The epistemological problem associated with Karl Paul Feyerabend as a philosopher of Science resides beneath the fact that different critics of his works give divers interpretations of them. His works and the accounts they present have no common structure. This plurality and conflictual interpretations of him makes it difficult, if not impossible to pin him to a particular tradition in the Philosophy of Science. For this reason, while some of his critics consider him to be a relativist, to some, he is a Dadaist, a confusionist and an anarchist, yet others think of Feyerabend as the worst enemy of Science. This diversity of interpretation of Feyerabend, in my opinion, only goes to reassure us of our reading of him. That is, Feyerabend is closely associated with pluralism than anything else. My aim, in this paper is thus propose a thesis and attempt a justification. The thesis is that my reading of Against Method, 1993 and The Tyranny of Science, 2011 , justifies the thesis above. This perspective, unlike the others, is more holistic and inclusive. Without agreeing with his poists about science and its method, I contend that his pluralist claims in the philosophy of science art not hard to find. My examples stem, first, from the diversity of interpretations, and the conflicting views of his critics. Second, I consider the titles of the two works under consideration, to illustrate his criticism of the scientism and Methodism of Modern Science on the one hand, and his defence of plurality of methods and theories. Finally, I conclude that contrarily to critics who label him the worst enemy of science, anarchist or a confusionist, I think that, Feyerabend exaggerated his criticism of Modern Science and his defence of pluralism when he claimed to see no difference between science, myths and religion. However, I go further to contend that this comparison does not eclipse his pluralist position. It rather exaggerates it. That is why I term him, an extreme pluralist to say the least. Nyuykongi John Paul ""Feyerabend, Pluralism and Progress in Science in Against Method (1993) and the Tyranny of Science (2011)"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-4 | Issue-2 , February 2020,
URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd30060.pdf
Paper Url : https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/30060/feyerabend-pluralism-and-progress-in-science-in-against-method-1993-and-the-tyranny-of-science-2011/nyuykongi-john-paul
Max Weber: Politics & Science as 'Vocations'Craig Hammond
Presentation by Craig Hammond, University Centre Blackburn College (UCBC), Social Science - Social Theory. The presentation covers an accessible analysis of 2 of Max Weber's lectures: Politics as a Vocation; and, Science as a Vocation.
Max Weber: Politics & Science as 'Vocations'Craig Hammond
Presentation by Craig Hammond, University Centre Blackburn College (UCBC), Social Science - Social Theory. The presentation covers an accessible analysis of 2 of Max Weber's lectures: Politics as a Vocation; and, Science as a Vocation.
this is the full history of philosophy both western and eastern philosophy in detailed and year wise tabular view. this is year by year history of philosophy and it is more precise one.
it is a report about Positivism by August Comte who give the history of mankind develops in three stages:
1. Theological Stage
2. Metaphysical Stage
3. Positivist Stage
The term ‘critical theory’ describes the neo-Marxist philosophy of the Frankfurt School. Frankfurt theorists drew on the critical methods of Karl Marx and Sigmund Freud....
A brief lecture on the theories of Max Weber and an introduction to interpretivism. Also includes a social theory quiz on the works of Marx, Weber, and Durkheim.
this is the full history of philosophy both western and eastern philosophy in detailed and year wise tabular view. this is year by year history of philosophy and it is more precise one.
it is a report about Positivism by August Comte who give the history of mankind develops in three stages:
1. Theological Stage
2. Metaphysical Stage
3. Positivist Stage
The term ‘critical theory’ describes the neo-Marxist philosophy of the Frankfurt School. Frankfurt theorists drew on the critical methods of Karl Marx and Sigmund Freud....
A brief lecture on the theories of Max Weber and an introduction to interpretivism. Also includes a social theory quiz on the works of Marx, Weber, and Durkheim.
Internet Encyclopedia of PhilosophySearchPrimary.docxvrickens
Internet Encyclopedia of PhilosophySearch
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Skip to contentABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ×Karl Popper: Philosophy of Science
Karl Popper (1902-1994) was one of the most influential philosophers of science of the 20th century. He made significant contributions to debates concerning general scientific methodology and theory choice, the demarcation of science from non-science, the nature of probability and quantum mechanics, and the methodology of the social sciences. His work is notable for its wide influence both within the philosophy of science, within science itself, and within a broader social context.
