Final Report pdf

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Internship Report
Heavy Mechanical Complex Texila
Submitted By:
Qazi Husnain Qadir
2011-uet-kit-mech-48
Supervisor:
Engr. Touseef Asghar
Department of Mechanical Engineering Technology
Dr. A. Q Khan Institute of Technology, Mianwali
Affiliated
University of Engineering & Technology, Lahore
Session 2011-2015

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INTERNSHIP REPORT OF HMC
Supervisor
Engr. Touseef Asghar
Designation
Lecturer Mechanical
Submitted By
Qazi Husnain Qadir
A Project Report submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of Bachelors Degree in
Mechanical Engineering Technology
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
TECHNOLOGY
Nov 2015

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Undertaking
I certify that internship report titled “Heavy Mechanical Complex Texila” is my own
work. No portion of the work presented in this report has been submitted in support of
another award or qualification either at this institution or elsewhere. Where material
has been used from other sources it has been properly acknowledged / referred.
Signature of Principal ………………….
Signature of Chairman …………………
Signature of Supervisor ………………..
Qazi Husnain Qadir
Class Roll No BS/MT/36

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Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Mr Mudaser Chudary guiding me in understanding the
concepts of every machine bay in HMC. I would like to thank all our teachers
especially Engineer Yasir Naveed guiding me in solving our problems related to
internship. our project supervisor Engineer Ttouseef Asghar his cooperation and
support to bring this project to completion.
I would also like to thank our families and friends for their continuous encouragement
and moral support.

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Abstract
This report is based on the visits of different workshop in HMC, providing
necessary knowledge about the machine and processes which are used in
different shops.
The purpose of this report is to clear the basic concept and try to
explain the process under which products or projects are processed in Heavy
Mechanical Complex Taxila. This report is written under the approach ‘Teach
to Learn’.

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Table of Contents
Chapter 1................................................................................................................... 1
HMC Introduction ..................................................................................................... 1
1.1 HMC Introduction ............................................................................................ 1
1.2 The complex divided into two major parts ........................................................ 1
1.3 HMC Manufactures Equipment for................................................................... 2
1.4 The company's capabilities include engineering and manufacturing of.............. 2
1.5 All its processing facilities are in-house including ............................................ 3
1.6 Scope................................................................................................................ 3
1.7Workingstaff........................................................................................................ 3
1.8FactoriesatHeavyMechanicalComplex.................................................................... 4
1.9QualitypolicyofHMC........................................................................................... 4
1.10 Facilities at HMC ........................................................................................... 4
1.11Productioncapacity.............................................................................................. 5
1.12HMCproductsrange............................................................................................ 5
Chapter 2................................................................................................................... 8
Production planning and control ................................................................................ 8
2.1 Responsibility................................................................................................... 8
2.2 Main activities.................................................................................................. 8
2.3 Dispatch cell..................................................................................................... 9
2.4 Material management group ............................................................................. 9

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2.5 Sub contracting................................................................................................. 9
2.6 Record keeping................................................................................................. 9
2.7 Production technology and tool design.............................................................. 9
2.8 Salesordernumberingsystem............................................................................... 10
2.9Coreplanningsection........................................................................................... 10
2.10 Materialmanagement........................................................................................ 11
2.10.1 MMG Section......................................................................................... 11
2.10.2 General Store.......................................................................................... 11
2.11.ProductionTechnology...................................................................................... 12
2.11.1 Feasibility/Quantitative detail................................................................. 12
2.11.2Processplanning.......................................................................................... 12
2.11.3 Tool designing........................................................................................ 12
2.11.4Dispatchcell............................................................................................... 12
Chapter 3................................................................................................................. 13
Mechanical works.................................................................................................... 13
3.1 PPS (production planning section).................................................................. 14
3.2 ENGINEERING DRAWING ......................................................................... 14
3.2.1 THREE-DIMENSIONAL DRAWING..................................................... 14
3.2.2 ELLIPSES................................................................................................ 17
3.2.3 TWO-DIMENSIONAL DRAWING......................................................... 17
3.3 Basic Machine shop........................................................................................ 24

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3.3.1 MACHINING OPERATIONS AND MACHINING TOOLS ................... 26
3.3.2 Machining:............................................................................................... 26
3.3.3 Types of gear manufacturing in Machine shop.......................................... 27
3.3.4 Lathe machine. ......................................................................................... 30
3.3.5 Types of lathe Machine. ........................................................................... 43
3.3.6 Gear Hobbing Machine............................................................................. 45
3.3.7 Horizontal Boring Machine ...................................................................... 46
3.3.8 MILLING MACHINE.............................................................................. 47
3.3.9 DRILLING MACHINE............................................................................ 49
3.3.10 Shaper .................................................................................................... 52
3.3.11 Planer..................................................................................................... 54
3.3.12 GRINDING MACHINES....................................................................... 55
3.3.13 Slotting machine..................................................................................... 56
3.3.14 Overhead cranes ..................................................................................... 58
3.4 ASSEMBLY SHOP........................................................................................ 59
3.4.1 Important Terms used in Limit System ..................................................... 59
3.4.2 Fits:.......................................................................................................... 63
3.4.3 Basis of Limit System............................................................................... 65
3.5 Tool Room ..................................................................................................... 66
3.5.1 Tools and Dies.......................................................................................... 67
3.5.2 Equipment’s use in Tool Room................................................................. 67

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3.6 Heat treatment and TTC (Technical Training Cell) ......................................... 68
3.6.1Heattreatment–theprocesses........................................................................... 68
3.7 TTC (TECHNICAL TRAINING CELL) ........................................................ 74
3.8 CTC Fabrication shop..................................................................................... 76
3.9 Fabrication shop ............................................................................................. 77
3.9.1 Welding.................................................................................................... 79
Chapter4.................................................................................................................. 83
Foundry & Forge Works.......................................................................................... 83
4.1PATTERNSHOP............................................................................................... 84
4.1.1 Types of Pattern ....................................................................................... 85
4.1.2 Types of Core Prints................................................................................. 87
4.1.3 PATTERN ALLOWNCES....................................................................... 88
4.2 CAST IRON & STEEL FOUNDARY............................................................ 89
4.2.1 CAST IRON & STEEL FOUNDARY...................................................... 90
4.2.2 Sand Casting: ........................................................................................... 92
4.2.3 Foundry Process:...................................................................................... 92
4.2.4 To carry out the sand molding process:..................................................... 94
4.2.5 Procedure of Sand Casting:....................................................................... 96
4.2.6 Advantages of Sand Casting:.................................................................... 96
4.2.7 Safety Precautions:................................................................................... 97
4.3 Forging Shop.................................................................................................. 99

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4.3.1 Forging shop I .......................................................................................... 99
4.3.2 Forging shop II....................................................................................... 100
4.3.3 Forge...................................................................................................... 100
Chapter5................................................................................................................ 108
Quality Assurance & Control................................................................................. 108
5.1 Non Destructive Testing Lab (NDT Lab)...................................................... 109
5.1.1 Radiography Techniques ........................................................................ 109
5.2 MATERIAL TESTING LABORATORY..................................................... 113
5.3 Quality Control Inspection............................................................................ 115
5.3.1 Inspection tool mostly used are:.............................................................. 115
5.4 ISO 9001...................................................................................................... 118
5.4.1 Benefits of ISO 9001.............................................................................. 118
5.4.2 Some of the benefits to your organization:.............................................. 119
5.4.3 Some of the benefits to your customers:.................................................. 119
5.4.4 ISO 9001 Assessment Process ................................................................ 119
5.4.5 Other things you will need to consider.................................................... 120
5.4.6 ISO 9001 Regular Auditing Procedure.................................................... 121
5.4.7 During the audit you will be assessed on: ............................................... 121

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List of Figure
Figure3. 1: One-point perspective drawing .............................................................. 16
Figure3. 2 Two-point perspective drawing............................................................... 16
Figure3. 3 An isomeric ellipse ................................................................................. 17
Figure3. 4 Drawing sheet......................................................................................... 21
Figure3. 5 Basic Line Type...................................................................................... 22
Figure3. 6 Machine Shop......................................................................................... 24
Figure3. 7 Turning................................................................................................... 26
Figure3. 8 Shaping, Planning and Sawing............................................................... 27
Figure3. 9 Gear Shaper............................................................................................ 27
Figure3. 10 Spur Gears............................................................................................ 28
Figure3. 11 Helical gears......................................................................................... 28
Figure3. 12 Internal gear.......................................................................................... 29
Figure3. 13 Worm Gears ......................................................................................... 30
Figure3. 14 Lathe machine ...................................................................................... 31
Figure3. 15 Four jaws chuck.................................................................................... 32
Figure3. 16 Three jaws chuck.................................................................................. 33
Figure3. 17 drill chuck............................................................................................. 33
Figure3. 18 Collet chuck.......................................................................................... 34
Figure3. 19 Faceplate .............................................................................................. 34
Figure3. 20 Steady Reast ......................................................................................... 36
Figure3. 21 Facing................................................................................................... 37
Figure3. 22 Straight turning..................................................................................... 37
Figure3. 23 Parting.................................................................................................. 38

