Final Research Paper Rubric Criteria Levels of Achievement Content (70%) Advanced 92-100% Proficient 84-91% Developing 1-83% Not Present Total Defining the Problem 14 to 15 points: Overview of Root Causes; Competing Interpretations (i.e. how conservatives define the problem vs. how liberals define the problem). Work demonstrates a detailed understanding of ideas from required sources. 12.5 to 13.5 points: Overview generally provides the following: Root Causes; Competing Interpretations (i.e. how conservatives define the problem vs. how liberals define the problem). Work demonstrates a general understanding of ideas from required sources. 1 to 12 points: Overview fails to include all of the following: Root Causes; Competing Interpretations (i.e. how conservatives define the problem vs. how liberals define the problem). Work demonstrates an inadequate understanding of ideas from required sources. 0 points Not present Introduce Policy Alternatives 9 to 10 points: Reference and briefly discuss 2 and only 2 pieces of legislation which serve as solutions to the problem. Thoroughly explains how each bill attempts to solve root causes of the problem. Work demonstrates a detailed understanding of ideas from required sources. 8 to 8.5 points: Reference and briefly discuss 2 and only 2 pieces of legislation which serve as solutions to the problem. Generally explains how each bill attempts to solve root causes of the problem. Work demonstrates a general understanding of ideas from required sources. 1 to 7.5 points: Reference and briefly discuss 2 and only 2 pieces of legislation which serve as solutions to the problem. Often fails to explain how each bill attempts to solve root causes of the problem. Work demonstrates an inadequate understanding of ideas from required sources. 0 points Not present May: Biblical 14 to 15 points: Biblical guidelines for government involvement for each bill includes discussion of how inalienable rights, natural law, institutional separation of Church and State, Sin/Crime distinction and sphere sovereignty help determine if government is the appropriate sphere to address the issue. Work demonstrates a detailed understanding of ideas from required sources. 12.5 to 13.5 points: Biblical guidelines for government involvement for each bill generally includes discussion of how inalienable rights, natural law, institutional separation of Church and State, Sin/Crime distinction and sphere sovereignty help determine if government is the appropriate sphere to address the issue. Work demonstrates a general understanding of ideas from required sources. 1 to 12 points: Biblical guidelines for government involvement for each bill often fails to include a discussion of how inalienable rights, natural law, institutional separation of Church and State, Sin/Crime distinction and sphere sovereignty help determine if government is the appropriate sphere to address the issue. Work demonstrates an inadequate understanding .

1. Final Research Paper Rubric
Criteria
Levels of Achievement
Content
(70%)
Advanced
92-100%
Proficient
84-91%
Developing
1-83%
Not Present
Total
Defining the Problem
14 to 15 points:
Overview of Root Causes; Competing Interpretations (i.e. how
conservatives define the problem vs. how liberals define the
problem).
Work demonstrates a detailed understanding of ideas from
required sources.
12.5 to 13.5 points:
Overview generally provides the following: Root Causes;
Competing Interpretations (i.e. how conservatives define the
problem vs. how liberals define the problem).
Work demonstrates a general understanding of ideas from
required sources.
1 to 12 points:
Overview fails to include all of the following: Root Causes;
Competing Interpretations (i.e. how conservatives define the
problem vs. how liberals define the problem).
Work demonstrates an inadequate understanding of ideas from
required sources.
0 points

2. Not present
Introduce Policy Alternatives
9 to 10 points:
Reference and briefly discuss 2 and only 2 pieces of legislation
which serve as solutions to the problem.
Thoroughly explains how each bill attempts to solve root causes
of the problem.
Work demonstrates a detailed understanding of ideas from
required sources.
8 to 8.5 points:
Reference and briefly discuss 2 and only 2 pieces of legislation
which serve as solutions to the problem.
Generally explains how each bill attempts to solve root causes
of the problem.
Work demonstrates a general understanding of ideas from
required sources.
1 to 7.5 points:
Reference and briefly discuss 2 and only 2 pieces of legislation
which serve as solutions to the problem.
Often fails to explain how each bill attempts to solve root
causes of the problem.
Work demonstrates an inadequate understanding of ideas from
required sources.
0 points
Not present
May:
Biblical
14 to 15 points:
Biblical guidelines for government involvement for each bill
includes discussion of how inalienable rights, natural law,
institutional separation of Church and State, Sin/Crime
distinction and sphere sovereignty help determine if government

3. is the appropriate sphere to address the issue.
Work demonstrates a detailed understanding of ideas from
required sources.
12.5 to 13.5 points:
Biblical guidelines for government involvement for each bill
generally includes discussion of how inalienable rights, natural
law, institutional separation of Church and State, Sin/Crime
distinction and sphere sovereignty help determine if government
is the appropriate sphere to address the issue.
Work demonstrates a general understanding of ideas from
required sources.
1 to 12 points:
Biblical guidelines for government involvement for each bill
often fails to include a discussion of how inalienable rights,
natural law, institutional separation of Church and State,
Sin/Crime distinction and sphere sovereignty help determine if
government is the appropriate sphere to address the issue.
Work demonstrates an inadequate understanding of ideas from
required sources.
0 points
Not present
May:
Constitutional
14 to 15 points:
Constitutional guidelines for government involvement as it
relates to each bill.
Includes references to specific enumerated powers and relevant
Supreme Court cases as needed.
Avoids vague use of the "General Welfare" clause.
Work demonstrates a detailed understanding of ideas from
required sources.
12.5 to 13.5 points:
Constitutional guidelines for government involvement as it

4. relates to each bill is provided for the most part.
Generally includes references to specific enumerated powers
and relevant Supreme Court cases as needed.
Avoids vague use of the "General Welfare" clause.
Work demonstrates a general understanding of ideas from
required sources.
1 to 12 points:
Minimal discussion of Constitutional guidelines for government
involvement as it relates to each bill.
Fails to include references to specific enumerated powers and
relevant Supreme Court cases as needed and/or engages in
vague use of the "General Welfare" clause.
Work demonstrates an inadequate understanding of ideas from
required sources.
0 points
Not present
Can:
Political
9 to 10 points:
Political Feasibility: 1) Use of relevant surveys, polls, etc.; and
2) Articulation of key political leaders, parties, etc. who are for
and/or against piece of legislation.
Thorough discussion of whether or not the bill is likely to pass
the House and Senate, and be signed by the President.
Work demonstrates a detailed understanding of ideas from
required sources.
8 to 8.5 points:
Political Feasibility: 1) Use of relevant surveys, polls, etc.; and
2) Articulation of key political leaders, parties, etc. who are for
and/or against piece of legislation.
Discussion of whether or not the bill is likely to pass the House
and Senate, and be signed by the President.
Work demonstrates a general understanding of ideas from
required sources.
1 to 7.5 points:

5. Political Feasibility: 1) Use of relevant surveys, polls, etc.; and
2) Articulation of key political leaders, parties, etc. who are for
and/or against piece of legislation.
Minimal discussion of whether or not the bill is likely to pass
the House and Senate, and be signed by the President.
Work demonstrates an inadequate understanding of ideas from
required sources.
0 points
Not present
Can:
Financial
9 to 10 points:
Financial Feasibility-includes for each piece of legislation a
thorough discussion of the following: 1) Cost of one piece of
legislation vs. another
2) Cost of action vs. no action for each piece of legislation
3) Cost benefit analysis for each piece of legislation
Work demonstrates a detailed understanding of ideas from
required sources.
8 to 8.5 points:
Financial Feasibility-generally includes for each piece of
legislation: 1) Cost of one piece of legislation vs. another
2) Cost of action vs. no action for each piece of legislation
3) Cost benefit analysis for each piece of legislation
Work demonstrates a general understanding of ideas from
required sources.
1 to 7.5 points:
Financial Feasibility minimal discussion of the following: 1)
Cost of one piece of legislation vs. another
2) Cost of action vs. no action for each piece of legislation
3) Cost benefit analysis for each piece of legislation
Work demonstrates an inadequate understanding of ideas from
required sources.