Popper’s early work attempts to solve the problem of demarcation and offer a clear criterion that distinguishes scientific theories from metaphysical or mythological claims. Popper’s falsificationist methodology holds that scientific theories are characterized by entailing predictions that future observations might reveal to be false. When theories are falsified by such observations, scientists can respond by revising the theory, or by rejecting the theory in favor of a rival or by maintaining the theory as is and changing an auxiliary hypothesis. In either case, however, this process must aim at the production of new, falsifiable predictions. While Popper recognizes that scientists can and do hold onto theories in the face of failed predictions when there are no predictively superior rivals to turn to. He holds that scientific practice is characterized by its continual effort to test theories against experience and make revisions based on the outcomes of these tests. By contrast, theories that are permanently immunized from falsification by the introduction of untestable ad hoc hypotheses can no longer be classified as scientific. Among other things, Popper argues that his falsificationist proposal allows for a solution of the problem of induction, since inductive reasoning plays no role in his account of theory choice.
Along with his general proposals regarding falsification and scientific methodology, Popper is notable for his work on probability and quantum mechanics and on the methodology of the social sciences. Popper defends a propensity theory of probability, according to which probabilities are interpreted as objective, mind-independent properties of experimental setups. Popper then uses this theory to provide a realist interpretation of quantum mechanics, though its applicability goes beyond this specific case. With respect to the social sciences, Popper argued against the historicist attempt to formulate universal laws covering the whole of human history and instead argued in favor of methodological individualism and situational logic.Table of ContentsBackgroundFalsification and the Criterion of DemarcationPopper on Physics and PsychoanalysisAuxiliary and Ad Hoc HypothesesBasic Sentences and the Role of ConventionInduction, Corroboration, and VerisimilitudeCriticisms of FalsificationismRealism, Quantum Mechanics, and Pro ...
Science is a sphere of human activity in which objective knowledge about reality is developed and systematized theoretically. The main functions of science are explanatory and predictive functions. Science is a complex multifaceted integral phenomenon, and the process of development of scientific knowledge is not a unidirectional process, but a nonlinear one, characterized by multidirection. This is a process in which new growth points, diverse opportunities and situations of choice arise.
Science studies not only the surrounding reality, but also itself as a part of this reality. There is a whole complex of disciplines studying science, which includes the history and logic of science, psychology of scientific creativity, sociology of knowledge, etc. However, it is the philosophy of science that studies science as an integral phenomenon, exploring the general laws of scientific and cognitive activity, the structure and dynamics of scientific knowledge, its levels and forms, its socio-cultural determination, means and methods of scientific cognition, ways of its justification and mechanisms of knowledge development.
The philosophy of science began to take shape in the middle of the twentieth century. As a scientific discipline, the philosophy of science differs from the direction in Western and domestic philosophy, which bears the same name and originated a century earlier.
Science Essay
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A Preface to the Study of Philosophic GenresAuthor(s) Mark .docxevonnehoggarth79783
A Preface to the Study of Philosophic Genres
Author(s): Mark D. Jordan
Source: Philosophy & Rhetoric, Vol. 14, No. 4 (Fall, 1981), pp. 199-211
Published by: Penn State University Press
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A Preface to thè Study of Philosophie Genres
Mark D. Jordan
At the beginning of the Poetics, Aristotle surveys the various
types of poetic imitation, distinguishing them aecording to
means, objeet, and manner. Under the heading of différences of
me ans, in discussing compositions which use neither harmony
nor verse, Aristotle mentions the genre of the "Socratic conver-
sations."1 I take him to be touching, for a moment, on the
generic classification of philosophie works. He goes on to distin-
guish a cosmologist writing in verse from a true poet.2 The Poet-
ics shows, then, both the question of philosophie genres and the
suspect tendency to pass it by. I want to pause over the question
in order to examine its features, its elusiveness, and also its
failures.
I will begin the examination by distinguishing the question of
genre from a host of others with which it is regularly confused.
It will appear, second, that by its nature genre is internai to
philosophie discourse and of universal extent in philosophie
works. Genres are not found only in a few philosophie writings
which are somehow (defectively) literary. Third, the examina-
tion will discover dangers to the inquiry into philosophie genres
which are hidden in the very notion of 'genre'. But let me repeat
what the title says, that this is no more than a preface to the
extended study of the shape of philosophical works. I hâve
thought such a preface useful because of the repeated obscuring
of what is at stake in the study. Yet the essay «would defeat itself
if it pretended to offer a generically neutral démonstration of
some universal property of genres.
Let me also say that I will not notice during most of th.
Science v Pseudoscience: What’s the Difference? - Kevin KorbAdam Ford
Science has a certain common core, especially a reliance on empirical methods of assessing hypotheses. Pseudosciences have little in common but their negation: they are not science.