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Figure3. 24 Contour Turning ................................................................................... 38
Figure3. 25 Chamfering........................................................................................... 39
Figure3. 26 Threading ............................................................................................. 39
Figure3. 27 Taper Turning....................................................................................... 40
Figure3. 28 Boring................................................................................................... 40
Figure3. 29 Form Turning........................................................................................ 41
Figure3. 30 Drilling................................................................................................. 41
Figure3. 31 Knurling ............................................................................................... 41
Figure3. 32 Turret lathe ........................................................................................... 43
Figure3. 33 Faceplate Lathe Machine ...................................................................... 44
Figure3. 34 Heavy duty lathe................................................................................... 44
Figure3. 35 Boring Vertical Turret lathe .................................................................. 45
Figure3. 36 Hub Cutter............................................................................................ 46
Figure3. 37 Horizontal Boring Machine................................................................... 46
Figure3. 38 MILLING MACHINE.......................................................................... 47
Figure3. 39 Radial drilling machine......................................................................... 51
Figure3. 40 Bench and Column or Pillar type drilling machines............................... 52
Figure3. 41 Shaper................................................................................................... 53
Figure3. 42 Planer ................................................................................................... 54
Figure3. 43 Double-housing planers ........................................................................ 55
Figure3. 44 GRINDING MACHINES ..................................................................... 56
Figure3. 45 Slotting machine................................................................................... 58
Figure3. 46 Overhead cranes ................................................................................... 59
Figure3. 47 Tolerance Zone..................................................................................... 61
Figure3. 48 Type of fit............................................................................................. 63

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Figure3. 49 Basis of limit system............................................................................. 66
Figure3. 50 Annealing ............................................................................................. 69
Figure3. 51 Normalizing.......................................................................................... 69
Figure3. 52 Hardening............................................................................................. 70
Figure3. 53 Induction hardening .............................................................................. 71
Figure3. 54 Carburizing........................................................................................... 72
Figure3. 55 Phosphatin............................................................................................ 73
Figure3. 56 Gas tungsten arc welding ...................................................................... 79
Figure3. 57 MIG Welding........................................................................................ 80
Figure3. 58 Submerged arc welding......................................................................... 81
Figure3. 59 SMAW Welding................................................................................... 82
Figure4. 1 pattern .................................................................................................... 84
Figure4. 2 Wood pattern.......................................................................................... 85
Figure4. 3 Metallic patterns ..................................................................................... 86
Figure4. 4 Bellow.................................................................................................... 94
Figure4. 5 Rammer.................................................................................................. 94
Figure4. 6 Hand riddle............................................................................................. 95
Figure4. 7 Trowel.................................................................................................... 95
Figure4. 8 Shovel .................................................................................................... 95
Figure4. 9 Flask....................................................................................................... 96
Figure4. 10 Hot Die............................................................................................... 101
Figure4. 11 Cold die.............................................................................................. 102
Figure4. 12 Hammer Forging................................................................................. 103
Figure4. 13 Hydraulic Forging Press:..................................................................... 104

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Figure4. 14 Manipulator ........................................................................................ 105
Figure4. 15 CRANES............................................................................................ 106
Figure4. 16 FURNACES ....................................................................................... 106
Figure5. 1 Radiography Techniques....................................................................... 109
Figure5. 2 Ultrasonic Testing Method.................................................................... 111
Figure5. 3 Eddy current testing method ................................................................. 111
Figure5. 4 Liquid penetrate testing method............................................................ 112
Figure5. 5 Magnetic particle testing method .......................................................... 112
Figure5. 6 VERNIER CALIPER: ......................................................................... 116
Figure5. 7 MICROMETER ................................................................................... 117

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Chapter 1
HMC Introduction
1.1 HMC Introduction
Heavy Mechanical Complex (Private) Limited is a leading engineering goods
manufacturing enterprise in Pakistan located at Taxila about 30 Kilometers north of
capital Islamabad. It is a professionally managed progressive organization with over
160,000 sq. meters covered facilities and 1,100 employees.
Heavy Mechanical Complex Ltd. (HMC), Taxila is a major heavy engineering
subsidiary of the State Engineering Corporation (SEC) under the Ministry of
Industries & Production, Government of Pakistan. The Heavy Mechanical Complex
(HMC), the biggest undertaking of its type in Pakistan, was established in 1969 with
Chinese assistance.
HMC is ISO 9001certified and is authorized to use ASME 4 stamps U, U2, S &
PP for equipment manufactured according to ASME code. The manufacturing is
backed by excellent quality control and testing facilities to meet the product and
customer quality requirements. 3rd party inspection facilities are also available, where
required.
1.2 The complex divided into two major parts
 H.M.C (Heavy Mechanical Complex)
 H.F.F (Heavy Forge Factory).
The Heavy Forge Factory (HFF) at this complex has proved crucial for Pakistan's
defense production needs.
HMC has the capability for designing, engineering and manufacturing of industrial
plants and machinery. HMC has the largest fabrication and machining facilities in the

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country equipped with Computer Aided Designing (CAD) and can undertake a variety
of fabrication / machining jobs on sub-contracting basis.
1.3 HMC Manufactures Equipment for
 Hydro-electric power plants,
 Thermal power plants,
 Sulphuric acid plants,
 Industrial alcohol plants,
 Oil & gas processing plants,
 Chemical & petro-chemical plants,
 Boilers,
 Cranes,
 Construction machinery,
 Material handling equipment,
 Steel structure,
 Railway equipment,
 Some of the other products which are produced on regular basis.
1.4 The company's capabilities include engineering and
manufacturing of
 Sugar Mills ranging between 1,500 - 12,000 TCD (tons of cane crushing
capacity per day),
 Portland Cement Plants of 700- 5,500 TPD (tons per day)
 Module and White Cement Plant of 50 - 1,000 TPD.
HMC have the resources to handle large projects with demanding delivery schedules.
Being the largest and most extensive fabrication and machining facility equipped with
state of the art technology. HMC provide manufacturing services to the customers.

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HMC have gained rich experience in designing and manufacturing of large projects
through collaboration with internationally reputed engineering organizations.
1.5 All its processing facilities are in-house including
 Designing,
 Fabrication,
 Machining,
 Iron and Steel Castings,
 Forgings,
 Heat Treatment,
 Assembly,
 Sand Blasting,
 Painting
 Galvanizing.
1.6 Scope
This procedure defines the system for
 Production Planning and Control (PPC),
 Production technology,
 Material management,
 Dispatches,
 Finish goods,
 Store keeping and services.
1.7 Working staff
HMC is a professionally managed progressive organization with 1100 employees.
HMC has a total covered area of 160,000 square feet.

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1.8 Factories at Heavy Mechanical Complex
 Heavy Mechanical Complex I (HMC I)
 Heavy Forge and Foundry works (HMC II)
 Heavy Mechanical Complex II (HMC III)
Of these the last one is directly under the ministry of defense while the former two
are governed by ministry of production.
1.9 Quality policy of HMC
HMC states its quality policy as follows:
“Quality performance is committed to excellence by each
company employee. It is achieved by team work and through a process of
continuous improvement.”
“We are dedicated to being seen as an organization which provides quality
products and services which meet or exceed the expectations of our customers.”
1.10 Facilities at HMC
There are several shops in HMC industry which are:
 Designdepartment
 Productionplanningandcontrol(PPC)
 Salesdepartment/(PMDi.e.ProjectManagementDepartment)

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 AccountsFinanceandAdministration
 Machineshop
 Heattreatmentshop
 Fabricationshop
 Forgingshop
 Hydraulicpressshop
 Steelfoundry
 Castironfoundry
 Patternshop
 Maintenanceshop
 Qualitycontrol
1.11 Production capacity
 Machining capacity = 500ton *12 months
 Fabrication and Machining capacity = 1000ton *12months
Total = 500*12 + 1000*12 = 6000 tons per annum
This production capacity can be increased time to time with the extension
of man power and other sources subjecting to sub contractors.
1.12 HMC products range
HMC specializes in Engineering, Designing, Manufacturing, Installation and
Commissioning of plants and machinery including:
 Cementplantandspares
 600-5000 TPD (tons per day)
 Sugarplantandspares
 500-12000 TCD (tons of cane crushing capacity per day),
 Processplantequipment

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 Pressure Vessels,
 Columns,
 Heat Exchangers,
 Drums,
 Storage Tanks and Kilns
 Chemical&Petro-Chemicalplants
 Sulphuric Acid Plant,
 Basic Chromium Sulphate Plant,
 Industrial Alcohol distillery,
 Gas Dehydration,
 LPG, Gas Purification
 Sulphur Recovery Plants.
 Industrialboilers
 Fire tube Package units,
 Water tube package units,
 Heat recovery boilers,
 Begasse fire boilers (capacity up to 200 T/hr)
 Thermalpowerplants
 Equipment for utility boilers,
 Membrane wall,
 Turbine/generator parts
 Hydral powerplants
 Gates,
 Penstocks,
 Wicket gates,

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 Head covers,
 Turbine/generator parts
 Cranes
 Electric overhead travelling crane,
 Portal & mobile cranes
 Roadconstructionmachinery
 Static & vibratory road rollers,
 Asphalt mixing plant
 Steelstructures
 For thermal power plants,
 Process plants
 Railwaysequipment
 Railway axles,
 Screw coupling & screw jack
 Castings
 Iron & steel castings as per specifications
 Forgings
 Shafts,
 Rings
 Others as per specifications
 Automotiveforging
 For tractors
 Other automobile

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Chapter 2
Production planning and control
2.1 Responsibility
GM is responsible for all activities of department who was delegated responsibilities
and authorities to respective officers, incharge and report to GM.
 Ensure implementation of procedures, sub procedures and work instructions
relating to PPC activities.
 Implement HMC quality policy in areas and activities relating to PPC
department.
 Continuously improve system and procedures. Any change in procedure is
subjected to approval of head of the department.
2.2 Main activities
 To maintain balance order position
 Heat treatment
 Annealing
 Normalizing
 Hardening
 Tempering
 Carburizing