6. Can:
Practical
9 to 10 points:
Practical Feasibility-includes for piece of legislation a thorough
discussion of the following:
Discussion of physical resources, manpower, etc. needed to
implement policy as well as practical challenges associated with
implementing the bill, to include timing and logistics.
Discussion of necessary, practical steps needed to implement
the bill
Work demonstrates a detailed understanding of ideas from
required sources.
8 to 8.5 points:
Practical Feasibility-includes for piece of legislation an
adequate discussion of the following:
Discussion of physical resources, manpower, etc. needed to
implement policy as well as practical challenges associated with
implementing the bill, to include timing and logistics.
Discussion of necessary, practical steps needed to implement
the bill
Work demonstrates a general understanding of ideas from
required sources.
1 to 7.5 points:
Practical Feasibility-often fails to include for piece of
legislation:
Discussion of physical resources, manpower, etc. needed to
implement policy as well as practical challenges associated with
implementing the bill, to include timing and logistics.
Discussion of necessary, practical steps needed to implement
the bill
Work demonstrates an inadequate understanding of ideas from
required sources.
Should
18.5 to 20 points:

7. Persuasive summary of the key issues supporting your decision
to either support, amend, and/or reject the legislation. Must be
based upon the May and Can portions of your analysis.
Makes the case in light of what is going on politically and
whether other political actors should support the legislation in
light of competing political agendas.
Work demonstrates a detailed understanding of ideas from
required sources.
17 to 18 points:
Generally persuasive summary of the key issues supporting your
decision to either support, amend, and/or reject the legislation.
Must be based upon the May and Can portions of your analysis.
Generally makes the case in light of what is going on politically
and whether other political actors should support the legislation
in light of competing political agendas.
Work demonstrates a general understanding of ideas from
required sources.
1 to 16.5 points:
Minimally persuasive summary of the key issues supporting
your decision to either support, amend, and/or reject the
legislation. Often not based upon the May and Can portions of
your analysis.
Fails to make the case in light of what is going on politically
and whether other political actors should support the legislation
in light of competing political agendas.
Work demonstrates an inadequate understanding of ideas from
required sources.
0 points
Not present
Structure (30%)
Advanced
92-100%
Proficient
84-91%

8. Developing
1-83%
Not Present
Total
Sources
11 to 12 points:
All required sources from Modules/Weeks 1–2 (must include the
"Biblical Principles of Government" article), Scripture, and the
required readings and presentations from the assigned
module/week are cited.
Used 15-20 empirical sources
10 to 10.5 points:
Most of the required sources from Modules/Weeks 1–2 (must
include the "Biblical Principles of Government" article),
Scripture, and the required readings and presentations from the
assigned module/week are cited.
Used 10-14 empirical sources
1 to 9.5 points:
Few of the required sources from Modules/Weeks 1–2 (must
include the "Biblical Principles of Government" article),
Scripture, and the required readings and presentations from the
assigned module/week are cited.
Used 9 or less empirical sources
0 points
Not present
APA format (citations and references)
11 to 12 points:
Sources are cited and listed in current APA format.
10 to 10.5 points:
Sources are generally cited and listed in current APA format.
1 to 9.5 points:
Numerous deficiencies with respect to proper APA, grammar,
and spelling.
0 points
Not present

9. Page Length
10 to 11 points:
Length no less than 6 pages; not including title and reference
pages.
9 to 9.5 points:
Length less than 6 pages but more than 5; not including title and
reference pages
1 to 8.5 points:
Length less than 5 pages
0 points
Not present
Grammar and spelling
9.5 to 10 points:
Proper grammar, and spelling are used throughout.
8.5 to 9 points:
For the most part proper grammar and spelling are used
throughout improper abbreviations.
1 to 8 points:
Numerous deficiencies with respect to proper grammar, and
spelling.
0 points
Not present
Professor Comments:
Total:
/150
The Congressional Budget Office provides financial estimates
of proposed bills. It is recommend

10. that you start with this site because it provides you with a
summary of the bill and provides
financial analysis that you will need for your “Financial
Feasibility” study.
You can use its search feature to find bills you would be
interested in using for your policy brief.
From the main page, scroll down to the “Find Analyses” section
and click the “Cost Estimates” link:
Use the search tool in the upper left hand corner to put in your
search topic. It can be a specific bill,
or a general issue, like “abortion”.
Note that the search tool only works on a year-by-year basis, so
if you do not know exactly what are
looking for, you will need to use the drop down menu to select
different years. The CBO site
contains analyses as far back as 1998.
FINDING LEGISLATION
http://www.cbo.gov/
CONGRESS.GOV, provided by the Library of Congress: allows
you to type in a key word (such as
abortion) and it will list any bills that are dealing with that
issue and where it is in the approval

11. process.
OTHER RESOURCES
Access the Government Databases page for
-Nexis Legal Search (provides federal and state case
law)
Government Research Guide
GovEngine: a privately run but free web site directory to the
governments of all 50 states, including
their legislatures. From there students can find state laws &
statutes.
https://www.congress.gov/
https://www.congress.gov/
http://www.liberty.edu/newlibrary/databases/?s=16
http://libguides.liberty.edu/content.php?pid=548824&sid=45194
81
http://www.govengine.com/
The United States Constitution
September 17, 1787
____________________

12. It quickly became apparent that the Articles of Confederation,
ratified by all the states by
March 1781, was insufficient in several areas (Lowman, pp.
121-22). One of the main weaknesses
was that it had no means of enforcing laws, or to settle disputes
arising out of national laws. This
placed the states in the position of being independent nations
(Lowman, p. 122). The states had no
rights with one another that were easily protected, and neither
did their citizens. Shays' Rebellion,
which occurred in Massachusetts in 1786, magnified this
problem and was the event that caused
the founding fathers to discuss plans for a better system of
government:
Shays' Rebellion was limited to Massachusetts, but it threw fear
into the hearts of Americans
in general. It rudely awakened them to the truly desperate
political and economic conditions
in America. George Washington, in a letter to John Jay, wrote
that "our affairs are
drawing rapidly to a crisis. We have errors to correct; we have
probably had too good an
opinion of human nature in forming our Confederation.
Experience has taught us that
men will not adopt, and carry into execution, measures the best
calculated for their own
good, without the intervention of coercive power. I do not
conceive we can exist long as a
nation without lodging, somewhere, a power which will pervade
the whole Union in as
energetic a manner as the authority of the state governments
extends over the several states
[Emphasis added.] (Lowman, p. 124).

13. A convention was called to revise the Articles of Confederation,
but under the leadership of George
Washington, the delegates pushed for a more ambitious plan:
creating an entirely new system of
government:
The Convention had been called only for the purpose of revising
the Articles of
Confederation. But most of the delegates realized from the
beginning of their discussions
that this was not enough to solve the nation's pressing problems.
What was needed was a
new and stronger national government. Since whatever action
they took would only result in
a recommendation to the states and would not be binding on
anyone, they made the bold
decision to put aside the Articles and draft a brand new
Constitution for the United States.
In making the "Great Decision," they heeded the advice of
George Washington, who is
reported to have told the delegates even before the Convention
officially began: "It is too
probable that no plan we propose will be adopted. Perhaps
another dreadful conflict is to
be sustained. If to please the people, we offer what we
ourselves disapprove, how can we
afterwards defend our works? Let us raise a standard to which
the wise and honest can
repair. The event is in the hands of God" (Lowman, p. 126).
And so the delegates created and successfully pushed for
ratification of the Constitution. The
United States Constitution can be looked at as the culmination

14. of many historical trends, which,
throughout the centuries, led to an understanding of a Biblical
framework upon which government
should operate. The Constitution includes references to
separation of powers, due process of
law, rule by consent, rule by law, rule by justice, protection of
inalienable rights, and
federalism, among other things. Furthermore, it was based upon
an understanding of covenantal
principles. Before the Constitution was ratified, the states were
practically in a state of nature
[defined by Locke as a situation in which no government existed
to ensure basic rights among
various parties; see Section III] with one another, since the
Articles of Confederation were so weak.
The Constitution was a means by which the people of America,
as one nation, could come together
to ensure that their rights were protected.
____________________
PREAMBLE
We, the people of the United States, in order to form
a more perfect Union, establish justice, insure
domestic tranquillity, provide for the common
defense, promote the g eneral welfare, and secure
the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity,
do ordain and establish this
Constitution for the United States of America.