They reject meaningful empirical assessment in some way or another. Popper proposed a clear demarcation criterion for Science v Rubbish: Falsifiability. However, his criterion has not stood the test of time. There are no definitive arguments against any pseudoscience, any more than against extreme skepticism in general, but there are clear indicators of phoniness.
Post: http://www.scifuture.org/science-vs-pseudoscience
Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine: This presentation was a part of a series of invited lectures on Western philosophy as the foundation of Western medicine.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Theory of paradoxes and contradictory rule sets FINAL FINAL FINAL FINAL FINAL...Sujay Rao Mandavilli
This paper seeks to meaningfully complement many of our earlier and previously published papers on
scientific method and the philosophy of science among which were our papers on the social
responsibility of researchers, science activism, the sociological ninety ten rule, the certainty uncertainty
principle, cross-cultural research design, output criteria driven scientific hypothesis formulation,
horizontal collaboration etc., and is intended to help produce better scientific theories and hypotheses
in general and led to scientific endeavour that is of a fundamentally higher order as well. It will, we
expect and anticipate, catapult scientific activity to an altogether higher domain and sphere given that a
proactive quest for paradoxes is at the heart of our approach, and is also resultantly expected to be an
intrinsic part of formal, structured and pre-defined scientific method in future. It therefore forms an
essential and an integral part of our globalization of science movement as well, given the fact that multicultural and inter-disciplinary approaches to science are likely to throw up more paradoxes as well, and
literally up the ante too by leading to scientific activity that is of a fundamentally higher order. We begin
this paper by getting down to brass stacks and attempting a basic definition of the widely used term
“paradox” and reviewing older literature in this regard in different contexts. We also lay bare the
essentials of our approach, and enunciate the postulates and canons that form a part of our paper, so
that the entire philosophy driving this paper, i.e., its philosophical foundation, in clearly grasped and
understood by those to whom it is intended.
Philosophy of science paper_A Melodrama of Politics, Science and ReligionMahesh Jakhotia
ABSTRACT: The aim of my project is to understand how religious, scientific and political
reasons shaped and inspired the theory of ‘Origin of life and universe’ in a progressive way
and to look it from a philosopher’s point of view. I also want to explore the aspect on what makes a radical idea like Darwin’s evolutionary theory which was different from the existing paradigm to be accepted amongst the scientific community.
‘Six Sigma Technique’ A Journey Through its Implementationijtsrd
The manufacturing industries all over the world are facing tough challenges for growth, development and sustainability in today’s competitive environment. They have to achieve apex position by adapting with the global competitive environment by delivering goods and services at low cost, prime quality and better price to increase wealth and consumer satisfaction. Cost Management ensures profit, growth and sustainability of the business with implementation of Continuous Improvement Technique like Six Sigma. This leads to optimize Business performance. The method drives for customer satisfaction, low variation, reduction in waste and cycle time resulting into a competitive advantage over other industries which did not implement it. The main objective of this paper ‘Six Sigma Technique A Journey Through Its Implementation’ is to conceptualize the effectiveness of Six Sigma Technique through the journey of its implementation. Aditi Sunilkumar Ghosalkar "‘Six Sigma Technique’: A Journey Through its Implementation" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64546.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/64546/‘six-sigma-technique’-a-journey-through-its-implementation/aditi-sunilkumar-ghosalkar
Edge Computing in Space Enhancing Data Processing and Communication for Space...ijtsrd
Edge computing, a paradigm that involves processing data closer to its source, has gained significant attention for its potential to revolutionize data processing and communication in space missions. With the increasing complexity and data volume generated by modern space missions, traditional centralized computing approaches face challenges related to latency, bandwidth, and security. Edge computing in space, involving on board processing and analysis of data, offers promising solutions to these challenges. This paper explores the concept of edge computing in space, its benefits, applications, and future prospects in enhancing space missions. Manish Verma "Edge Computing in Space: Enhancing Data Processing and Communication for Space Missions" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64541.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/computer-science/artificial-intelligence/64541/edge-computing-in-space-enhancing-data-processing-and-communication-for-space-missions/manish-verma
Dynamics of Communal Politics in 21st Century India Challenges and Prospectsijtsrd