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2.3 Dispatch cell
 Arrangement of packing, loading and transportation of the entire outgoing
product as per contract.
 Provision of material handling, panting and packing services to the concerned
section / department.
2.4 Material management group
 Inventory planning, material control and indenting of new material.
 Storage of all inventories, receipt of incoming stores and maintain current
balance.
2.5 Sub contracting
Sub contracting of complete or part of work for carrying out specific jobs of
fabrication, machining, sand blasting, painting, galvanizing and
erection/installation.
2.6 Record keeping
 Individual section incharge are responsible to maintain record as per HMC
procedure.
 Shop scheduling, monthly sale and production report.
 Preparation of sale and production budget reports as well.
 Periodic report for management information system for weekly fellow up of
production and sale review meeting.
2.7 Production technology and tool design
 To carry out feasibility as well as work out for quantitative details.
 Process planning, preparation of detail parts list, rout cards

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2.8 Sales order numbering system
The sales order numbering system allocates a unique identification system to each
order acquired by the sales and marketing department. This sales order consists of
six digits. The first two of these numbers designate the product group number of
the products to be manufactured or services to be provided by the organization.
The next two digits specify the fiscal year in which the order is received and the
last two digits give the number of similar orders already received in the same
fiscal year.
For example, a job order given as 111004
11-10-04 is read as follows:
11_product group no for sugar spares
10_represents 2010 as the fiscal year
04_specifies the fourth order for the current year
That is fourth order of sugar spares in 2010.
2.9 Core planning section
 Master schedule planning
 Order activity planning
 Monitoring all schedules / shop scheduling
 Preparing various reports for MIS
 Maintenance of balance order position
 Monthly sales and production report
 Sales / production budget
 Project review, meeting and follow up
 Data entry, loading data and processing data

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2.10 Material management
2.10.1 MMG Section
 Material requirement planning
 Indenting and follow up of indents
 To keep update purchase status for all the project demands
 Establish stock levels for general consumable items and raw materials
 Issuance of materials to the appropriate job
 To keep and maintain update levels for the store items
 To look after stores and related things
2.10.2 General Store
 To receive, issue all the materials and equipment in stores as per laid
down procedure
 Maintain detailed record of store movements
 Maintain stock location system
 Maintain daily submission of issue and receipt statement to concerned
department to keep store areas secure and organized

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2.11. Production Technology
2.11.1 Feasibility/Quantitative detail
Feasibility study and quantitative details of client’s requirements for cost
estimate.
2.11.2 Process planning
Prepare details per list, route cards, cutting plans, time sheets and process
maps for all the processes.
2.11.3 Tool designing
 Designing of all types of press tools, dies, templates, jigs and fixtures.
 Prepare drawings for machinery components, cutting planes, marking
templates for shops etc.
2. 11.4 Dispatch cell
 To receive finished jobs from shops
 To draw standard items from store for dispatch to customer
 To organize packing etc
 To organize transportation
 Ensure complete accurate documentation with each product

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Chapter 3
Mechanical works
3.1 Production Planning Section (PPS)
3.2 Engineering Drawing
3.3 Basic Machine shop
3.4 Assembly Shop
3.5 Tool Room
3.6 Heat treatment
3.7 TTC (Technical Training Cell)
3.8CTC (Center Technical Cell) Fabrication shop
3.9 Fabrication shop

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3.1 PPS (production planning section)
PPS stands for production planning section. This section is known as main section of
machine shop working of this section given below in some points...
 Job order receiving from PPC
 Drawing set receiving from PPC
 Cutting plan receive if required.
 Drawing planning / job order receiving
 Material receiving.
 Loading
 Inspection
 Movement
3.2 ENGINEERING DRAWING
Introduction
Engineering industry is branching of mechanical engineering and industrial
engineering itself is a discipline that studies on the design, repair, manufacturing
systems, industrial management and installation of integrated systems consisting of
human, machine, methods, tools, materials, information, and energy. This discipline is
supported by knowledge of mathematics, physics, social sciences, and the principles
and methods of design analysis and design to build and repair the system.
3.2.1 THREE-DIMENSIONAL DRAWING
The types of three-dimensional representation drawings that are relevant to this study
include praline (isometric and plan metric) and perspective (one and two point).

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1. PARALINE DRAWING
Objects are drawn with the receding lines remaining parallel to each other (hence the
term ‘Para-line’).
Common types of paraline drawings include
 Isometric
 Planometric.
 Isometric Drawing
Isometric drawings are constructed with both sides receding from the corner edge at
30 degrees. The isometric drawing provides a comprehensive overall view of the
object.
 Planometric Drawing
Planometric drawings are very similar to Isometric drawings, however, the base (or
plan) of the object retains its true form (is not altered) with both sides receding at 45
degrees (or one side recedes at 30 degrees and the other at 60 degrees).
2. PERSPECTIVE DRAWING
Objects are drawn in a naturalistic manner consistent with human vision; the receding
lines converge towards the horizon (eye level) rather than remain parallel to each
other. The placement of the horizon line determines the location of the viewer and

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provides capacity for different views of an object or the relationship of parts to each
other.
 One-point perspective
Objects are drawn front on, with receding lines converging to one vanishing point
on the horizon.
Figure3. 1: One-point perspective drawing
Objects are drawn with a corner closest to the viewer and side drawn with
receding lines to two vanishing points on the horizon line.
Figure3. 2 Two-point perspective drawing

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3.2.2 ELLIPSES
The knowledge and understanding of how to draw an ellipse is important to this
study. Whilst ellipse templates can be useful, students should know how to draft a
freehand ellipse for paraline and perspective purposes.
Figure3. 3 An isomeric ellipse
3.2.3 TWO-DIMENSIONAL DRAWING
Types of two-dimensional representation drawings applicable to this study include
orthogonal, floor plans and elevations, and packaging nets.
1 .PACKAGING NET
A drawing of a flat two-dimensional shape that when folded becomes a three-
dimensional form. It can also be referred to as a development net. Often a packaging
net will include tabs for stability and fastening. The drawings are to scale and involve
the use of line conventions that indicate fold lines (broken lines) and cutting edge
(solid outline).

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2. FLOOR PLANS AND ELEVATIONS
Scaled two-dimensional drawings used by architects involving a set of conventions
regarding line types, dimensioning and symbols. Floor plans are views from above,
while elevations refer to views of the side or facade. Please refer to page 20 of this
resource material for further information on Architectural conventions relevant to this
study.
3. THIRD-ANGLE ORTHOGONAL DRAWINGS
There are occasions where a three-dimensional drawing may not provide enough
information about an object to be constructed. Orthogonal drawing is a multi-view
two-dimensional drawing system that resolves this problem. Each view of an object
(front, sides and the base) is drawn separately showing only two dimensions, but is
kept aligned and to the same scale. Combining multi views allows all three
dimensions to be considered.
Third-angle projection refers to the layout of views.
The views
Third angle orthogonal drawings can include as many views as required to
communicate the features of an object. In practice only the views required to describe
the object clearly are drawn.

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The views are known as:
 FRONT VIEW
 TOP VIEW
 SIDE VIEW (left and/or right hand view)
Plan your layout
It is important to plan your drawing/solution and consider placement before you start.
Figure 3.4 shows appropriate positioning using an A3 sheet of paper. Notice there is
also an isometric view positioned in the top right-hand corner. This is often placed
there to provide a connection between the two-dimensional shapes of orthogonal and
more visually representative three-dimensional isometric form.
NOTE: The layout used will vary depending on the information to be communicated.
Consider the size of your paper choice, relative to the scale/dimension of the drawing,
and the orientation. A vertical orientation may better suit taller, thinner objects such
as a jug or drinking vessel.
Placement of views
The TOP VIEW is always directly above the FRONT VIEW and the SIDE VIEWS
are always ‘next to’ and ‘aligned to’ the FRONT VIEW. At times the views can be
placed apart equidistantly.
However, the views can be placed at different distances from the front view,
depending on what information, such as dimensions, needs to be included.

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If you want to place your views equidistant then you can use the 45 Degree Method to
place and project your views. The following steps describe the process.
1. The FRONT VIEW must be drawn first, then your vertical lines should be
projected to give the width of the TOP VIEW.
2. Project the horizontal lines from the FRONT VIEW to give the height of the SIDE
VIEW being represented.
3. Where the maximum width and height projection lines on the FRONT VIEW meet,
a 45 degree line will need to be drawn.
4. The SIDE VIEW vertical lines will need to be projected to the 45 degree line (these
lines must be 90 degrees). Where these lines meet the 45 degree line they will then
need to return to the TOP VIEW vertical projection lines (these lines must be 180
degrees).
5. All line types should now be present on the TOP VIEW.
6. Referring to the FRONT and SIDE VIEW the various lines will need to be defined
and drawn using the correct line type.
 Once completed all views should be equidistant apart.

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Figure3. 4 Drawing sheet
Labeling orthogonal drawings
In VCE Visual Communication Design, students are required to label each view.
Each VIEW must be labeled using an uppercase, sans serif typeface.
 For example GILL SANS typeface (or similar)
 VIEW labels are located in a centered position under each view, 10mm below
the view, 5mm height.
LINE STYLES AND CONVENTIONS
The use of different line styles and widths is important in technical drawing as they
are used to indicate details and features in a drawing. Line styles make drawings
easier to read: for example, solid lines used to show the object will stand out from
broken lines used to show hidden information. The Australian Standards incorporates

22
a detailed list of line styles for use in different fields of design including architecture
and engineering. For this study, it is appropriate for students to use a minimum of two
line weights to meet line style conventions.
This will include:
 A heavier line to draw the views that represent the object being drawn and
dashed lines to represent hidden lines
 A thinner ‘half weight’ line to provide additional information such as centre,
projection and dimension lines.
Figure3. 5 Basic Line Type
DIMENSIONING AN OTHOGONAL DRAWING
Placement of numeric information is known as dimensioning.
You can measure directly from an orthogonal drawing when the scale is 1:1 (full
size). All dimensions are recorded using true size measurements. Where the object
does not fit to the page, reduction ratios are used.