15. ARTICLE I
Section 1.
[Legislative powers; in whom vested.]
All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a
Congress of the United States, which shall
consist of a Senate and House of Representatives.
Section 2.
[House of Representatives, how and by whom chosen
Qualifications of a Representative.
Representatives and direct taxes, how apportioned.
Enumeration. Vacancies to be filled.
Power of choosing officers, and of impeachment.]
1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members
chosen every second year by the
people of the several States, and the elector in each State shall
have the qualifications requisite for
electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislature.
These concepts shouldn’t be confused with an

16. endorsement of a welfare program, since
socialism wasn’t an idea the Founding Fathers
supported or were even aware of. These terms
refer more to ensuring safety and order. They
cannot be interpreted apart from the
enumerated powers discussed in the proceeding
sections.
2. No person shall be a Representative who shall not have
attained the age of twenty-five years, and
been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall
not, when elected, be an inhabitant of
that State in which he shall be chosen.
3. Representatives [and direct taxes] [Altered by 16th
Amendment] shall be apportioned among
the several States which may be included within this Union,
according to their respective numbers,
[which shall be determined by adding the whole number of free
persons, including those bound to
service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed,
three-fifths of all other persons.]
[Altered by 14th Amendment] The actual enumeration shall be
made within three years after the
first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within
every subsequent term of ten years, in
such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of
Representatives shall not exceed one for
every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one
Representative; and until such
enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be
entitled to choose three,

17. Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations
one, Connecticut five, New York six,
New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland
six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five,
South Carolina five, and Georgia three.
4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State,
the Executive Authority thereof
shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies.
5. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and
other officers; and shall have the
sole power of impeachment.
Section 3.
[Senators, how and by whom chosen. How classified. State
Executive, when to make
temporary appointments, in case, etc. Qualifications of a
Senator. President of the Senate,
his right to vote. President pro tem, and other officers of the
Senate, how chosen. Power to
try impeachments. When President is tried, Chief Justice to
preside. Sentence.]
1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed
of two Senators from ea ch State, [chosen by the
Legislature thereof,] [Altered by 17th Amendment]
for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote.
2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in
consequence of the first election, they shall be divided

18. as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the
Senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of
the second year, of the second class at
the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class at the
expiration of the sixth year, so that
one-third may be chosen every second year; [and if vacancies
happen by resignation, or otherwise,
during the recess of the Legislature of any State, the Executive
thereof may make temporary
appointments until the next meeting of the Legislature, which
shall then fill such vacancies.]
[Altered by 17th Amendment].
3. No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to
the age of thirty years, and been nine
In keeping with the concept of federalism and
States’ Rights, the Founders intended that the
State legislators choose the Senators so that
the concerns of each state as a unique
political entity would be acknowledged and
protected. This was changed in the
Amendment.
years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when
elected, be an inhabitant of that State
for which he shall be chosen.
4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of
the Senate, but shall have no vote,
unless they be equally divided.

19. 5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a
President pro tempore, in the absence of the
Vice President, or when he shall exercise the office of the
President of the United States.
6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all
impeachments. When sitting for that purpose,
they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the
United States is tried, the Chief
Justice shall preside: and no person shall be convicted without
the concurrence of two-thirds of the
members present.
7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further
than to removal from office, and
disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or
profit under the United States: but
the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to
indictment, trial, judgment and
punishment, according to law.
Section 4.
[Times, etc., of holding elections, how prescribed. One session
in each year.]
1. The times, places and manner of holding elections for
Senators and Representatives, shall be
prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; but the
Congress may at any time by law make or
alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing
Senators.
2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and

20. such meeting shall be [on the first
Monday in December,] [Altered by 20th Amendment] unless
they by law appoint a different day.
Section 5.
[Membership, Quorum, Adjournments, Rules, Power to punish
or expel. Journal. Time of
adjournments, how limited, etc.]
1. Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns and
qualifications of its own members,
and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business;
but a smaller number may adjourn
from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the
attendance of absent members, in such
manner, and under such penalties as each House may provide.
2. Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings,
punish its members for disorderly
behavior, and, with the concurrence of two-thirds, expel a
member.
3. Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from
time to time publish the same,
excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy;
and the yeas and nays of the members
of either House on any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth
of those present, be entered on the
journal.

21. 4. Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall,
without the consent of the other, adjourn
for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in
which the two Houses shall be sitting.
Section 6.
[Compensation, Privileges, Disqualification in certain cases.]
1. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a
compensation for their services, to be
ascertained by law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United
States. They shall in all cases, except
treason, felony and breach of the peace, be privileged from
arrest during their attendance at the
session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning
from the same; and for any speech
or debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any
other place.
2. No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for
which he was elected, be appointed to
any civil office under the authority of the United States, which
shall have increased during such time;
and no person holding any office under the United States, shall
be a member of either House during
his continuance in office.
Section 7.
[House to originate all revenue bills. Veto. Bill may be passed
by two-thirds of each

22. House, notwithstanding, etc. Bill, not returned in ten days to
become a law. Provisions as
to orders, concurrent resolutions, etc.]
1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of
Representatives; but the Senate may
propose or concur with amendments as on other bills.
2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of
Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it
become a law, be presented to the president of the United
States; if he approve, he shall sign it, but
if not, he shall return it, with his objections, to that house in
which it shall have originated, who shall
enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to
reconsider it. If after such
reconsideration, two thirds of that house shall agree to pass the
bill, it shall be sent, together with the
objections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be
reconsidered, and if approved by two-
thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases
the votes of both houses shall be
determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons
voting for and against the bill shall be
entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill
shall not be returned by the president
within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been
presented to him, the same shall be a law,
in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by
their adjournment prevent its return, in
which case it shall not be a law.
3. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of
the Senate and House of
Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of

23. adjournment) shall be presented to the
president of the United States; and before the same shall take
effect, shall be approved by him, or,
being disapproved by him, shall be re-passed by two-thirds of
the Senate and House of
Representatives, according to the rules and limitations
prescribed in the case of a bill.
Section 8.
[Powers of Congress.]
The Congress shall have the power
1. to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises,
to pay the debts and provide for the common defense
and g eneral welfare of the United States; but all
duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform
throughout the United States:
2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States:
3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the
several states, and with the Indian
tribes:
4. To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform
laws on the subject of bankruptcies
throughout the United States:
5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign

24. coin, and fix the standard of weights
and measures:
6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the
securities and current coin of the United
States:
7. To establish post-offices and post-roads:
8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by
securing for limited times to authors and
inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and
discoveries:
9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the supreme court:
10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on
the high seas, and offenses against the
law of nations:
11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and
make rules concerning captures on land
and water:
12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money
to that use shall be for a longer
term than two years:
13. To provide and maintain a navy:
14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the
land and naval forces:
Here again we have a general overview of the
powers of Congress. The point is that the general
goal of government is order and safety. The powers

25. listed below explain the reasons for which Congress
can assign taxes.
15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws
of the union, suppress insurrections
and repel invasions:
16. To provide for organizing, arming and disciplining the
militia, and for governing such part of
them as may be employed in the service of the United States,
reserving to the states respectively, the
appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the
militia according to the discipline
prescribed by Congress:
17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever,
over such district (not exceeding ten
miles square) as may, by cession of particular states, and the
acceptance of Congress, become the
seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like
authority over all places purchased
by the consent of the legislature of the state in which the same
shall be, for the erection of forts,
magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful buildings:
And,
18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and
proper for carrying into execution the foreg oing
powers, and all other powers vested by this constitution
in the government of the United States, or in any
department or officer thereof.

26. Section 9.
[Provision as to migration or importation of certain persons. H
abeas Corpus, Bills of
attainder, etc. Taxes, how apportioned. No export duty. No
commercial preference.
Money, how drawn from Treasury, etc. No titular nobility.
Officers not to receive presents,
etc.]
1. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the
states now existing shall think proper
to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the
year 1808, but a tax or duty may be
imposed on such importations, not exceeding 10 dollars for each
person.
2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be
suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion
or invasion the public safety may require it.
3. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed.
4. [No capitation, or other direct tax shall be laid unless in
proportion to the census or enumeration
herein before directed to be taken.] [Altered by 16th
Amendment]
5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any
state.

27. 6. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce
or revenue to the ports of one state
over those of another: nor shall vessels bound to, or from one
state, be obliged to enter, clear, or
pay duties in another.
This is known as the Necessary and Proper
clause. It does not exist in a vacuum and can
only be in effect as a means of carrying out one
of the enumerated powers above. Thus, it is
actually very limited, even though it is often used
to justify any number of Congressional over-
reaches.
7. No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in
consequence of appropriations made by law;
and a regular statement and account of the receipts and
expenditures of all public money shall be
published from time to time.
8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States:
And no person holding any office or
profit or trust under them, shall, without the consent of the
Congress, accept of any present,
emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any
king, prince, or foreign state.
Section 10.
[States prohibited from the exercise of certain powers.]