Communal politics in India has evolved through centuries, weaving a complex tapestry shaped by historical legacies, colonial influences, and contemporary socio political transformations. This research comprehensively examines the dynamics of communal politics in 21st century India, emphasizing its historical roots, socio political dynamics, economic implications, challenges, and prospects for mitigation. The historical perspective unravels the intricate interplay of religious identities and power dynamics from ancient civilizations to the impact of colonial rule, providing insights into the evolution of communalism. The socio political dynamics section delves into the contemporary manifestations, exploring the roles of identity politics, socio economic disparities, and globalization. The economic implications section highlights how communal politics intersects with economic issues, perpetuating disparities and influencing resource allocation. Challenges posed by communal politics are scrutinized, revealing multifaceted issues ranging from social fragmentation to threats against democratic values. The prospects for mitigation present a multifaceted approach, incorporating policy interventions, community engagement, and educational initiatives. The paper conducts a comparative analysis with international examples, identifying common patterns such as identity politics and economic disparities. It also examines unique challenges, emphasizing Indias diverse religious landscape, historical legacy, and secular framework. Lessons for effective strategies are drawn from international experiences, offering insights into inclusive policies, interfaith dialogue, media regulation, and global cooperation. By scrutinizing historical epochs, contemporary dynamics, economic implications, and international comparisons, this research provides a comprehensive understanding of communal politics in India. The proposed strategies for mitigation underscore the importance of a holistic approach to foster social harmony, inclusivity, and democratic values. Rose Hossain "Dynamics of Communal Politics in 21st Century India: Challenges and Prospects" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64528.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/history/64528/dynamics-of-communal-politics-in-21st-century-india-challenges-and-prospects/rose-hossain
Assess Perspective and Knowledge of Healthcare Providers Towards Elehealth in...ijtsrd
Background and Objective Telehealth has become a well known tool for the delivery of health care in Saudi Arabia, and the perspective and knowledge of healthcare providers are influential in the implementation, adoption and advancement of the method. This systematic review was conducted to examine the current literature base regarding telehealth and the related healthcare professional perspective and knowledge in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Materials and Methods This systematic review was conducted by searching 7 databases including, MEDLINE, CINHAL, Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, PsycINFO, and ProQuest Central. Studies on healthcare practitioners telehealth knowledge and perspectives published in English in Saudi Arabia from 2000 to 2023 were included. Boland directed this comprehensive review. The researchers examined each connected study using the AXIS tool, which evaluates cross sectional systematic reviews. Narrative synthesis was used to summarise and convey the data. Results Out of 1840 search results, 10 studies were included. Positive outlook and limited knowledge among providers were seen across trials. Healthcare professionals like telehealth for its ability to improve quality, access, and delivery, save time and money, and be successful. Age, gender, occupation, and work experience also affect health workers knowledge. In Saudi Arabia, healthcare professionals face inadequate expert assistance, patient privacy, internet connection concerns, lack of training courses, lack of telehealth understanding, and high costs while performing telemedicine. Conclusions Healthcare practitioners telehealth perceptions and knowledge were examined in this systematic study. Its collection of concerned experts different personal attitudes and expertise would help enhance telehealths implementation in Saudi Arabia, develop its healthcare delivery alternative, and eliminate frequent problems. Badriah Mousa I Mulayhi | Dr. Jomin George | Judy Jenkins "Assess Perspective and Knowledge of Healthcare Providers Towards Elehealth in Saudi Arabia: A Systematic Review" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64535.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/medicine/other/64535/assess-perspective-and-knowledge-of-healthcare-providers-towards-elehealth-in-saudi-arabia-a-systematic-review/badriah-mousa-i-mulayhi
The Impact of Digital Media on the Decentralization of Power and the Erosion ...ijtsrd
The impact of digital media on the distribution of power and the weakening of traditional gatekeepers has gained considerable attention in recent years. The adoption of digital technologies and the internet has resulted in declining influence and power for traditional gatekeepers such as publishing houses and news organizations. Simultaneously, digital media has facilitated the emergence of new voices and players in the media industry. Digital medias impact on power decentralization and gatekeeper erosion is visible in several ways. One significant aspect is the democratization of information, which enables anyone with an internet connection to publish and share content globally, leading to citizen journalism and bypassing traditional gatekeepers. Another aspect is the disruption of conventional media industry business models, as traditional organizations struggle to adjust to the decrease in advertising revenue and the rise of digital platforms. Alternative business models, such as subscription models and crowdfunding, have become more prevalent, leading to the emergence of new players. Overall, the impact of digital media on the distribution of power and the weakening of traditional gatekeepers has brought about significant changes in the media landscape and the way information is shared. Further research is required to fully comprehend the implications of these changes and their impact on society. Dr. Kusum Lata "The Impact of Digital Media on the Decentralization of Power and the Erosion of Traditional Gatekeepers" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64544.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/political-science/64544/the-impact-of-digital-media-on-the-decentralization-of-power-and-the-erosion-of-traditional-gatekeepers/dr-kusum-lata
