movement. Baseline Data Point Used in CBM; the beginning score gathered before an intervention begins, e.g, the number of correct words per minute that a student reads before receiving a fluency intervention. Behavior management Strategies and techniques used to increase desirable behavior and decrease undesirable behavior. May be applied in the classroom, home, or other environment. Behavior modification Systematic control of environmental events, especially of consequences, to produce specific changes in observable responses. May include reinforcement, punishment, modeling, self-instruction, desensitization, guided practice, or any other technique for strengthening or eliminating a particular response. Behavioral inhibition The ability to stop an intended response, to stop an ongoing response, to guard an ongoing response from interruption, and to refrain from responding immediately; allows executive functions to occur; delayed or impaired in those with ADHD. Behavioral phenotype A collection of behaviors, including cognitive, language, and social behaviors as well as psychopathological symptoms, that tend to occur together in people with a specific genetic syndrome.
  • 117. Bicultural-bilingual approach An approach for teaching students with hearing impairment that stresses teaching American Sign Language as a first language and English as a second language and promotes the teaching of Deaf culture. Braille A system in which raised dots allow people who are blind to read with their fingertips; each quadrangular cell contains from one to six dots, the arrangement of which denotes different letters and symbols. Braille bills Legislation passed in several states to make braille more available to students with visual impairment; specific provisions vary from state to state, but major advocates have lobbied for (1) making braille available if parents want it, and (2) ensuring that teachers of students with visual impairment are proficient in braille. Braille notetakers Portable devices that can be used to take notes in braille, which are then converted to speech, braille, or text. Brain stem-evoked response audiometry Measures electrical signals from the brain stem that are in response to an auditory stimulus, such as a click. C Cataracts A condition caused by clouding of the lens of the eye; affects color vision and distance vision. Caudate A structure in the basal ganglia of the brain; site of abnormal development in persons with ADHD. Center-based program A program implemented primarily in a school or center, not in the student’s home.
  • 118. Central coherence The inclination to bring meaning to stimuli by conceptualizing it as a whole; thought to be weak in people with ASD. Cerebellum An organ at the base of the brain responsible for coordination and movement; site of abnormal development in persons with ADHD. Cerebral palsy (CP) A condition characterized by paralysis, weakness, lack of coordination, and/or other motor dysfunction; caused by damage to the brain before it has matured. CHARGE syndrome A genetic syndrome resulting in deaf- blindness; characterized by physical anomalies, often including coloboma (abnormalities of the pupil, retina and/or optic nerve), cranial nerves, heart defects, atresia (absence or closure) of the chonae (air passages from nose to throat), retardation in growth and mental development, genital abnormalities, ear malformation and/or hearing loss. Choanae Air passages from the nose to the throat. Choreoathetoid Characterized by involuntary movements and difficulty with balance; associated with choreoathetoid cerebral palsy. Chorionic villus sampling (CVS) A method of testing the unborn fetus for a variety of chromosomal abnormalities, such as Down syndrome; a small amount of tissue from the chorion (a membrane that eventually helps form the placenta) is extracted and tested; can be done earlier than amniocentesis but the risk of miscarriage is slightly higher. Chromosomal disorder Any of several syndromes resulting from abnormal or damaged chromosome(s); can result in