28. 1. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or
confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal;
coin money; emit bills of credit; make any thing but gold and
silver coin a tender in payment of
debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law
impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant
any title of nobility.
2. No state shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any
imposts or duties on imports or
exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing
its inspection laws; and the net
produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any state on imports
or exports, shall be for the use of the
treasury of the United States; and all such laws shall be subject
to the revision and control of the
Congress.
3. No state shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty
of tonnage, keep troops, or ships of
war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with
another state, or with a foreign
power, or engage in a war, unless actually invaded, or in such
imminent danger as will not admit of
delay.
ARTICLE II
Section 1.
[President: his term of office. Electors of President; number
and how appointed. Electors
to vote on same day. Qualification of President. On whom his

29. duties devolve in case of his
removal, death, etc. President's compensation. His oath of
office.]
1. The Executive power shall be vested in a President of the
United States of America. He shall
hold office during the term of four years, and together with the
Vice President, chosen for the same
term, be elected as follows
2. [Each State] [Altered by 23rd Amendment] shall appoint, in
such manner as the Legislature
may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of
Senators and Representatives to
which the State may be entitled in the Congress: but no Senator
or Representative, or person
holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall
be appointed an elector [The
electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot
for two persons, of whom one at
least shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with
themselves. And they shall make a list of all
the persons voted for each; which list they shall sign and
certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of
Government of the United States, directed to the President of
the Senate. The President of the
Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of
Representatives, open all the certificates,
and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the
greatest number of votes shall be the
President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of
electors appointed; and if there be

30. more than one who have such majority, and have an equal
number of votes, then the House of
Representatives shall immediately choose by ballot one of them
for President; and if no person have
a majority, then from the five highest on the list the said House
shall in like manner choose the
President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be
taken by States, the representation from
each State having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall
consist of a member or members from
two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be
necessary to a choice. In every case,
after the choice of the President, the person having the greatest
number of votes of the electors shall
be the Vice President. But if there should remain two or more
who have equal votes, the Senate
shall choose from them by ballot the Vice President.] [Altered
by 12th Amendment]
3. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the
electors, and the day on which they shall
give their votes; which day shall be the same throughout the
United States.
4. No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the
United States, at the time of the
adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of
President; neither shall any person be
eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of
thirty-five years, and been fourteen
years a resident within the United States.
5. [In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his
death, resignation, or inability to
discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same
shall devolve on the Vice President, and

31. the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death,
resignation, or inability, both of the
President and Vice President, declaring what officer shall then
act as President, and such officer shall
act accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a President
shall be elected.] [Altered by 25th
Amendment].
6. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services,
a compensation, which shall neither
be increased nor diminished during the period for which he
shall have been elected, and he shall not
receive within that period any other emolument from the United
States, or any of them.
7. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take
the following oath or affirmation:
I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the
office
of the President of the United States, and will to the best of my
ability,
preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United
States.
Section 2.
[President to be Commander-in-Chief. He may require opinions
of cabinet officers, etc.,
may pardon. Treaty-making power. Nomination of certain
officers. When President may

32. fill vacancies.]
1. The President shall be Commander-in-Chief of the Army and
Navy of the United States, and of
the militia of the several States, when called into the actual
service of the United States; he may
require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each
of the executive departments, upon
any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices, and
he shall have power to grant
reprieves and pardons for offenses against the United States,
except in cases of impeachment.
2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of
the Senate, to make treaties,
provided two-thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall
nominate, and by and with the
advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors,
other public ministers and consuls,
judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the
United States, whose appointments are
not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be
established by law: but the Congress may by
law vest the appointment of such inferior officers, as they think
proper, in the President alone, in the
courts of law, or in the heads of departments.
3. The President shall have the power to fill up all vacancies
that may happen during the recess of
the Senate, by granting commissions, which shall expire at the
end of their next session.

33. Section 3.
[President shall communicate to Congress. He may convene and
adjourn Congress, in case
of disagreement, etc. Shall receive ambassadors, execute laws,
and commission officers.]
He shall, from time to time give to the Congress information of
the state of the Union, and
recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall
judge necessary and expedient; he may,
on extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, or either of
them, and in case of disagreement
between them, with respect to the time of adjournment, he may
adjourn them to such time as he
shall think proper; he may receive ambassadors, and other
public ministers; he shall take care that
the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the
officers of the United States.
Section4.
[All civil offices forfeited for certain crimes.]
The President, Vice President, and all civil officers of the
United States, shall be removed from
office on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery,
or other high crimes and
misdemeanors.
ARTICLE III

34. Section 1.
[Judicial powers. Tenure. Compensation.]
The judicial power of the United States, shall be vested in one
supreme court, and in such inferior
courts as the Congress may, from time to time, ordain and
establish. The judges, both of the
supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good
behaviour, and shall, at stated
times, receive for their services a compensation, which shall not
be diminished during their
continuance in office.
Section 2.
[Judicial power; to what cases it extends. Original jurisdiction
of Supreme Court Appellate.
Trial by Jury, etc.]
1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and
equity, arising under this constitution, the
laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be
made under their authority; to all
cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls;
to all cases of admiralty and
maritime jurisdiction; to controversies to which the United
States shall be a party; [to controversies
between two or more states, between a state and citizens of
another state, between citizens of
different states, between citizens of the same state, claiming
lands under grants of different states,
and between a state, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states,

35. citizens or subjects.] [Altered by 11th
Amendment]
2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers
and consuls, and those in which a state
shall be a party, the supreme court shall have original
jurisdiction. In all the other cases before-
mentioned, the supreme court shall have appellate jurisdiction,
both as to law and fact, with such
exceptions, and under such regulations as the Congress shall
make.
3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall
be by jury; and such trial shall be
held in the state where the said crimes shall have been
committed; but when not committed within
any state, the trial shall be at such place or places as the
Congress may by law have directed.
Section 3.
[Treason defined. Proof of Punishment.]
1. Treason against the United States shall consist only in
levying war against them, or in adhering to
their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be
convicted of treason unless on the
testimony …
SUMMARYCost of one vs. AnotherThis is found above in the
Cost of Action for each bill.Cost of action (Cost of Bill)No
Action (Cost of Problem)Bill 10Bill 10NOTE: the Cost of "No
Action" is likely the same since they are addressing the same
problem.Bill 20Bill 20Net ResultBill 10Bill 20Cost Benefit
AnalysisBenefitsMinus CostNOTE: Which one has the largest

36. Benefit impact in terms of dollar amount?Bill 10Bill 10Bill
20Bill 20
Action vs. No ActionCosts of the ProblemBILL 1BILL 2No
ActionActionActionTotal0Total0Total0
Cost Benefit AnalysisBENEFITSBILL 1BILL 2Total0Total0
PADM 550
Research Paper Instructions
In Module/Week 8, you will submit a 10–12-page paper (not
including the title page, abstract, and reference page) in current
APA format in which the May-Can-Should (How) approach is
applied in an in-depth fashion to a policy issue of your choice.
Instead of focusing on just one policy analysis proposal, you
must discuss 2, and only 2, pieces of legislation for solving
your chosen policy problem. Accordingly, you must pay close
attention to the grading rubric and use the Research Paper
Template to properly format your paper. Both documents are
provided. Also note the Policy Brief vs. Final Paper comparison
document for clarification on the similarities and differences
between the Final Paper and the Policy Brief.
You must include citations from:
1. All of the required reading presentations from Modules/Week
1–2,
2. The course texts, and
3. 15–20 additional scholarly sources.
4. Please feel free to use the following link for the purposes of
additional research. Not all of the sources in this link are
necessarily considered “peer reviewed” or “schoalrly”, but it is
a good start.
Submit this assignment by 11:59 p.m. (ET) on Friday of
Module/Week 8.

37. Running head: YOUR PAPER TITLE 1
YOUR PAPER TITLE HERE 2
Your Paper Title
Your Name
Date
Class Name and Section
Dr. Kahlib Fischer
Abstract
Defining the Problem
Overview
Root Causes
Competing Interpretations

38. Impacts
Policy Alternatives
Legislation Option 1 Comment by Fischer, Kahlib: Change
each of these headings to reflect the names of the actual policy
alternatives.
Legislation Option 2
May
Legislation Option 1
Biblical guidelines.
Constitutional guidelines.
Legislation Option 2
Biblical guidelines.
Constitutional guidelines.
Can
Legislation Option 1
Political feasibility.
Financial feasibility.
Practical feasibility.
Legislation Option 2
Political feasibility.
Financial feasibility.
Practical feasibility.Should

39. Legislation Option 1
Legislation Option 2
Summary
References Comment by Fischer, Kahlib: List your sources
in APA format below.
Final Research Paper Rubric
Criteria
Levels of Achievement
Content
(70%)
Advanced
92-100%
Proficient
84-91%
Developing
1-83%
Not Present
Total
Defining the Problem
14 to 15 points:
Overview of Root Causes; Competing Interpretations (i.e. how
conservatives define the problem vs. how liberals define the
problem).
Work demonstrates a detailed understanding of ideas from
required sources.