Online Voices, Offline Impact Ambedkars Ideals and Socio Political Inclusion ...ijtsrd
This research investigates the nexus between online discussions on Dr. B.R. Ambedkars ideals and their impact on social inclusion among college students in Gurugram, Haryana. Surveying 240 students from 12 government colleges, findings indicate that 65 actively engage in online discussions, with 80 demonstrating moderate to high awareness of Ambedkars ideals. Statistically significant correlations reveal that higher online engagement correlates with increased awareness p 0.05 and perceived social inclusion. Variations across colleges and a notable effect of college type on perceived social inclusion highlight the influence of contextual factors. Furthermore, the intersectional analysis underscores nuanced differences based on gender, caste, and socio economic status. Dr. Kusum Lata "Online Voices, Offline Impact: Ambedkar's Ideals and Socio-Political Inclusion - A Study of Gurugram District" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64543.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/political-science/64543/online-voices-offline-impact-ambedkars-ideals-and-sociopolitical-inclusion--a-study-of-gurugram-district/dr-kusum-lata
Problems and Challenges of Agro Entreprenurship A Studyijtsrd
Noting calls for contextualizing Agro entrepreneurs problems and challenges of the agro entrepreneurs and for greater attention to the Role of entrepreneurs in agro entrepreneurship research, we conduct a systematic literature review of extent research in agriculture entrepreneurship to overcome the study objectives of complications of agro entrepreneurs through various factors, Development of agriculture products is a key factor for the overall economic growth of agro entrepreneurs Agro Entrepreneurs produces firsthand large scale employment, utilizes the labor and natural resources, This research outlines the problems of Weather and Soil Erosions, Market price fluctuation, stimulates labor cost problems, reduces concentration of Price volatility, Dependency on Intermediaries, induces Limited Bargaining Power, and Storage and Transportation Costs. This paper mainly devoted to highlight Problems and challenges faced for the sustainable of Agro Entrepreneurs in India. Vinay Prasad B "Problems and Challenges of Agro Entreprenurship - A Study" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64540.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/64540/problems-and-challenges-of-agro-entreprenurship--a-study/vinay-prasad-b
Comparative Analysis of Total Corporate Disclosure of Selected IT Companies o...ijtsrd
Disclosure is a process through which a business enterprise communicates with external parties. A corporate disclosure is communication of financial and non financial information of the activities of a business enterprise to the interested entities. Corporate disclosure is done through publishing annual reports. So corporate disclosure through annual reports plays a vital role in the life of all the companies and provides valuable information to investors. The basic objectives of corporate disclosure is to give a true and fair view of companies to the parties related either directly or indirectly like owner, government, creditors, shareholders etc. in the companies act, provisions have been made about mandatory and voluntary disclosure. The IT sector in India is rapidly growing, the trend to invest in the IT sector is rising and employment opportunities in IT sectors are also increasing. Therefore the IT sector is expected to have fair, full and adequate disclosure of all information. Unfair and incomplete disclosure may adversely affect the entire economy. A research study on disclosure practices of IT companies could play an important role in this regard. Hence, the present research study has been done to study and review comparative analysis of total corporate disclosure of selected IT companies of India and to put forward overall findings and suggestions with a view to increase disclosure score of these companies. The researcher hopes that the present research study will be helpful to all selected Companies for improving level of corporate disclosure through annual reports as well as the government, creditors, investors, all business organizations and upcoming researcher for comparative analyses of level of corporate disclosure with special reference to selected IT companies. Dr. Vaibhavi D. Thaker "Comparative Analysis of Total Corporate Disclosure of Selected IT Companies of India" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64539.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/64539/comparative-analysis-of-total-corporate-disclosure-of-selected-it-companies-of-india/dr-vaibhavi-d-thaker
The Impact of Educational Background and Professional Training on Human Right...ijtsrd
This study investigated the impact of educational background and professional training on human rights awareness among secondary school teachers in the Marathwada region of Maharashtra, India. The key findings reveal that higher levels of education, particularly a master’s degree, and fields of study related to education, humanities, or social sciences are associated with greater human rights awareness among teachers. Additionally, both pre service teacher training and in service professional development programs focused on human rights education significantly enhance teacher’s knowledge, skills, and competencies in promoting human rights principles in their classrooms. Baig Ameer Bee Mirza Abdul Aziz | Dr. Syed Azaz Ali Amjad Ali "The Impact of Educational Background and Professional Training on Human Rights Awareness among Secondary School Teachers" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64529.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/64529/the-impact-of-educational-background-and-professional-training-on-human-rights-awareness-among-secondary-school-teachers/baig-ameer-bee-mirza-abdul-aziz