23
These start at 1:2, 1:5, 1:10, 1:20, 1:50 and 1:100 (house) for drawing smaller than
full size.
Where the object is too small to work with easily enlarged ratios are used.
These start at 2:1, 5:1…for drawings larger than full size.
Each drawing needs to indicate the scale.
For example:
SCALE 1:1
ALL DIMENSIONS IN MM OR
SCALE 1:100
ALL DIMENSIONS IN MM
.
Dimension placement
The most important thing about dimensioning is to ensure that the measurements are
placed both logically and clearly. The student should:
 Ensure that they have dimensions for the height, width and depth
 Ensure that they have included all crucial dimensions that allow the object to
be interpreted
 Dimension where the shapes are shown and try to avoid dimensioning hidden
lines
 Space dimension lines so that the dimensions are not over crowded
 Not over-dimension the work as it can lead to confusion and an untidy
drawing

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3.3 Basic Machine shop
In the development of every nation industries are very important and for industries
machinery is key factor. To check the development of any industry check it`s
machinery.
A machine shop is a room, building, or company where machining is done. In a
machine shop, machinists use machine tools and cutting tools to make parts, usually
of metal.
The production can consist of cutting, shaping, drilling, finishing, and other processes.
The machine tools typically include metal, milling machines, machining centers,
multitasking machines, drill presses, or grinding machines, many controlled
with CNC.
Figure3. 6 Machine Shop
Machine shop Bays:
 Small Bay
 Medium Bay
 Heavy Bay

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In the machine shop of Heavy Mechanical Complex (HMC) there are nearly 500
machines of different sizes and capacities. The machine shop of HMC contains
various types of machines.
Available Machines:
 Lathe machine.
 Three jaws
 Four jaws
 Turret
 Face plate lathe machine.
 HDL (Heavy Duty Lathe).
 BVT (Boring Vertical Turret Lathe).
 Gear Hobbing lathe.
 Horizontal boring machine
 Milling machine.
 Drilling machine.
 Radial drilling machine.
 Column drilling machine.
 Shaper.
 Planner.
 Double housing planner
 Slotting machine.
 Grinding machine
 Overhead Crane

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3.3.1 MACHINING OPERATIONS AND MACHINING TOOLS
 Turning and related operations
 Drilling and related operations
 Milling
 Machining centers and turning centers
 High speed machining
 Other machining operations
3.3.2 Machining:
 A material removal process in which a sharp cutting tool is used to
mechanically cut away material so that the desired part geometry remains
 Most common application :to shape metal parts
 Machining is the most versatile and accurate of all manufacturing process in
its capability to produce a diversity of part geometries and geometric features
(e.g. screw threads, gear teeth, flat surfaces).
Classification of Machine Parts
 Rotational –Cylindrical or disk – like shape: Achieved by rotation motion
of work part. Ex. Turning and Boring.
Figure3. 7 Turning

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 Non-Rotational - block or plate – like shape: Achieved by linear motion of
work part.
Ex. Milling, Shaping, Planning and Sawing.
Figure3. 8 Shaping, Planning and Sawing
3.3.3 Types of gear manufacturing in Machine shop
Gear Shaper
A gear shaper is a machine tool for cutting the teeth of internal or external gears. The
name shaper relates to the fact that the cutter engages the part on the forward stroke
and pulls away from the part on the return stroke, just like the clapper box on a planer
shaper. To cut external teeth, a different machine called a hobbing machine can be
used.
Figure3. 9 Gear Shaper

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1. Spur Gears
They connect parallel shafts, have involutes teeth that are parallel to the shaft and can
have internal or external teeth. They cause no external thrust between gears. They are
inexpensive to manufacture. They give lower but satisfactory performance. They are
used when shaft rotates in the same plane.
Figure3. 10 Spur Gears
2. Helical Gears
Helical gears connect parallel shifts but the involutes teeth are cut at an angle to the
axis of rotation. Two mating helical gears must have equal helix angle but opposite
hand. They run smoother and more quietly. They have higher lo
ad capacity, are more expensive to manufacture and create axial thrust. They have
longer and strong teeth. They can carry heavy load because of the greater surface
contact with the teeth. The efficiency is also reduced because of longer surface
contact. The gearing is quieter with less vibration.
Figure3. 11 Helical gears

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3. Internal Gears
Internal gears are hollow. The properties and teeth shape is similar as of external
gears except that the internal gear had different addendum
and dedendum values modified to prevent interference in internal meshes. They are
designed to accommodate a wide range of equipment. These are ideal and cost
effective. The teeth are cut into the inside diameter while the outside diameter is
smooth. These gears are available only in brass. Internal gear offers low sliding and
high stress loading. They are used in planetary gears to produce large reduction ratios.
When choosing a mating gear the difference between the number of teeth of girth gear
and the pinion should not be less than 15.
Their non-binding tooth design ensures smooth, quiet operation. They are used to
transmit rotary motion between parallel shafts, the shaft rotating in the same direction
as the arrangement.
Figure3. 12 Internal gear
4. Worm Gears
The Worm gear is the heart of most mills and kiln drive system. They can't be used in
spare parts inventory. They are also used in steel industry, sugar industry, paper and
pulp industry. The girth gear has been preferred over the gearless drives due
to their lower initial cost, simplicity to install, operate and maintain.

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Figure3. 13 Worm Gears
3.3.4 Lathe machine.
The lathe is a machine tool used principally for shaping articles of metal, wood, or
other material. All lathes, except the vertical turret type, have one thing in common
for all usual machining operations; the work piece is held and rotated around a
horizontal axis while being formed to size and shape by a cutting tool. The cutter bit
is held either by hand or by a mechanical holder, and then applied to the work piece.
Principal capabilities of the lathe are forming straight, tapered, or irregularly outlined
cylinders, facing or radial turning cylindrical sections, cutting screw threads, and
boring or enlarging internal diameters. The typical lathe provides a variety of rotating
speeds and suitable manual and automatic controls for moving the cutting tool.
Sizes
The size of an engine lathe is determined by the largest piece of stock that can be
machined. Before machining a workpiece, the following measurements must be
considered: the diameter of the work that will swing over the bed and the length
between lathe centers.

31
Figure3. 14 Lathe machine
(a)Parts of The Lathe:
 Bed and Ways
 Headstock
 Tailstock
 Carriage
 Feed Rod
 Apron
 Lead Screw
 Compound Rest
 Tool posts

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(b) Lathe Accessories
1. Chucks:
Workpieces are held to the headstock spindle of the lathe with chucks, faceplates, or
lathe centers. A lathe chuck is a device that exerts pressure on the workpiece to hold it
secure to the headstock spindle or tailstock spindle. Commonly used with the lathe are
the independent chuck, the universal scroll chuck, the combination chuck, the hollow
headstock spindle chuck, the lathe tailstock chuck, the collet chuck, and the step
chuck. Faceplates, or lathe centers. A lathe chuck is a device that exerts pressure on
the work piece to hold it secure to the headstock spindle or tailstock spindle.
Commonly used with the lathe are the independent chuck, the universal scroll chuck,
the combination chuck, the hollow headstock spindle chuck, the lathe tailstock chuck,
the collet chuck, and the step chuck.
2. Independent Chuck (Four Jaws Chuck):
The independent chuck generally has four jaws which are adjusted individually on the
chuck face by means of adjusting screws. The chuck face is scribed with concentric
circles which are used for rough alignment of the jaws when chucking round work
pieces. The final adjustment is made by turning the work piece slowly and using
gages to determine its concentricity. The jaws are then readjusted as necessary to
align the work piece to desired tolerances.
Figure3. 15 Four jaws chuck

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3. Universal Scroll Chuck (Three Jaws Chuck):
The universal scroll chuck usually has three jaws which move in unison as an
adjusting pinion is rotated. The advantage of the universal scroll chuck is its ease of
operation in centering the work for concentric turning. This chuck is not as accurate
as the independent chuck but, when in good condition, it will center the work
automatically within 0.003 of an inch of complete accuracy.
Figure3. 16 Three jaws chuck
4. Drill Chuck:
The drill chuck is a small universal-type chuck which can be used in either the
headstock spindle or in the tailstock for holding straight-shank drills, reamers, taps, or
small-diameter work pieces. The drill chuck has three or four hardened steel jaws
which are moved together or apart by adjusting a tapered sleeve within which they are
contained. The drill chuck is capable of centering tools and small-diameter work
pieces to within 0.002 or 0.003 of an inch when firmly tightened.
Figure3. 17 drill chuck

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5. Collet Chuck:
The collet chuck is the most accurate means of holding small work pieces in the lathe.
The collet chuck consists of a spring machine collet and a collet attachment which
secures and regulates the collet on the headstock spindle of the lathe.
Figure3. 18 Collet chuck
6. Faceplates:
A lathe faceplate is a flat, round plate that threads to the headstock spindle of the lathe.
The faceplates used for clamping and machining irregularly-shaped work pieces that
cannot be successfully held by chucks or mounted between centers. The work piece is
either attached to the faceplate using angle plates or brackets, or is bolted directly to
the plate. Radial T-slots in the faceplate surface facilitate mounting work pieces. The
faceplate is valuable for mounting work pieces in which an eccentric hole or
projection is to be machined. The number of applications of the faceplate depends
upon the ingenuity of the machinist.
Figure3. 19 Faceplate