40. 12.5 to 13.5 points:
Overview generally provides the following: Root Causes;
Competing Interpretations (i.e. how conservatives define the
problem vs. how liberals define the problem).
Work demonstrates a general understanding of ideas from
required sources.
1 to 12 points:
Overview fails to include all of the following: Root Causes;
Competing Interpretations (i.e. how conservatives define the
problem vs. how liberals define the problem).
Work demonstrates an inadequate understanding of ideas from
required sources.
0 points
Not present
Introduce Policy Alternatives
9 to 10 points:
Reference and briefly discuss 2 and only 2 pieces of legislation
which serve as solutions to the problem.
Thoroughly explains how each bill attempts to solve root causes
of the problem.
Work demonstrates a detailed understanding of ideas from
required sources.
8 to 8.5 points:
Reference and briefly discuss 2 and only 2 pieces of legislation
which serve as solutions to the problem.
Generally explains how each bill attempts to solve root causes
of the problem.
Work demonstrates a general understanding of ideas from
required sources.
1 to 7.5 points:
Reference and briefly discuss 2 and only 2 pieces of legislation
which serve as solutions to the problem.
Often fails to explain how each bill attempts to solve root
causes of the problem.

41. Work demonstrates an inadequate understanding of ideas from
required sources.
0 points
Not present
May:
Biblical
14 to 15 points:
Biblical guidelines for government involvement for each bill
includes discussion of how inalienable rights, natural law,
institutional separation of Church and State, Sin/Crime
distinction and sphere sovereignty help determine if government
is the appropriate sphere to address the issue.
Work demonstrates a detailed understanding of ideas from
required sources.
12.5 to 13.5 points:
Biblical guidelines for government involvement for each bill
generally includes discussion of how inalienable rights, natural
law, institutional separation of Church and State, Sin/Crime
distinction and sphere sovereignty help determine if government
is the appropriate sphere to address the issue.
Work demonstrates a general understanding of ideas from
required sources.
1 to 12 points:
Biblical guidelines for government involvement for each bill
often fails to include a discussion of how inalienable rights,
natural law, institutional separation of Church and State,
Sin/Crime distinction and sphere sovereignty help determine if
government is the appropriate sphere to address the issue.
Work demonstrates an inadequate understanding of ideas from
required sources.
0 points
Not present

42. May:
Constitutional
14 to 15 points:
Constitutional guidelines for government involvement as it
relates to each bill.
Includes references to specific enumerated powers and relevant
Supreme Court cases as needed.
Avoids vague use of the "General Welfare" clause.
Work demonstrates a detailed understanding of ideas from
required sources.
12.5 to 13.5 points:
Constitutional guidelines for government involvement as it
relates to each bill is provided for the most part.
Generally includes references to specific enumerated powers
and relevant Supreme Court cases as needed.
Avoids vague use of the "General Welfare" clause.
Work demonstrates a general understanding of ideas from
required sources.
1 to 12 points:
Minimal discussion of Constitutional guidelines for government
involvement as it relates to each bill.
Fails to include references to specific enumerated powers and
relevant Supreme Court cases as needed and/or engages in
vague use of the "General Welfare" clause.
Work demonstrates an inadequate understanding of ideas from
required sources.
0 points
Not present
Can:
Political
9 to 10 points:
Political Feasibility: 1) Use of relevant surveys, polls, etc.; and
2) Articulation of key political leaders, parties, etc. who are for
and/or against piece of legislation.

43. Thorough discussion of whether or not the bill is likely to pass
the House and Senate, and be signed by the President.
Work demonstrates a detailed understanding of ideas from
required sources.
8 to 8.5 points:
Political Feasibility: 1) Use of relevant surveys, polls, etc.; and
2) Articulation of key political leaders, parties, etc. who are for
and/or against piece of legislation.
Discussion of whether or not the bill is likely to pass the House
and Senate, and be signed by the President.
Work demonstrates a general understanding of ideas from
required sources.
1 to 7.5 points:
Political Feasibility: 1) Use of relevant surveys, polls, etc.; and
2) Articulation of key political leaders, parties, etc. who are for
and/or against piece of legislation.
Minimal discussion of whether or not the bill is likely to pass
the House and Senate, and be signed by the President.
Work demonstrates an inadequate understanding of ideas from
required sources.
0 points
Not present
Can:
Financial
9 to 10 points:
Financial Feasibility-includes for each piece of legislation a
thorough discussion of the following: 1) Cost of one piece of
legislation vs. another
2) Cost of action vs. no action for each piece of legislation
3) Cost benefit analysis for each piece of legislation
Work demonstrates a detailed understanding of ideas from
required sources.
8 to 8.5 points:
Financial Feasibility-generally includes for each piece of
legislation: 1) Cost of one piece of legislation vs. another

44. 2) Cost of action vs. no action for each piece of legislation
3) Cost benefit analysis for each piece of legislation
Work demonstrates a general understanding of ideas from
required sources.
1 to 7.5 points:
Financial Feasibility minimal discussion of the following: 1)
Cost of one piece of legislation vs. another
2) Cost of action vs. no action for each piece of legislation
3) Cost benefit analysis for each piece of legislation
Work demonstrates an inadequate understanding of ideas from
required sources.
Can:
Practical
9 to 10 points:
Practical Feasibility-includes for piece of legislation a thorough
discussion of the following:
Discussion of physical resources, manpower, etc. needed to
implement policy as well as practical challenges associated with
implementing the bill, to include timing and logistics.
Discussion of necessary, practical steps needed to implement
the bill
Work demonstrates a detailed understanding of ideas from
required sources.
8 to 8.5 points:
Practical Feasibility-includes for piece of legislation an
adequate discussion of the following:
Discussion of physical resources, manpower, etc. needed to
implement policy as well as practical challenges associated with
implementing the bill, to include timing and logistics.
Discussion of necessary, practical steps needed to implement
the bill
Work demonstrates a general understanding of ideas from
required sources.
1 to 7.5 points:

45. Practical Feasibility-often fails to include for piece of
legislation:
Discussion of physical resources, manpower, etc. needed to
implement policy as well as practical challenges associated with
implementing the bill, to include timing and logistics.
Discussion of necessary, practical steps needed to implement
the bill
Work demonstrates an inadequate understanding of ideas from
required sources.
Should
18.5 to 20 points:
Persuasive summary of the key issues supporting your decision
to either support, amend, and/or reject the legislation. Must be
based upon the May and Can portions of your analysis.
Makes the case in light of what is going on politically and
whether other political actors should support the legislation in
light of competing political agendas.
Work demonstrates a detailed understanding of ideas from
required sources.
17 to 18 points:
Generally persuasive summary of the key issues supporting your
decision to either support, amend, and/or reject the legislation.
Must be based upon the May and Can portions of your analysis.
Generally makes the case in light of what is going on politically
and whether other political actors should support the legislation
in light of competing political agendas.
Work demonstrates a general understanding of ideas from
required sources.
1 to 16.5 points:
Minimally persuasive summary of the key issues supporting
your decision to either support, amend, and/or reject the
legislation. Often not based upon the May and Can portions of
your analysis.

46. Fails to make the case in light of what is going on politically
and whether other political actors should support the legislation
in light of competing political agendas.
Work demonstrates an inadequate understanding of ideas from
required sources.
0 points
Not present
Structure (30%)
Advanced
92-100%
Proficient
84-91%
Developing
1-83%
Not Present
Total
Sources
11 to 12 points:
All required sources from Modules/Weeks 1–2 (must include the
"Biblical Principles of Government" article), Scripture, and the
required readings and presentations from the assigned
module/week are cited.
Used 15-20 empirical sources
10 to 10.5 points:
Most of the required sources from Modules/Weeks 1–2 (must
include the "Biblical Principles of Government" article),
Scripture, and the required readings and presentations from the
assigned module/week are cited.
Used 10-14 empirical sources
1 to 9.5 points:
Few of the required sources from Modules/Weeks 1–2 (must
include the "Biblical Principles of Government" article),
Scripture, and the required readings and presentations from the
assigned module/week are cited.
Used 9 or less empirical sources

47. 0 points
Not present
APA format (citations and references)
11 to 12 points:
Sources are cited and listed in current APA format.
10 to 10.5 points:
Sources are generally cited and listed in current APA format.
1 to 9.5 points:
Numerous deficiencies with respect to proper APA, grammar,
and spelling.
0 points
Not present
Page Length
10 to 11 points:
Length no less than 6 pages; not including title and reference
pages.
9 to 9.5 points:
Length less than 6 pages but more than 5; not including title and
reference pages
1 to 8.5 points:
Length less than 5 pages
0 points
Not present
Grammar and spelling
9.5 to 10 points:
Proper grammar, and spelling are used throughout.
8.5 to 9 points:
For the most part proper grammar and spelling are used
throughout improper abbreviations.
1 to 8 points:
Numerous deficiencies with respect to proper grammar, and
spelling.
0 points

48. Not present
Professor Comments:
Total:
/150
PADM 550Policy Brief vs. Research Paper
Policy Brief
Research Paper
Define the Problem
One paragraph. Context of problem, issue, or challenge is
succinctly described.
Two to three paragraphs: Overview
Two to three paragraphs: Discuss impacts
Two to three paragraphs: Discuss root causes
One to two paragraphs: Competing interpretations of problem
Policy Alternatives
Briefly introduces 1 piece of legislation and how it attempts to
solve the problem. Explains how each bill attempts to solve root
causes of the problem.
Two paragraphs: Introduce and discuss 1 piece of legislation per
paragraph for a total of 2 pieces of legislation. Explain how
each bill attempts to solve root causes of the problem.