A Study on the Effective Teaching Learning Process in English Curriculum at t...ijtsrd
“One Language sets you in a corridor for life. Two languages open every door along the way” Frank Smith English as a foreign language or as a second language has been ruling in India since the period of Lord Macaulay. But the question is how much we teach or learn English properly in our culture. Is there any scope to use English as a language rather than a subject How much we learn or teach English without any interference of mother language specially in the classroom teaching learning scenario in West Bengal By considering all these issues the researcher has attempted in this article to focus on the effective teaching learning process comparing to other traditional strategies in the field of English curriculum at the secondary level to investigate whether they fulfill the present teaching learning requirements or not by examining the validity of the present curriculum of English. The purpose of this study is to focus on the effectiveness of the systematic, scientific, sequential and logical transaction of the course between the teachers and the learners in the perspective of the 5Es programme that is engage, explore, explain, extend and evaluate. Sanchali Mondal | Santinath Sarkar "A Study on the Effective Teaching Learning Process in English Curriculum at the Secondary Level of West Bengal" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd62412.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/62412/a-study-on-the-effective-teaching-learning-process-in-english-curriculum-at-the-secondary-level-of-west-bengal/sanchali-mondal
The Role of Mentoring and Its Influence on the Effectiveness of the Teaching ...ijtsrd
This paper reports on a study which was conducted to investigate the role of mentoring and its influence on the effectiveness of the teaching of Physics in secondary schools in the South West Region of Cameroon. The study adopted the convergent parallel mixed methods design, focusing on respondents in secondary schools in the South West Region of Cameroon. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected, analysed separately, and the results were compared to see if the findings confirm or disconfirm each other. The quantitative analysis found that majority of the respondents 72 of Physics teachers affirmed that they had more experienced colleagues as mentors to help build their confidence, improve their teaching, and help them improve their effectiveness and efficiency in guiding learners’ achievements. Only 28 of the respondents disagreed with these statements. With majority respondents 72 agreeing with the statements, it implies that in most secondary schools, experienced Physics teachers act as mentors to build teachers’ confidence in teaching and improving students’ learning. The interview qualitative data analysis summarized how secondary school Principals use meetings with mentors and mentees to promote mentorship in the school milieu. This has helped strengthen teachers’ classroom practices in secondary schools in the South West Region of Cameroon. With the results confirming each other, the study recommends that mentoring should focus on helping teachers employ social interactions and instructional practices feedback and clarity in teaching that have direct measurable impact on students’ learning achievements. Andrew Ngeim Sumba | Frederick Ebot Ashu | Peter Agborbechem Tambi "The Role of Mentoring and Its Influence on the Effectiveness of the Teaching of Physics in Secondary Schools in the South West Region of Cameroon" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64524.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/management/management-development/64524/the-role-of-mentoring-and-its-influence-on-the-effectiveness-of-the-teaching-of-physics-in-secondary-schools-in-the-south-west-region-of-cameroon/andrew-ngeim-sumba
Design Simulation and Hardware Construction of an Arduino Microcontroller Bas...ijtsrd
This study primarily focuses on the design of a high side buck converter using an Arduino microcontroller. The converter is specifically intended for use in DC DC applications, particularly in standalone solar PV systems where the PV output voltage exceeds the load or battery voltage. To evaluate the performance of the converter, simulation experiments are conducted using Proteus Software. These simulations provide insights into the input and output voltages, currents, powers, and efficiency under different state of charge SoC conditions of a 12V,70Ah rechargeable lead acid battery. Additionally, the hardware design of the converter is implemented, and practical data is collected through operation, monitoring, and recording. By comparing the simulation results with the practical results, the efficiency and performance of the designed converter are assessed. The findings indicate that while the buck converter is suitable for practical use in standalone PV systems, its efficiency is compromised due to a lower output current. Chan Myae Aung | Dr. Ei Mon "Design Simulation and Hardware Construction of an Arduino-Microcontroller Based DC-DC High-Side Buck Converter for Standalone PV System" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64518.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/mechanical-engineering/64518/design-simulation-and-hardware-construction-of-an-arduinomicrocontroller-based-dcdc-highside-buck-converter-for-standalone-pv-system/chan-myae-aung
Sustainable Energy by Paul A. Adekunte | Matthew N. O. Sadiku | Janet O. Sadikuijtsrd