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7. Lathe Dogs:
Lathe dogs are cast metal devices used in conjunction with a driving plate or a
faceplate to provide a firm connection between the headstock spindle and the work
piece that is mounted between centers. This firm connection permits the work piece to
be driven at the same speed as the spindle under the strain of cutting. Frictional
contact alone, between the live center and the work piece, is not sufficient to drive the
work piece. Three common types of lathe dogs are illustrated in figure. Lathe dogs
may have bent tails or straight tails. When the bent tail dogs are used, the tail fits into
a slot of the driving face plate. When straight tail dogs are used, the tail bears against
a stud projecting from the faceplate.
8. Steady Rest:
Work pieces often need extra support, especially long, thin work pieces that tend to
spring away from the cutter bit. Two common supports or rests are the steady rest and
the follower rest. The steady rest or center rest, as it is also called, is used to support
long work pieces or shafts being machined between centers or for boring operations.
It is also used for internal threading operations where the work piece projects a
considerable distance from the chuck or faceplate. The steady rest is clamped to the
lathe bed at the desired location and supports the work piece within three adjustable
jaws. The rest prevents the work piece from springing under cut, or sagging as a result
of the otherwise unsupported weight. The work piece must be machined with a
concentric bearing surface at the point where the steady rest is to be applied. The jaws
must be carefully adjusted for proper alignment and locked in position. The area of
contact must be lubricated frequently. The top section of the steady rest swings away

36
from the bottom section to permit removal of the work piece without disturbing the
jaw setting.
Figure3. 20 Steady Reast
9. Follower Rest:
The follower rest is used to back up a work piece of small diameter to keep it from
springing under the stress of the cutting operation. The follower rest gets its name
because it follows the cutting tool along the work piece. The follower rest has one or
two jaws that bear directly on the finished diameter of the work piece opposite and
above the cutting tool. The rest is bolted to the lathe carriage so that it will follow the
cutter bit and bear upon that portion of the work piece that has just been turned. The
cut must be started and continued for a short longitudinal distance before the follower
rest is applied. The rest is generally used only for straight turning or threading long,
thin work pieces

37
(c) Basic Lathe Operations:
1. Facing:
Facing is the square finishing of the ends of the workpiece and is often used to bring
the piece to a specified length. In facing operations, the cutter bit does not traverse
laterally (left or right) but cuts inward or outward from the axis of the piece. Facing of
the ends is usually performed before turning operations.
Figure3. 21 Facing
2. Straight Turning:
Straight turning may he performed upon a workpiece supported in a chuck, but the
majority of workpieces turned on an engine lathe are turned between centers. Turning
is the removal of metal from the external surface of cylindrical workpieces using
various types of cutter tool bits.
Figure3. 22 Straight turning

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3. Parting:
One of the methods of cutting off a piece of stock while it is held in a lathe is a
process called parting. This process uses a specially shaped tool with a cutting edge
similar to that of a square nose cutting tool. The parting tool is fed into the rotating
workpiece, perpendicular to its axis, cutting a progressively deeper groove as the
workpiece rotates. When the cutting edge of the tool gets to the center of the
workpiece being parted, the workpiece drops off. Parting is used to cut off parts that
have already been machined in the lathe, or to cut tubing and bar stock to their
required lengths.
Figure3. 23 Parting
4. Contour Turning:
Instead of feeding the tool along a straight line parallel to the axis of rotation as in
turning, the tool follows a contour that is other than straight, thus creating a contoured
form in the turned part.
Figure3. 24 Contour Turning

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5. Chamfering:
The cutting edge of the tool is cut an angle on the corner of the cylinder, forming what
is called a “chamfer”.
Figure3. 25 Chamfering
6. Threading:
A method of producing screw threads that uses a single-point tool to cut a blank or
workpiece as it rotates on a lathe. A pointed tool is fed linearly across the outside
surface of the rotating work part in a direction parallel to the axis to rotation at a large
effective feed rate, thus creating threads in the cylinder.
Figure3. 26 Threading
7. Taper Turning:
In ordinary straight turning, the cutting tool moves along a line parallel to the axis of
the work, causing the finished job to be the same diameter throughout. However,
when cutting a taper, the tool moves at an angle to the axis of the work, producing a

40
taper. Therefore, to turn a taper, the work must either be mounted in a lathe so that the
axis upon which it turns is at an angle to the axis of the lathe, or cause the cutting tool
to move at an angle to the axis of the lathe.
Figure3. 27 Taper Turning
8. Boring:
A single point tool is fed linearly, parallel to the axis of rotation, on the inside
diameter of an existing hole in the part.
Figure3. 28 Boring
9. Form Turning:
In this operation, sometimes called forming, the tool has a shape that is imparted to
the work by plunging the tool radially into the work.

41
Figure3. 29 Form Turning
10. Drilling:
Drilling can be performed on a lathe by feeding the drill into the rotating work along
its axis. Reaming can be performed in a similar way.
Figure3. 30 Drilling
11. Knurling:
This is not a machining operation because it does not involve cutting of material.
Instead, it is a metal forming operation used to produce a regular cross-hatched
pattern in the work surface.
Figure3. 31 Knurling

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Safety at Lathe Machine
All lathe operators must be constantly aware of the safety hazards that are associated
with using the lathe and must know all safety precautions to avoid accidents and
injuries. Carelessness and ignorance are two great menaces to personal safety. Other
hazards can be mechanically related to working with the lathe, such as proper
machine maintenance and setup. Some important safety precautions to follow when
using lathes are:
 Correct dress is important, remove rings and watches, roll sleeves above
elbows.
 Always stop the lathe before making adjustments.
 Does not change spindle speeds until the lathe comes to a complete stop.
 Handle sharp cutters, centers, and drills with care.
 Remove chuck keys and wrenches before operating
 Always wear protective eye protection.
 Handle heavy chucks with care and protect the lathe ways with a block of
wood when installing a chuck.
 Know where the emergency stop is before operating the lathe.
 Use pliers or a brush to remove chips and swarf, never your hands.
 Never lay tools directly on the lathe ways. If a separate table is not available,
use a wide board with a cleat on each side to lay on the ways.
 Keep tools overhang as short as possible.
 Never attempt to measure work while it is turning.
 Never file lathe work unless the file has a handle.
 File left-handed if possible.
 Protect the lathe ways when grinding or filing.

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3.3.5 Types of lathe Machine.
1. Turret lathe
The turret lathe is a form of metalworking lathe that is used for repetitive production
of duplicate parts, which by the nature of their cutting process are
usually interchangeable. It evolved from earlier lathes with the addition of the turret,
which is an index able tool holder that allows multiple cutting operations to be
performed, each with a different cutting tool, in easy, rapid succession, with no need
for the operator to perform setup tasks in between, such as installing or uninstalling
tools, nor to control the tool path
Figure3. 32 Turret lathe
2. Faceplate Lathe Machine
A lathe faceplate is the basic work holding accessory for a wood or metal
turning lathe. It is a circular metal (usually cast iron) plate which fixes to the end of
the lathe spindle. The work piece is then clamped to the faceplate, typically using t-
nuts in slots in the faceplate, or less commonly threaded holes in the faceplate itself

44
Figure3. 33 Faceplate Lathe Machine
3. Heavy duty lathe - A special type of lathe
A lathe is a stationary machine that is used to manufacture work pieces that are
symmetric about an axis of rotation. Heavy duty lathes are a special type of lathe.
Contrary to small and medium sized lathes, heavy duty lathes can process work pieces
weighing up to several tones. Heavy duty lathes can produce products such as shanks,
camshafts and cranks for ship diesel engines, spools for mills, or hydraulic shanks for
powerful linear motors.
Figure3. 34 Heavy duty lathe

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4. Boring Vertical Turret lathe (BVT)
A vertical turret lathe works much like an engine lathe turned up on end. You can
perform practically all of the typical lathe operations on a vertical turret lathe,
including turning, facing, boring, machining tapers, and cutting internal and external
threads.
Figure3. 35 Boring Vertical Turret lathe
3.3.6 Gear Hobbing Machine
Hobbing is a machining process for gear cutting, cutting splines, and
cutting sprockets on hobbing machine, which is a special type of milling. The teeth or
splines are progressively cut into the work piece by a series of cuts made by a cutting
tool called a hob. Compared to other gear forming processes it is relatively
inexpensive but still quite accurate, thus it is used for a broad range of parts and
quantities.
It is the most widely used gear cutting process for creating spur and helical gears.

46
Figure3. 36 Hub Cutter
3.3.7 Horizontal Boring Machine
A horizontal boring machine or horizontal boring mill is a machine
tool which bores holes in a horizontal direction.
Figure3. 37 Horizontal Boring Machine
A horizontal boring machine has its work spindle parallel to the ground and work
table. Typically there are 3 linear axes in which the tool head and part move.
Convention dictates that the main axis that drives the part towards the work spindle is
the Z axis, with a cross-traversing X axis and a vertically traversing Y axis. The work
spindle is referred to as the C axis and, if a rotary table is incorporated, its centre line
is the B axis

47
3.3.8 MILLING MACHINE
Milling is the process of machining flat, curved, or irregular surfaces by feeding the
work piece against a rotating cutter containing a number of cutting edges. The usual
Mill consists basically of a motor driven spindle, which mounts and revolves the
milling cutter, and a reciprocating adjustable worktable, which mounts and feeds the
work piece.
Figure3. 38 MILLING MACHINE
Milling machines are basically classified as vertical or horizontal. These machines are
also classified as knee-type, ram-type, manufacturing or bed type, and planer-type.
Most milling machines have self-contained electric drive motors, coolant systems,
variable spindle speeds, and power-operated table feeds

48
Peripheral Milling (Horizontal Milling) vs. Face Milling (Vertical
Milling)
1. Peripheral milling or plain milling:
 Cutter axis is parallel to surface being machined
 Cutting edges on outside periphery of cutter
2. Face milling
 Cutter axis is perpendicular to surface being milled
 Cutting edges on both the end and outside periphery of the cutter
Types of Milling
 Peripheral Milling
 Slab milling
 Slotting
 Side milling
 Straddle milling
 Face milling
 Conventional face milling
 Partial face milling
 End milling
 Profile milling
 Pocket milling
 Surface contouring