49. May
A biblical and constitutional analysis of the 1 proposed policy
alternative.
Four paragraphs: A biblical and constitutional analysis (1
paragraph each) for each of the proposed policy alternatives.
Can
Political Feasibility: One paragraph discussion of the legislation
including an analysis of public support for the proposal as well
as key political leaders in favor of and in opposition to the
proposal. The key discussion, however, is whether the bill is
likely to be passed by Congress and signed by the President.
Political Feasibility: One paragraph for each piece of legislation
discussing the alternative as well as including an analysis of
public support for the proposal and key political leaders in
favor of and in opposition to the bill. The key discussion,
however, is whether the bill is likely to be passed by Congress
and signed by the President.
Financial Feasibility: One paragraph discussion of the
alternative.
Financial Feasibility: Must include a discussion of each criteria
below for each alternative:
· Cost of action vs. no action,
· Cost of one alternative vs. another, and
· Cost benefits analysis for each alternative.
Practical Feasibility:
· Discussion of physical resources, manpower, etc., needed to
implement the legislation as well as practical challenges
associated with implementing the bill, to include timing and
logistics.
· Discussion of necessary, practical steps needed to implement

50. the legislation.
Practical Feasibility: One paragraph for each piece of
legislation:
· Discussion of physical resources, manpower, etc., needed to
implement the legislation as well as practical challenges
associated with implementing each bill, to include timing and
logistics.
· Discussion of necessary, practical steps needed to implement
the legislation
Should
Persuasive summary of the key issues supporting your decision
to support or reject the legislation. Must be based upon the
“May” and “Can” portions of your analysis.
Must make the case in light of what is going on politically and
whether or not other political actors should support the
legislation in light of competing political agendas.
Running head: EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF
EMOTION 1
Effects of Age on Detection of Emotional Information
Christina M. Leclerc and Elizabeth A. Kensinger
Boston College
Author Note
This research was supported by National Science Foundation
Grant BCS 0542694

51. awarded to Elizabeth A. Kensinger.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to
Christina M. Leclerc,
Department of Psychology, Boston College, McGuinn Hall,
Room 512, 140 Commonwealth
Avenue, Chestnut Hill, MA 02467. Email: [email protected]
Christina M. Leclerc and Elizabeth A. Kensinger, Department of
Psychology,
Boston College.
Author Note
arch was supported by National Science Foundation Grant BCS
0542694
beth A. Kensinger.
ndence concerning this article should be addressed to Christina
M. Leclerc,
sychology, Boston College, McGuinn Hall, Room 512, 140
Commonwealth
ut Hill, MA 02467. Email: [email protected]
M. Leclerc and Elizabeth A. Kensinger, Department of
Psychology,
Writing the abstract, 2.04
Establishing a title, 2.01; Preparing the
manuscript for submission, 8.03

52. Formatting the author name (byline) and
institutional affiliation, 2.02, Table 2.1
Double-spaced manuscript,
Times Roman typeface,
1-inch margins, 8.03
Elements of an author note, 2.03
EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 2
Abstract
Age differences were examined in affective processing, in the
context of a visual search task.
Young and older adults were faster to detect high arousal
images compared with low arousal and
neutral items. Younger adults were faster to detect positive high
arousal targets compared with
other categories. In contrast, older adults exhibited an overall
detection advantage for emotional
images compared with neutral images. Together, these findings
suggest that older adults do not
display valence-based effects on affective processing at
relatively automatic stages.
Keywords: aging, attention, information processing, emotion,
visual search
Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (The numbers refer
to numbered

53. sections in the Publication Manual.)
Paper adapted from “Effects of Age on Detection of Emotional
Information,” by C. M. Leclerc and E. A. Kensinger,
2008, Psychology and Aging, 23, pp. 209–215. Copyright 2008
by the American Psychological Association.
EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 3
Effects of Age on Detection of Emotional Information
Frequently, people encounter situations in their environment in
which it is impossible to
attend to all available stimuli. It is therefore of great
importance for one’s attentional processes to
select only the most salient information in the environment to
which one should attend. Previous
research has suggested that emotional information is privy to
attentional selection in young
adults (e.g.,
& Tapia, 2004; Nummenmaa, Hyona, & Calvo, 2006), an
obvious service to evolutionary drives
to approach rewarding situations and to avoid threat and danger
(Davis & Whalen, 2001; Dolan
& Vuilleumier, 2003; Lang, Bradley, & Cuthbert, 1997;
LeDoux, 1995).

54. For example, Ohman, Flykt, and Esteves (2001) presented
participants with 3 × 3 visual
arrays with images representing four categories (snakes,
spiders, flowers, mushrooms). In half
the arrays, all nine images were from the same category,
whereas in the remaining half of the
arrays, eight images were from one category and one image was
from a different category (e.g.,
eight flowers and one snake). Participants were asked to
indicate whether the matrix included a
discrepant stimulus. Results indicated that fear-relevant images
were more quickly detected than
fear-irrelevant items, and larger search facilitation effects were
observed for participants who
were fearful of the stimuli. A similar pattern of results has been
observed when examining the
attention-grabbing nature of negative facial expressions, with
threatening faces (includ ing those
not attended to) identified more quickly than positive or neutral
faces (Eastwood, Smilek, &
Merikle, 2001; Hansen & Hansen, 1988). The enhanced
detection of emotional information is
not limited to threatening stimuli; there is evidence that any
high-arousing stimulus can be

55. detected rapidly, regardless of whether it is positively or
negatively valenced (Anderson, 2005;
Anderson, 2005; Calvo & Lang, 2004; Carretie, Hinojosa, Marin
-Loeches, Mecado,
ant stimulus. Results indicated that fearr-rr relevant images
were more quickly detected than
elevant items, and larger search facilitation effects were
observed for participants who aa
arful of the stimuli. A similar pattern of results has been
observed when examining the
n-grabbing nature of negative facial expressions, with
threatening faces (includ- ing those
nded to) identified more quickly than positive or neutral faces
(Eastwood, Smilek, &
e, 2001; Hansen & Hansen, 1988). The enhanced detection of
emotional information is
ited to threatening stimuli; there is evidence that any high-
arousing stimulus can be
d rapidly, regardless of whether it is positively or negatively
valenced (Anderson,(( 2005;55
EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 4
Calvo & Lang, 2004; Carretie et al., 2004; Juth, Lundqvist,
Karlsson, & Ohman, 2005;
Nummenmaa et al., 2006).

56. From this research, it seems clear that younger adults show
detection benefits for
arousing information in the environment. It is less clear whether
these effects are preserved
across the adult life span. The focus of the current research is
on determining the extent to which
aging influences the early, relatively automatic detection of
emotional information.
Regions of the brain thought to be important for emotional
detection remain relatively
intact with aging (reviewed by Chow & Cummings, 2000).
Thus, it is plausible that the detection
of emotional information remains relatively stable as adults age.
However, despite the
preservation of emotion-processing regions with age (or perhaps
because of the contrast between
the preservation of these regions and age-related declines in
cognitive-processing regions; Good
et al., 2001; Hedden & Gabrieli, 2004; Ohnishi, Matsuda,
Tabira, Asada, & Uno, 2001; Raz,
2000; West, 1996), recent behavioral research has revealed
changes that occur with aging in the
regulation and processing of emotion. According to the
socioemotional selectivity theory

57. (Carstensen, 1992), with aging, time is perceived as
increasingly limited, and as a result, emotion
regulation becomes a primary goal (Carstensen, Isaacowitz, &
Charles, 1999). According to
socioemotional selectivity theory, age is associated with an
increased motivation to derive
emotional meaning from life and a simultaneous decreasing
motivation to expand one’s
knowledge base. As a consequence of these motivational shifts,
emotional aspects of the
Writing the introduction, 2.05
Ordering citations within
the same parentheses, 6.16
Selecting
the correct
tense, 3.18
Continuity in presentation
of ideas, 3.05
Citing one
work by six
or more
authors, 6.12
No capitalization in
naming theories, 4.16