Energy becomes sustainable if it meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Some of the definitions of sustainable energy include the considerations of environmental aspects such as greenhouse gas emissions, social, and economic aspects such as energy poverty. Generally far more sustainable than fossil fuel are renewable energy sources such as wind, hydroelectric power, solar, and geothermal energy sources. Worthy of note is that some renewable energy projects, like the clearing of forests to produce biofuels, can cause severe environmental damage. The sustainability of nuclear power which is a low carbon source is highly debated because of concerns about radioactive waste, nuclear proliferation, and accidents. The switching from coal to natural gas has environmental benefits, including a lower climate impact, but could lead to delay in switching to more sustainable options. “Carbon capture and storage” can be built into power plants to remove the carbon dioxide CO2 emissions, but this technology is expensive and has rarely been implemented. Leading non renewable energy sources around the world is fossil fuels, coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Nuclear energy is usually considered another non renewable energy source, although nuclear energy itself is a renewable energy source, but the material used in nuclear power plants is not. The paper addresses the issue of sustainable energy, its attendant benefits to the future generation, and humanity in general. Paul A. Adekunte | Matthew N. O. Sadiku | Janet O. Sadiku "Sustainable Energy" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64534.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electrical-engineering/64534/sustainable-energy/paul-a-adekunte
Concepts for Sudan Survey Act Implementations Executive Regulations and Stand...ijtsrd
This paper aims to outline the executive regulations, survey standards, and specifications required for the implementation of the Sudan Survey Act, and for regulating and organizing all surveying work activities in Sudan. The act has been discussed for more than 5 years. The Land Survey Act was initiated by the Sudan Survey Authority and all official legislations were headed by the Sudan Ministry of Justice till it was issued in 2022. The paper presents conceptual guidelines to be used for the Survey Act implementation and to regulate the survey work practice, standardizing the field surveys, processing, quality control, procedures, and the processes related to survey work carried out by the stakeholders and relevant authorities in Sudan. The conceptual guidelines are meant to improve the quality and harmonization of geospatial data and to aid decision making processes as well as geospatial information systems. The established comprehensive executive regulations will govern and regulate the implementation of the Sudan Survey Geomatics Act in all surveying and mapping practices undertaken by the Sudan Survey Authority SSA and state local survey departments for public or private sector organizations. The targeted standards and specifications include the reference frame, projection, coordinate systems, and the guidelines and specifications that must be followed in the field of survey work, processes, and mapping products. In the last few decades, there has been a growing awareness of the importance of geomatics activities and measurements on the Earths surface in space and time, together with observing and mapping the changes. In such cases, data must be captured promptly, standardized, and obtained with more accuracy and specified in much detail. The paper will also highlight the current situation in Sudan, the degree to which survey standards are used, the problems encountered, and the errors that arise from not using the standards and survey specifications. Kamal A. A. Sami "Concepts for Sudan Survey Act Implementations - Executive Regulations and Standards" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd63484.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/civil-engineering/63484/concepts-for-sudan-survey-act-implementations--executive-regulations-and-standards/kamal-a-a-sami
Towards the Implementation of the Sudan Interpolated Geoid Model Khartoum Sta...ijtsrd
The discussions between ellipsoid and geoid have invoked many researchers during the recent decades, especially during the GNSS technology era, which had witnessed a great deal of development but still geoid undulation requires more investigations. To figure out a solution for Sudans local geoid, this research has tried to intake the possibility of determining the geoid model by following two approaches, gravimetric and geometrical geoid model determination, by making use of GNSS leveling benchmarks at Khartoum state. The Benchmarks are well distributed in the study area, in which, the horizontal coordinates and the height above the ellipsoid have been observed by GNSS while orthometric heights were carried out using precise leveling. The Global Geopotential Model GGM represented in EGM2008 has been exploited to figure out the geoid undulation at the benchmarks in the study area. This is followed by a fitting process, that has been done to suit the geoid undulation data which has been computed using GNSS leveling data and geoid undulation inspired by the EGM2008. Two geoid surfaces were created after the fitting process to ensure that they are identical and both of them could be counted for getting the same geoid undulation with an acceptable accuracy. In this respect, statistical operation played an important role in ensuring the consistency and integrity of the model by applying cross validation techniques splitting the data into training and testing datasets for building the geoid model and testing its eligibility. The geometrical solution for geoid undulation computation has been utilized by applying straightforward equations that facilitate the calculation of the geoid undulation directly through applying statistical techniques for the GNSS leveling data of the study area to get the common equation parameters values that could be utilized to calculate geoid undulation of any position in the study area within the claimed accuracy. Both systems were checked and proved eligible to be used within the study area with acceptable accuracy which may contribute to solving the geoid undulation problem in the Khartoum area, and be further generalized to determine the geoid model over the entire country, and this could be considered in the future, for regional and continental geoid model. Ahmed M. A. Mohammed. | Kamal A. A. Sami "Towards the Implementation of the Sudan Interpolated Geoid Model (Khartoum State Case Study)" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd63483.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/civil-engineering/63483/towards-the-implementation-of-the-sudan-interpolated-geoid-model-khartoum-state-case-study/ahmed-m-a-mohammed