49
3.3.9 DRILLING MACHINE
Drilling machine is one of the most important machine tools in a workshop. It was
designed to produce a cylindrical hole of required diameter and depth on metal work
pieces. Though holes can be made by different machine tools in a shop, drilling
machine is designed specifically to perform the operation of drilling and similar
operations. Drilling can be done easily at a low cost in a shorter period of time in a
drilling machine.
Drilling can be called as the operation of producing a cylindrical hole of required
diameter and depth by removing metal by the rotating edges of a drill. The cutting
tool known as drill is fitted into the spindle of the drilling machine. A mark of
indentation is made at the required location with a centre punch. The rotating drill is
pressed at the location and is fed into the work. The hole can be made up to a required
depth.
Size of a drilling machine
Drilling machines are specified according to their type.
To specify the machine completely the following factors are considered:
 The maximum diameter of the drill that it can handle
 The size of the largest work piece that can be centered under the spindle

50
 Distance between the face of the column and the axis of the spindle
 Diameter of the table
 Maximum travel of the spindle
 Numbers and range of spindle speeds and feeds available
 Morse taper number of the drill spindle
 Floor space required
 Weight of the machine
 Power input is also needed to specify the machine completely.
Tools used in a drilling machine
Different tools are used for performing different types of operations. The most
commonly used tools in a drilling machine are
1. Drill
2. Reamer
3. Counter bore
4. Countersink
5. Tap
1. Radial drilling machine
The radial drilling machine is intended for drilling on medium to large and heavy
work pieces. It has a heavy round column mounted on a large base. The column
supports a radial arm, which can be raised or lowered to enable the table to
accommodate work pieces of different heights. The arm, which has the drill head on it,
can be swung around to any position. The drill head can be made to slide on the radial

51
arm. The machine is named so because of this reason. It consists of parts like base,
column, radial arm, drill head and driving mechanism.
Figure3. 39 Radial drilling machine
2. Bench and Column or Pillar type drilling machines
There are two types of machine drill, the bench drill and the pillar drill. The bench
drill is used for drilling holes through materials including a range of woods, plastics
and metals. It is normally bolted to a bench so that it cannot be pushed over and that
larger pieces of material can be drilled safely. The larger version of the machine drill
is called the pillar drill. This has a long column which stands on the floor. This can do
exactly the same work as the bench drill but because of its larger size it is capable of
being used to drill larger pieces of materials and produce larger holes.

52
Figure3. 40 Bench and Column or Pillar type drilling machines
3.3.10 Shaper
A shaper is a machine tool which holds and locates a work piece on a table and
machines or cuts the work piece by feeding it against a reciprocating cutting tool. In
other words, the ram of the shaper moves a single point cutting tool back-and-forth,
and on each forward stroke, the tool removes a chip of metal from the work piece.
The work piece is held in the vise of the shaper or secured to the table of the shaper
with clamps, T-bolts, etc. When horizontal surfaces are being machined, the table
automatically feeds the work to the cutting tool on each return stroke of the ram.
When vertical cuts are being made, the work is fed to the cutting tool on each return
stroke of the ram either manually or automatically. The cutting tool on a shaper can
be set to cut horizontally, on an angle, or vertically.

53
Figure3. 41 Shaper
Types of Shapers
There are three types of shapers:
 Crank shapers
 Gear shapers
 Hydraulic shapers
 Crank shapers are most commonly used. A rocker arm, operated by a
crank pin from the main driving gear, gives the ram of the crank shaper a
back-and-forth (reciprocating) motion.
 Gear shapers are driven by a gear and rack assembly. Gear shapers have a
reversible electric motor or mechanical mechanism which quickly returns the
ram, in readiness for another cut.
 Hydraulic shapers are driven by movement of a piston in an oil-filled
cylinder. Mechanical features on these shapers are the same as those on crank
shapers.

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3.3.11 Planer
A planer is a type of metalworking machine tool that uses linear relative motion
between the work piece and a single-point cutting tool to machine a linear tool
path. Its cut is analogous to that of a lathe, except that it is linear instead of helical.
A planer is analogous to a shaper, but larger, and with the entire work piece moving
on a table beneath the cutter, instead of the cutter riding a ram that moves above a
stationary work piece. The table is moved back and forth on the bed beneath the
cutting head either by mechanical means, such as a rack and pinion drive or a lead
screw, or by a hydraulic cylinder
Figure3. 42 Planer
 Linear planing
 Helical planing
 Prevalence of current use
Double-housing planers
Double-housing planers are the most widely used and provide the greatest tool
support rigidity. The major components of a double-housing planer are the bed, table,
housings, arch, cross rail, and heads (side and rail). The bed is the foundation to

55
which the housings are attached. The bed is provided with precision ways over its
entire length and supports the reciprocating table.
The table supports the work piece and reciprocates along the ways of the bed. The
table is slightly less than half the length of the bed and its travel determines the
dimensional capacity of the machine in length of stroke. The housings are rigid box-
type columns placed on each side of the bed and table. They are heavily braced and
ribbed to absorb the large cutting forces encountered in planing. The arch joins the
housings at the top for greater rigidity of construction and also houses the drive
mechanism for tool feeding. The cross rail is a rigid horizontal beam mounted above
and across the table on the vertical ways of the columns. It supports the rail heads and
provides for horizontal feeding of the cutting tools
Figure3. 43 Double-housing planers
3.3.12 GRINDING MACHINES
Grinding is a process of removing materials in the form of ground chips from a work
piece by mechanical action of many small abrasive particles bonded together in a

56
grinding wheel. Each abrasive particle is acting as a small cutting tool. It is a finishing
process employed for producing close dimensional accuracies and smooth surface
finish the work piece. The regulating wheel is having same direction of rotation as the
grinding wheel. The axial movement of the work piece is obtained a longitudinal feed
by tilting the regulating wheel at a slight angle of 1 to 8 degrees relative to grinding
wheel.
Figure3. 44 GRINDING MACHINES
3.3.13 Slotting machine
Slotting machines or slotters are cutting machines designed to machine slots and
grooves into a work piece.
Slotting Machine Operation
Slotting machines operate using a mounted blade in conjunction with a movable table
that moves metal back and forth to create cuts and shapes. Shaping machines
generally have a cutting tool that is mounted vertically. Because of this, slotting
machines are many times referred to as vertical shapers. However, sometimes slotters

57
are distinguished as having fixed blades while shapers have adjustable mounts and
slides.
Selecting Slotting Machines
The most important considerations when selecting a slotting machine are the stroke
length, spindle orientation, motor power, and slotter features.
 Stroke length determines the reach of the ram that holds and propels the cutting
tool. A larger stroke means a farther cut forward and back. Stroke can generally be
set between a range of lengths.
 Spindle orientation is what determines the particular type of shaping machine
based on the direction of its stroke (horizontal, vertical, or angled). Slotting
machines generally utilize vertically mounted cutting tools, but can have
horizontal or angled blades fixed to a vertical ram.
 Motor power is the amount of power the motor provides to drive the ram and
cutting tool. This is usually measured in horsepower (HP). Larger motors provide
the power to cut bigger sized work pieces requiring deeper strokes at higher
speeds.
 Features on slotting machines can also determine its usefulness in various
applications. These include rotary tables, which allow slotters to machine curved
surfaces, and digital automation via computer numerical control (CNC).
A large number of sizing properties may also be important depending on the type of
work pieces being machined. These include ram and throat adjustment lengths, ram
bearing length, table diameter, base plate dimensions, and the space between the head
and table.

58
Figure3. 45 Slotting machine
Industries and Applications
Slotting machines are used to cut grooves and slots in shapes and holes while
additionally smoothing the worked surface. They are used in steel rolling mills, paper
mills, power plants, ship building, textile factories, tool rooms, and repair shops.
3.3.14 Overhead cranes
Overhead cranes, sometimes also called bridge cranes, are cranes with a hoist
traveling along the bridge between parallel runways. They are designed to meet the
medium to heavy industrial lifting requirements, covering all parts of the
manufacturing process

59
Figure3. 46 Overhead cranes
3.4 ASSEMBLY SHOP
An assembly line is a manufacturing process (most of the time called a progressive
assembly) in which parts (usually interchangeable are added to a product in a
sequential manner to create a finished product much faster than with handcrafting-
type methods.
3.4.1 Important Terms used in Limit System
The following terms used in limit system (or interchangeable system) is important
from the subject point of view:
 Nominal size. It is the size of a part specified in the drawing as a matter of
convenience.
 Basic size. It is the size of a part to which all limits of variation (i.e. tolerances)
are applied to arrive at final dimensioning of the mating parts. The nominal or
basic size of a part is often the same.