58. Numbers
expressed
in words,
4.32
Numbers that represent
statistical or mathematical
functions, 4.31
Use of hyphenation for
compound words, 4.13,
Table 4.1
Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)
EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 5
To maintain positive affect in the face of negative age-related
change (e.g., limited time
remaining, physical and cognitive decline), older adults may
adopt new cognitive strategies. One
such strategy, discussed recently, is the positivity effect
(Carstensen & Mikels, 2005), in which
older adults spend proportionately more time processing
positive emotional material and less
time processing negative emotional material. Studies examining
the influence of emotion on
memory (Charles, Mather, & Carstensen, 2003; Kennedy,
Mather, & Carstensen, 2004) have

59. found that compared with younger adults, older adults recall
proportionally more positive
information and proportionally less negative information.
Similar results have been found when
examining eye-tracking patterns: Older adults looked at positive
images longer than younger
adults did, even when no age differences were observed in
looking time for negative stimuli
(Isaacowitz, Wadlinger, Goren, & Wilson, 2006). However, this
positivity effect has not gone
uncontested; some researchers have found evidence inconsistent
with the positivity effect (e.g.,
Grühn, Smith, & Baltes, 2005; Kensinger, Brierley, Medford,
Growdon, & Corkin, 2002).
Based on this previously discussed research, three competing
hypotheses exist to explain
age differences in emotional processing associated with the
normal aging process . First,
emotional information may remain important throughout the life
span, leading to similarly
facilitated detection of emotional information in younger and
older adults. Second, with aging,
emotional information may take on additional importance,
resulting in older adults’ enhanced

60. detection of emotional information in their environment. Third,
older adults may focus
principally on positive emotional information and may show
facilitated detection of positive, but
not negative, emotional information.
The primary goal in the present experiment was to adjudicate
among these alternatives.
To do so, we employed a visual search paradigm to assess
young and older adults’ abilities to
motional processing associated with the normal aging process .
First,
n may remain important throughout the life span, leading to
similarly
of emotional information in younger and older adults. Second,
with aging,
n may take on additional importance, resulting in older adults’
enhanced
al information in their environment. Third, older adults may
focus
e emotional information and may show facilitated detection of
positive, but
nal information.
goal in the present experiment was to adjudicate among these

61. alternatives.
ed a visual search paradigm to assess young and older adults’
abilities to
EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 6
rapidly detect emotional information. We hypothesized that on
the whole, older adults would be
slower to detect information than young adults would be
(consistent with Hahn, Carlson, Singer,
& Gronlund, 2006; Mather & Knight, 2006); the critical
question was whether the two age
groups would show similar or divergent facilitation effects with
regard to the effects of emotion
on item detection. On the basis of the existing literature, the
first two previously discussed
hypotheses seemed to be more plausible than the third
alternative. This is because there is reason
to think that the positivity effect may be operating only at later
stages of processing (e.g.,
strategic, elaborative, and emotion regulation processes) rather
than at the earlier stages of
processing involved in the rapid detection of information (see
Mather & Knight, 2005, for
discussion). Thus, the first two hypotheses, that emotional
information maintains its importance

62. across the life span or that emotional information in general
takes on greater importance with
age, seemed particularly applicable to early stages of emotional
processing.
Indeed, a couple of prior studies have provided evidence for
intact early processing of
emotional facial expressions with aging. Mather and Knight
(2006) examined young and older
adults’ abilities to detect happy, sad, angry, or neutral faces
presented in a complex visual array.
Mather and Knight found that like younger adults, older adults
detected threatening faces more
quickly than they detected other types of emotional stimuli.
Similarly, Hahn et al. (2006) also
found no age differences in efficiency of search time when
angry faces were presented in an
array of neutral faces, compared with happy faces in neutral
face displays. When angry faces,
compared with positive and neutral faces, served as nontarget
distractors in the visual search
arrays, however, older adults were more efficient in searching,
compared with younger adults,
Capitalization of words
beginning a sentence after

63. a colon, 4.14
Using the colon between
two grammatically
complete clauses, 4.05
Using the semicolon to
separate two independent
clauses not joined by
a conjunction, 4.04
Using the comma between
elements in a series, 4.03
Punctuation with citations
in parenthetical material,
6.21
Citing references in text,
inclusion of year within
paragraph, 6.11, 6.12
Hypotheses and their
correspondence to research
design, Introduction, 2.05
Prefixes and
suffixes that
do not require
hyphens,
Table 4.2
Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)

64. EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 7
negative stimuli were not of equivalent arousal levels (fearful
faces typically are more arousing
than happy faces; Hansen & Hansen, 1988). Given that arousal
is thought to be a key factor in
modulating the attentional focus effect (Hansen & Hansen,
1988; Pratto & John, 1991; Reimann
& McNally, 1995), to more clearly understand emotional
processing in the context of aging, it is
necessary to include both positive and negative emotional items
with equal levels of arousal.
In the current research, therefore, we compared young and older
adults’ detection of four
categories of emotional information (positive high arousal,
positive low arousal, negative high
arousal, and negative low arousal) with their detection of
neutral information. The positive and
negative stimuli were carefully matched on arousal level, and
the categories of high and low
arousal were closely matched on valence to assure that the
factors of valence (positive, negative)
and arousal (high, low) could be investigated independently of
one another. Participants were
presented with a visual search task including images from these

65. different categories (e.g., snakes,
cars, teapots). For half of the multi-image arrays, all of the
images were of the same item, and for
the remaining half of the arrays, a single target image of a
different type from the remaining
items was included. Participants were asked to decide whether a
different item was included in
the array, and their reaction times were recorded for each
decision. Of primary interest were
differences in response times (RTs) based on the valence and
arousal levels of the target
categories. We reasoned that if young and older adults were
equally focused on emotional
information, then we would expect similar degrees of
facilitation in the detection of emotional
stimuli for the two age groups. By contrast, if older adults were
more affectively focused than
were younger adults, older adults should show either faster
detection speeds for all of the
emotional items (relative to the neutral items) than shown by
young adults or greater facilitation
g y , g ,
single target image of a different type from the remaining

66. were asked to decide whether a different item was included in
were recorded for each decision. Of primary interest were
) based on the valence and arousal levels of the target
ung and older adults were equally focused on emotional
t similar degrees of facilitation in the detection of emotional
contrast, if older adults were more affectively focused than
should show either faster detection speeds for all of the
utral items) than shown by young adults or greater facilitation
EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 8
for the arousing items than shown by the young adults (resulting
in an interaction between age
and arousal).
Method
Participants
Younger adults (14 women, 10 men, Mage = 19.5 years, age
range: 18–22 years) were
recruited with flyers posted on the Boston College campus.
Older adults (15 women, nine men,
Mage = 76.1 years, age range: 68–84 years) were recruited
through the Harvard Cooperative on

67. Aging (see Table 1, for demographics and test scores).1
Participants were compensated $10 per
hour for their participation. There were 30 additional
participants, recruited in the same way as
described above, who provided pilot rating values: five young
and five old participants for the
assignment of items within individual categories (i.e., images
depicting cats), and 10 young and
10 old participants for the assignment of images within valence
and arousal categories. All
participants were asked to bring corrective eyewear if needed,
resulting in normal or corrected
to normal vision for all participants.
Materials and Procedure
The visual search task was adapted from Ohman et al. (2001).
There were 10 different
types of items (two each of five Valence × Arousal categories:
positive high arousal, positive low
arousal, neutral, negative low arousal, negative high arousal),
each containing nine individual
exemplars that were used to construct 3 × 3 stimulus matrices.
A total of 90 images were used,
each appearing as a target and as a member of a distracting
array. A total of 360 matrices were

68. presented to each participant; half contained a target item (i.e.,
eight items of one type and one
target item of another type) and half did not (i.e., all nine
images of the same type). Within the
Prefixed words that
require hyphens,
Table 4.3
Using abbreviations, 4.22; Explanation
of abbreviations, 4.23; Abbreviations
used often in APA journals, 4.25;
Plurals of abbreviations, 4.29
Elements of the Method
section, 2.06; Organizing
a manuscript with levels
of heading, 3.03
Using numerals to express
numbers representing age, 4.31
Identifying
subsections
within the
Method
section, 2.06
Participant (subject)
characteristics,
Method, 2.06
Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)

69. Running head: EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF
EMOTION 10
selected such that the arousal difference between positive low
arousal and positive high arousal
was equal to the difference between negative low arousal and
negative high arousal.
Similarity ratings. Each item was rated for within-category and
between-categories
similarity. For within -category similarity, participants were
shown a set of exemplars (e.g., a set
of mushrooms) and were asked to rate how similar each
mushroom was to the rest of the
mushrooms, on a 1 (entirely dissimilar ) to 7 (nearly identical )
scale. Participants made these
ratings on the basis of overall similarity and on the basis of the
specific visual dimensions in
which the objects could differ (size, shape, orientation).
Participants also rated how similar
objects of one category were to objects of another category
(e.g., how similar the mushrooms
were to the snakes). Items were selected to assure that the
categories were equated on within-
category and between-categories similarity of specific visual