60
 Actual size. It is the actual measured dimension of the part. The difference
between the basic size and the actual size should not exceed a certain limit;
otherwise it will interfere with the interchangeability of the mating parts.
 Limits of sizes. There are two extreme permissible sizes for a dimension of the
part as shown in Fig.1. The largest permissible size for a dimension of the part is
called upper or high or maximum limit, whereas the smallest size of the part is
known as lower or minimum limit.
 Allowance. It is the difference between the basic dimensions of the mating parts.
The allowance may be positive or negative. When the shaft size is less than the
hole size, then the allowance is positive and when the shaft size is greater than the
hole size, then the allowance is negative.
 Tolerance. It is the difference between the upper limit and lower limit of a
dimension. In other words, it is the maximum permissible variation in a
dimension. The tolerance may be unilateral or bilateral. When all the tolerance is
allowed on one side of the nominal size, e.g.., then itis said to be unilateral system

61
of tolerance. The unilateral system is mostly used in industries as it permits
changing the tolerance value while still retaining the same allowance or type of fit.
When the tolerance is allowed on both sides of the nominal size, e.g. , then it is said to
be bilateral system of tolerance. In this case + 0.002 is the upper limit and – 0.002 is
the lower limit.
The method of assigning unilateral and bilateral tolerance is shown in Fig.2 (a) and(b)
respectively.
7. Tolerance zone. It is the zone between the maximum and minimum limit size, as
shown in Fig.3.
Figure3. 47 Tolerance Zone

62
Zero line. It is a straight line corresponding to the basic size. The deviations are
measured from this line. The positive and negative deviations are shown above and
below the zero line respectively.
9. Upper deviation. It is the algebraic difference between the maximum size and the
basic size. The upper deviation of a hole is represented by a symbol ES (Ecart
Superior) and of a shaft, it is represented by es.
10. Lower deviation. It is the algebraic difference between the minimum size and the
basic size. The lower deviation of a hole is represented by a symbol EI (Ecart Inferior)
and of a shaft, it is represented by ei.
11. Actual deviation. It is the algebraic difference between an actual size and the
corresponding basic size.
12. Mean deviation. It is the arithmetical mean between the upper and lower
deviations.
13. Fundamental deviation. It is one of the two deviations which is conventionally
chosen todefine the position of the tolerance zone in relation to zero line, as shown in
Fig. 4.

63
3.4.2 Fits:
The degree of tightness or looseness between the two mating parts is known as a fit of
the parts. The nature of fit is characterized by the presence and size of clearance and
interference.
The clearance is the amount by which the actual size of the shaft is less than the
actual size of the mating hole in an assembly as shown in Fig.5 (a). In other words,
the clearance is the difference between the sizes of the hole and the shaft before
assembly. The difference must be positive.
Figure3. 48 Type of fit

64
The interference is the amount by which the actual size of a shaft is larger than the
actual finished size of the mating hole in an assembly as shown in Fig.5 (b). In other
words, the interference is the arithmetical difference between the sizes of the hole and
the shaft, before assembly. The difference must be negative.
Types of Fits
According to Indian standards, the fits are classified into the following three groups :
 Clearance fit. In this type of fit, the size limits for mating parts are so selected
that clearance between them always occur, as shown in Fig.5 (a). It may be
noted that in a clearance fit, the tolerance zone of the hole is entirely above the
tolerance zone of the shaft.
In a clearance fit, the difference between the minimum size of the hole and the
maximum size of the shaft is known as minimum clearance whereas the
difference between the maximum size of the hole and minimum size of the
shaft is called maximum clearance as shown in Fig.5 (a).
The clearance fits may be slide fit, easy sliding fit, running fit, slack running
fit and loose running fit.
 Interference fit. In this type of fit, the size limits for the mating parts are so
selected that interference between them always occur, as shown in Fig.5 (b). It
may be noted that in an interference fit, the tolerance zone of the hole is
entirely below the tolerance zone of the shaft.

65
In an interference fit, the difference between the maximum size of the hole and
the minimum size of the shaft is known as minimum interference, whereas
the difference between the minimum size of the hole and the maximum size of
the shaft is called maximum interference, as shown in Fig.5 (b).
The interference fits may be shrink fit, heavy drive fit and light drive fit.
3. Transition fit. In this type of fit, the size limits for the mating parts are so
selected that either a clearance or interference may occur depending upon the
actual size of the mating parts, as shown in Fig.5 (c). It may be noted that in a
transition fit, the tolerance zones of hole and shaft overlap. The transition fits
may be force fit, tight fit and push fit.
3.4.3 Basis of Limit System
The following are two bases of limit system:
1. Hole basis system. When the hole is kept as a constant member (i.e. when the lower
deviationof the hole is zero) and different fits are obtained by varying the shaft size,
as shown in Fig. 6 (a),then the limit system is said to be on a hole basis.
2. Shaft basis system. When the shaft is kept as a constant member (i.e. when the
upper deviation of the shaft is zero) and different fits are obtained by varying the hole
size, as shown in Fig. 6 (b),then the limit system is said to be on a shaft basis.

66
Figure3. 49 Basis of limit system
The hole basis and shaft basis system may also be shown as in Fig. 7, with respect to
the zero line
3.5 Tool Room
A toolroom is a room where tools are stored or, in a factory, a space where tools are
made and repaired for use throughout the rest of the factory. In engineering and
manufacturing, tool room activity is everything related to tool-and-die facilities in
contrast to production line activity.

67
3.5.1 Tools and Dies
 A tool is a precision device for cutting or shaping metals and other materials.
 A die is a form used to shape metal in forging and stamping operations. Dies
also include metal molds used in making plastics, ceramics, and composite
materials. A jig is used to hold metal while it is being drilled, bored or
stamped.
3.5.2 Equipment’s use in Tool Room
 Grinding Machine
 Surface Grinding Machine
 Internal Grinding Machine
 Spline Grinding Machine
 Center less Grinding Machine
 Universal Cylindrical Grinding Machine
 Hub Grinding Machine
 Cutter Grinding Machine
 Jig Boring Machine
 Thread Gearing Machine
 Milling Machine
 Lathe Machine
 Shaper Machine
 Boring Machine
 Tool Sharping Machine

68
3.6 Heat treatment and TTC (Technical Training Cell)
Heat treatment
Heat Treatment is the controlled heating and cooling of metals to alter their physical
and mechanical properties without changing the product shape.
3.6.1 Heat treatment – the processes
 Annealing
 Normalizing
 Hardening (Surface, Full, Case)
 Tempering
 Stress releasing
 Carburizing (Gas, Pack)
 Phosphating
 Annealing
Annealing, in metallurgy and materials science, is a heat treatment wherein a material
is altered, causing changes in its properties such as strength and hardness. It
is a process that produces conditions by heating to above the re-
crystallization temperature and maintaining a suitable temperature, and
then cooling. Annealing is used to induce ductility, soften material,
relieve internal stresses, refine the structure by making it homogeneous, and
improve cold working properties.

69
Figure3. 50 Annealing
 Normalizing
Annealing, in metallurgy and materials science, is a heat treatment wherein a material
is altered, causing changes in its properties such as strength and hardness. It
is a process that produces conditions by heating to above the re-
crystallization temperature and maintaining a suitable temperature, and
then cooling. Annealing is used to induce ductility, soften material,
relieve internal stresses, refine the structure by making it homogeneous,
and improve cold working properties. In the cases of copper, steel, silver, and
brass this process is performed by substantially heating the material (generally until
glowing) for a while and allowing it to cool slowly. In this fashion the metal is
softened and prepared for further work such as shaping, stamping, or forming.
Figure3. 51 Normalizing

70
 Hardening
(a) Flame hardening
A high intensity oxy-acetylene flame is applied to the selective region. The
temperature is raised high. The "right" temperature is determined by the operator
based on experience by watching the color of the steel. The overall heat
transfer is limited by the torch and thus the interior never reaches the high
temperature. The heated region is quenched to achieve the desired
hardness. Tempering can be done to eliminate brittleness.
Figure3. 52 Hardening
(b)Inductionhardening
In Induction hardening, the steel part is placed inside an electrical coil
which has alternating current through it. This energizes the steel part and heats it
up. Depending on the frequency and amperage, the rate of heating as well as
the depth of heating can be controlled. Hence, this is well suited for surface
heat treatment. The Induction and flame hardening processes protect areas exposed to
excessive wear. Items that we induction harden include Spur Gears and Spur Pinions
,Helical Gears and Helical Pinions, Sprockets, Internal Gears, Bevel Gears, Shafts and

71
Pins, Rails and Racks, Wheels and Rollers Sheave Wheels, Links, Axle Boxes and
Bushes.
Figure3. 53 Induction hardening
4. Tempering
Tempering is a heat treatment technique for metals, alloys and glass. In steels,
tempering is done to "toughen" the metal by transforming brittle marten site into
bainite or a combination of ferrite and cementite. Precipitation hardening
alloys, like many grades of aluminum and super alloys, are
tempered to precipitate inter metallic particles which strengthen the metal.
Tempering is accomplished by a controlled reheating of the work
piece to a temperature below its lower critical temperature.
The brittle marten site becomes strong and ductile after it is
tempered. Carbon atoms were trapped in the austenite when it was rapidly
cooled, typically by oil or water quenching, forming the marten site. The marten site
becomes strong after being tempered because when reheated, the microstructure can
rearrange and the carbon atoms can diffuse out of the distorted BCT structure. After
the carbon diffuses, the result is nearly pure ferrite.