70. dimensions as well as for the
overall similarity of the object categories (ps > .20). For
example, we selected particular
mushrooms and particular cats so that the mushrooms were as
similar to one another as were the
cats (i.e., within-group similarity was held constant across the
categories). Our object selection
also assured that the categories differed from one another to a
similar degree (e.g., that the
mushrooms were as similar to the snakes as the cats were
similar to the snakes).
Procedure
Each trial began with a white fixation cross presented on a
black screen for 1,000 ms; the
matrix was then presented, and it remained on the screen until a
participant response was
recorded. Participants were instructed to respond as quickly as
possible with a button marked yes
if there was a target present, or a button marked no if no target
was present. Response latencies
and accuracy for each trial were automatically recorded with E-
Prime (Version 1.2) experimental
Running head: EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF
EMOTIONRR

71. selected such that the arousal difference between positive low
arousal and positi
was equal to the difference between negative low arousal and
negative high arou
Similarity ratings. Each item was rated for within-category and
between
similarity. For within -category similarity, participants were
shown a set of exem
of mushrooms) and were asked to rate how similar each
mushroom was to the re
mushrooms, on a 1 (entirely dissimilar ) to 7 (nearly identical((
) scale. Participants
ratings on the basis of overall similarity and on the basis of the
specific visual di
which the objects could differ (size, shape, orientation).
Participants also rated h
objects of one category were to objects of another category
(e.g., how similar the
were to the snakes). Items were selected to assure that the
categories were equate
category and between-categories similarity of specific visual
dimensions as well
overall similarity of the object categories (p(( s > .20). For
example, we selected pa

72. h d ti l t th t th h i il t
EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 9
matrix. Within the 180 target trials, each of the five emotion
categories (e.g., positive high
arousal, neutral, etc.) was represented in 36 trials. Further,
within each of the 36 trials for each
emotion category, nine trials were created for each of the
combinations with the remaining four
other emotion categories (e.g., nine trials with eight positive
high arousal items and one neutral
item). Location of the target was randomly varied such that no
target within an emotion category
was presented in the same location in arrays of more than one
other emotion category (i.e., a
negative high arousal target appeared in a different location
when presented with positive high
arousal array images than when presented with neutral array
images).
The items within each category of grayscale images shared the
same verbal label (e.g.,
mushroom, snake), and the items were selected from online
databases and photo clipart
packages. Each image depicted a photo of the actual object. Ten

73. pilot participants were asked to
write down the name corresponding to each object; any object
that did not consistently generate
the intended response was eliminated from the set. For the
remaining images, an additional 20
pilot participants rated the emotional valence and arousal of the
objects and assessed the degree
of visual similarity among objects within a set (i.e., how similar
the mushrooms were to one
another) and between objects across sets (i.e., how similar the
mushrooms were to the snakes).
Valence and arousal ratings . Valence and arousal were judged
on 7-point scales (1 =
negative valence or low arousal and 7 = positive valence or high
arousal). Negative objects
received mean valence ratings of 2.5 or lower, neutral objects
received mean valence ratings of
3.5 to 4.5, and positive objects received mean valence ratings of
5.5 or higher. High arousal
objects received mean arousal ratings greater than 5, and low
arousal objects (including all
neutral stimuli) received mean arousal ratings of less than 4. We
selected categories for which
both young and older adults agreed on the valence and arousal

74. classifications, and stimuli were
Latin abbreviations, 4.26
Numbers expressed in words
at beginning of sentence, 4.32
Italicization of anchors
of a scale, 4.21
Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)
EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 11
software. Before beginning the actual task, participants
performed 20 practice trials to assure
compliance with the task instructions.
Results
Analyses focus on participants’ RTs to the 120 trials in which a
target was present and
was from a different emotional category from the distractor
(e.g., RTs were not included for
arrays containing eight images of a cat and one image of a
butterfly because cats and butterflies
are both positive low arousal items). RTs were analyzed for 24
trials of each target emotion
category. RTs for error trials were excluded (less than 5% of all

75. responses) as were RTs that
were ±3 SD from each participant ’s mean (approximately 1.5%
of responses). Median RTs were
then calculated for each of the five emotional target categories,
collapsing across array type (see
Table 2 for raw RT values for each of the two age groups). This
allowed us to examine, for
example, whether participants were faster to detect images of
snakes than images of mushrooms,
regardless of the type of array in which they were presented.
Because our main interest was in
examining the effects of valence and arousal on participants’
target detection times, we created
scores for each emotional target category that controlled for the
participant’s RTs to detect
neutral targets (e.g., subtracting the RT to detect neutral targets
from the RT to detect positive
high arousal targets). These difference scores were then
examined with a 2 × 2 × 2 (Age [young,
older] × Valence [positive, negative] × Arousal [high, low])
analysis of variance (ANOVA). This
ANOVA revealed only a significant main effect of arousal, F(1,
46) = 8.41, p = .006, ηp
2 = .16,

76. with larger differences between neutral and high arousal images
(M = 137) than between neutral
and low arousal images (M = 93; i.e., high arousal items
processed more quickly across both age
groups compared with low arousal items; see Figure 1). There
was no significant main effect for
valence, nor was there an interaction between valence and
arousal. It is critical that the analysis
Symbols, 4.45;
Numbers, 4.31
Abbreviations
accepted as
words, 4.24
Numbering and discussing
figures in text, 5.05
Nouns followed
by numerals or
letters, 4.17
Reporting
p values,
decimal
fractions,
4.35
Statistical symbols,
4.46, Table 4.5
Elements of the

77. Results section, 2.07
Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)
EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 12
revealed only a main effect of age but no interactions with age.
Thus, the arousal-mediated
effects on detection time appeared stable in young and older
adults.
The results described above suggested that there was no
influence of age on the
influences of emotion. To further test the validity of this
hypothesis, we submitted the RTs to the
five categories of targets to a 2 × 5 (Age [young, old] × Target
Category [positive high arousal,
positive low arousal, neutral, negative low arousal, negative
high arousal]) repeated measures
ANOVA.2 Both the age group, F(1, 46) = 540.32, p < .001, ηp
2 = .92, and the ta rget category,
F(4, 184) = 8.98, p < .001, ηp
2 = .16, main effects were significant, as well as the Age Group
×
Target Category interaction, F(4, 184) = 3.59, p = .008, ηp
2 = .07. This interaction appeared to

78. reflect the fact that for the younger adults, positive high arousal
targets were detected faster than
targets from all other categories, ts(23) < –1.90,p < .001, with
no other target categories
differing significantly from one another (although there were
trends for negative high arousal
and negative low arousal targets to be detected more rapidly
than neutral targets (p < .12). For
older adults, all emotional categories of targets were detected
more rapidly than were neutral
targets, ts(23) > 2.56, p < .017, and RTs to the different
emotion categories of targets did not
differ significantly from one another. Thus, these results
provided some evidence that older
adults may show a broader advantage for detection of any type
of emotional information,
whereas young adults’ benefit may be more narrowly restricted
to only certain categories of
emotional information.
Discussion
As outlined previously, there were three plausible alternatives
for young and older adults’
performance on the visual search task: The two age groups
could show a similar pattern of

79. enhanced detection of emotional information, older adults could
show a greater advantage for
Elements of the
Discussion section, 2.08
Statistics
in text, 4.44
Capitalize effects
or variables when
they appear with
multiplication
signs, 4.20
Spacing, alignment,
and punctuation of
mathematical copy, 4.46
Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)
EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 13
emotional detection than young adults, or older adults could
show a greater facilitation than
young adults only for the detection of positive information. The
results lent some support to the
first two alternatives, but no evidence was found to support the
third alternative.
In line with the first alternative, no effects of age were found

80. when the influence of
valence and arousal on target detection times was examined;
both age groups showed only an
arousal effect. This result is consistent with prior studies that
indicated that arousing information
can be detected rapidly and automatically by young adults
(Anderson, Christoff, Panitz, De
Rosa, & Gabrieli, 2003; Ohman & Mineka, 2001) and that older
adults, like younger adults,
continue to display a threat detection advantage when searching
for negative facial targets in
arrays of positive and neutral distractors (Hahn et al., 2006;
Mather & Knight, 2006). Given the
relative preservation of automatic processing with aging
(Fleischman, Wilson, Gabrieli, Bienias,
& Bennett, 2004; Jennings & Jacoby, 1993), it makes sense that
older adults would remain able
to take advantage of these automatic alerting systems for
detecting high arousal information.
However, despite the similarity in arousal-mediated effects on
detection between the two
age …