72
5. Stress releasing
Stress releasing is used to reduce residual stresses in large castings,
welded parts and cold-formed parts. Such parts tend to have stresses due
to thermal cycling or work hardening. Parts are heated to temperatures of up to
600 - 650 ºC (1112 - 1202 ºF), and held for an extended time (about 1 hour or more)
and then slowly cooled in still air.
6. Carburizing
Carburizing, also known as carburization, is a heat treatment process in
which iron or steel is heated in the presence of another material (but below the
metal's melting point) which liberates carbon as it decomposes. The outer
surface or case will have higher carbon content than the original
material. When the iron or steel is cooled rapidly by quenching,
the higher carbon content on the outer surface becomes hard, while the core
remains soft and tough. This manufacturing process can be characterized by
the following key points: It is applied to low-carbon work pieces; work
pieces are in contact with a high-carbon gas, liquid or solid; it produces a
hard work piece surface; work piece cores largely retain their toughness and ductility
and it produces case hardness depths of up to 0.25 inches (6.4 mm).
Figure3. 54 Carburizing

73
7. Phosphating
Phosphate coatings are used on steel parts for corrosion resistance, lubricity, or as a
foundation for subsequent coatings or painting. It serves as a conversion coating in
which a dilute solution of phosphoric acid and phosphate salts is applied via spraying
or immersion chemically reacts with the surface of the part being coated to
form a layer of insoluble, crystalline phosphates. Phosphate conversion
coatings can also be used on aluminum, zinc, cadmium, silver and tin. The main types
of phosphate coatings are manganese, iron and zinc. Zinc phosphates are used for
rust proofing (P&O), a lubricant base layer, and as a paint/coating base and can
also be applied by immersion or spraying.
Figure3. 55 Phosphatin

74
3.7 TTC (TECHNICAL TRAINING CELL)
We study and work on CNC LATHE MACHINE and machined a job on CNC lathe.
CNC LATHE MACHINE PROGRAM
O1130 (Program Number In Machine)
M03 S700
G00 x51.0 Z0.0 T0101
G71 42.0 R1.0
G71 P10 Q20 40.01 W0.01 F100
N10 G01 X10.0
Z15.0
X20.0
Z25.0
X30
Z33.0
X50.0 Z42.0
Z67.0
N20 X51.0
G00 X200.0 Z300.0

75
M30%
 U2.0: Depth of cut in x-axis
 M03: Clockwise
 M04: Counter-clockwise
 M05: Spindle stop
 R: Retrack
 P 10: 1st block
 Q 20: 2nd block
 U: Finishing allowance in x-axis
 W: Finishing allowance in z-axis
 F: Cutting feed.
 G71:Turning cycle

76
3.8 CTC Fabrication shop
CTC stands for Central Technical Cell and is a drawing and planning section of
fabrication shop, in each of these sections
different drawings are analyzed and then sent to the different segments of fabrication
shop depending upon the job and capacity of the shop. The main jobs of CTC
fabrication are:
 Job feeding to shop
 Planning
 Material check
 Observation from manufacturing till sale

77
3.9 Fabrication shop
Metal fabrication is the building of metal structures by cutting, bending, and
assembling processes
 Cutting is done by sawing, shearing, or chiseling
 Bending is done by hammering (manual or powered)
 Assembling (joining of the pieces) is done by welding
Basically Fabrication Shop is divided into four sections:
 Heavy bay section
 Medium bay section
 Small bay section
 Marking and layout section
List of apparatus and machines
The machines in the fabrication shop and their capacities are given below:
1. Small bay
2.5 ton press
 5 ton bending machine
2. Medium bay
 Shaft cutting circular saw
o Cutting diameter1350mm

78
 Shaft welding machine
o Height of beam450mm
3. Heavy bay
 3000 ton press
 1000 ton rolling machine
 50 ton capacity cranes
Marketing layout and cutting section
 Photo cell cutting machine
o Electromagnetic or paper templates are used
 CNC cutting machine
o A German CNC cutting machine is used for cutting accurate and
complex parts
 Plasma arc cutting machine for non ferrous metals
 Semi automatic cutting machine
o Oxygen and natural gas are used for cutting
 Mechanical cutting machine (shearing machine)
 Parallel cutting machine
 Trennjaeger machine
 Nine rollers
 Straightening machine

79
3.9.1 Welding
Mainly welding is done in all bays of fabrication shop. The type
of welding used in fabrication shop is as follows:
1. Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), also known as tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding,
is an arc welding process that uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode to produce
the weld. The weld area is protected from atmospheric contamination by an inert
shielding gas (argon or helium), and a filler metal is normally used, though some
welds, known as autogenous welds, do not require it. A constant-current welding
power supply produces electrical energy, which is conducted across the arc through a
column of highly ionized gas and metal vapors known as plasma.
GTAW is most commonly used to weld thin sections of stainless steel and non-
ferrous metals such as aluminum, magnesium, and copper alloys
Figure3. 56 Gas tungsten arc welding

80
2. MIG Welding (GMAW)
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), sometimes referred to by its subtypes metal inert
gas (MIG) welding or metal active gas (MAG)welding, is a welding process in
which an electric arc forms between a consumable wire electrode and the work piece
metal(s), which heats the work piece metal(s), causing them to melt, and join.
Figure3. 57 MIG Welding
3. Submerged arc welding (SAW)
The process requires a continuously fed consumable solid or tubular (metal cored)
electrode. The molten weld and the arc zone are protected from atmospheric
contamination by being "submerged" under a blanket of granular fusible flux
consisting of lime, silica, manganese oxide, calcium fluoride, and other compounds.
When molten, the flux becomes conductive, and provides a current path between the
electrode and the work. This thick layer of flux completely covers the molten metal

81
thus preventing spatter and sparks as well as suppressing the intense ultraviolet
radiation and fumes that are a part of the shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)
process.
SAW is normally operated in the automatic or mechanized mode, however, semi-
automatic (hand-held) SAW guns with pressurized or gravity flux feed delivery are
available
Figure3. 58 Submerged arc welding
4. SMAW Welding
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), also known as manual metal arc
welding (MMA or MMAW), flux shielded arc welding[1]
or informally as stick
welding, is a manual arc welding process that uses a consumable electrode covered
with a flux to lay the weld.

82
An electric current, in the form of either alternating current or direct current from
a welding power supply, is used to form an electric between the electrode and
the metals to be joined. The work piece and the electrode melts forming the weld pool
that cools to form a joint. As the weld is laid, the flux coating of the electrode
disintegrates, giving off vapors that serve as shielding and providing a layer of slag,
both of which protect the weld area from atmospheric contamination.
Figure3. 59 SMAW Welding

83
Chapter4
Foundry & Forge Works
4.1 Pattern Shop
4.2 Steel & Cast iron Foundry
4.3 Forging Shop

84
4.1 PATTERN SHOP
The purpose of pattern shop is to make wooden or metallic components for casting
process.
Pattern
“PATTERN MAKING IS THE ART OF MAKING AN ORIGINAL PATTERN OR FORM
WHICH WILL BEUSED TO MAKE A MOLD IN WHICH MOLTEN MATERIAL
WILL BE POURED DURING CASTINGPROCESS.”
Figure4. 1 pattern
Pattern used in sand casting may be made of wood, metallic, plastic or other materials.
Woods chosen for this purpose should be easy enough to work and shape, straight,
and evenly grained, sufficiently dry and most importantly, dimensionally stable.

85
4.1.1 Types of Pattern
 One piece or solid pattern
 Two piece or split pattern
 Three piece pattern
 Loose piece pattern
 Self core pattern
 Sweep pattern
 Skeleton pattern
 Match plate pattern
 Connecting pattern
 Master pattern
 Wooden patterns
Woodenpatternsare usedwhenamountofcastingsarelowandweneedroughfinishing.Theyarenot
expensive.
Figure4. 2 Wood pattern

86
 Metallic patterns
Metallicpatternsareusedwhenamountofcastingsareverylargeandweneedfinesurfacefinish.These
areveryexpensive.Costiscompensatedbytheno.ofcastings.
Figure4. 3 Metallic patterns
Material Used In HMC for Pattern Making
 DeodarWood
 Brass (used for metallic pattern)
 Aluminum (used for metallic pattern)
Pattern material is depending upon their usage. If usage is greater and continuously
repeated then it is made of metallic and expensive wood such as sheeshum etc.
Core Print
A projection made in the pattern is called core print .It is used to form a core seat in
the mold. The core is correctly seated in this seat.

87
4.1.2 Types of Core Prints
 Top print
 Bottom print
 Side print
 Tail print
 Hang print
 Balancing print
MACHINES IN PATTERN SHOP:-
 Band saw.
 Joint planner.

88
 Thickness planner.
 Disc and spindle sander.
 Wooden lathe machine.
 Wooden milling machine.
4.1.3 PATTERN ALLOWNCES
 Shrinkage Allowance
Solid shrinkage is the reduction in volume caused when metal loses temperature in
solid state. A shrinkage allowance for metal casting is something that must be figured
into a design from the very beginning. As the molten metal cools and solidifies it
will begin to contract. This means that although the molten metal completely filled up
a mold, by the time the casting was cold, the casting is smaller than the mold. What
this mean is that a pattern must be made larger than the design drawing. The
difference between the size or dimensions of the desired casting and the size of the
pattern used to create the mold is called a shrinkage allowance. The shrinkage
allowance for metal casting varies by the type of metal. It takes experience in metal
casting to be able to accurately judge the proper shrinkage allowance to be built into a
pattern. The shrinkage allowance for metal casting is linear meaning that these
allowances apply in every direction. Shrinkage allowance for steel = 1.8%Shrinkage
allowance for cast iron = 0.8%
 Machining Allowance
Machining allowance is a small amount of material which is added to a pattern
in areas where it will be machined. For inside structure the machining allowance is
negative and for outside it is positive.

89
 Draft Allowance
Draft allowance is a small amount of taper made in a pattern which will allow it more
easily removed from the mold.
Shake allowance: Before withdrawal from the sand mold, the pattern is rapped all
around the vertical faces to enlarge the mold cavity slightly which facilitates its
removal. Since it enlarges the final casting made, it is desirable that the original
pattern dimensions should be reduced to account for this increase.
4.2 CAST IRON & STEEL FOUNDARY
INTRODUCTION TO CASTING:
In the casting processes, a material is first melted, heated to proper temperature, and
sometimes treated to modify its chemical composition. The molten materials then
poured into a cavity or mold that holds it in the desired shape during cool-down and
solidification. In a single step, simple or complex shapes can be made from any
material that can be melted. By proper design and process control, the resistance to
working stresses can be optimized and a pleasing appearance can be produced.
Cast parts range in size from a fraction of a centimeter and a fraction of a gram (such
as the individual teeth on a zipper) to over 10 meters and many tons (as in the huge
propellers and stern frames of ocean liners). Moreover, the casting processes have
distinct advantages when the production involves complex shapes parts having hollow
sections or internal cavities, parts that contain irregular curved surfaces (except those

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