Activating Geospatial Information for Sudans Sustainable Investment Mapijtsrd
Sudan is witnessing an acceleration in the processes of development and transformation in the performance of government institutions to raise the productivity and investment efficiency of the government sector. The development plans and investment opportunities have focused on achieving national goals in various sectors. This paper aims to illuminate the path to the future and provide geospatial data and information to develop the investment climate and environment for all sized businesses, and to bridge the development gap between the Sudan states. The Sudan Survey Authority SSA is the main advisor to the Sudan Government in conducting surveying, mappings, designing, and developing systems related to geospatial data and information. In recent years, SSA made a strategic partnership with the Ministry of Investment to activate Geospatial Information for Sudans Sustainable Investment and in particular, for the preparation and implementation of the Sudan investment map, based on the directives and objectives of the Ministry of Investment MI in Sudan. This paper comes within the framework of activating the efforts of the Ministry of Investment to develop technical investment services by applying techniques adopted by the Ministry and its strategic partners for advancing investment processes in the country. Kamal A. A. Sami "Activating Geospatial Information for Sudan's Sustainable Investment Map" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd63482.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/information-technology/63482/activating-geospatial-information-for-sudans-sustainable-investment-map/kamal-a-a-sami
Educational Unity Embracing Diversity for a Stronger Societyijtsrd
In a rapidly changing global landscape, the importance of education as a unifying force cannot be overstated. This paper explores the crucial role of educational unity in fostering a stronger and more inclusive society through the embrace of diversity. By examining the benefits of diverse learning environments, the paper aims to highlight the positive impact on societal strength. The discussion encompasses various dimensions, from curriculum design to classroom dynamics, and emphasizes the need for educational institutions to become catalysts for unity in diversity. It highlights the need for a paradigm shift in educational policies, curricula, and pedagogical approaches to ensure that they are reflective of the diverse fabric of society. This paper also addresses the challenges associated with implementing inclusive educational practices and offers practical strategies for overcoming barriers. It advocates for collaborative efforts between educational institutions, policymakers, and communities to create a supportive ecosystem that promotes diversity and unity. Mr. Amit Adhikari | Madhumita Teli | Gopal Adhikari "Educational Unity: Embracing Diversity for a Stronger Society" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64525.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/64525/educational-unity-embracing-diversity-for-a-stronger-society/mr-amit-adhikari
Integration of Indian Indigenous Knowledge System in Management Prospects and...ijtsrd
The diversity of indigenous knowledge systems in India is vast and can vary significantly between different communities and regions. Preserving and respecting these knowledge systems is crucial for maintaining cultural heritage, promoting sustainable practices, and fostering cross cultural understanding. In this paper, an overview of the prospects and challenges associated with incorporating Indian indigenous knowledge into management is explored. It is found that IIKS helps in management in many areas like sustainable development, tourism, food security, natural resource management, cultural preservation and innovation, etc. However, IIKS integration with management faces some challenges in the form of a lack of documentation, cultural sensitivity, language barriers legal framework, etc. Savita Lathwal "Integration of Indian Indigenous Knowledge System in Management: Prospects and Challenges" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd63500.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/management/accounting-and-finance/63500/integration-of-indian-indigenous-knowledge-system-in-management-prospects-and-challenges/savita-lathwal
DeepMask Transforming Face Mask Identification for Better Pandemic Control in...ijtsrd
The COVID 19 pandemic has highlighted the crucial need of preventive measures, with widespread use of face masks being a key method for slowing the viruss spread. This research investigates face mask identification using deep learning as a technological solution to be reducing the risk of coronavirus transmission. The proposed method uses state of the art convolutional neural networks CNNs and transfer learning to automatically recognize persons who are not wearing masks in a variety of circumstances. We discuss how this strategy improves public health and safety by providing an efficient manner of enforcing mask wearing standards. The report also discusses the obstacles, ethical concerns, and prospective applications of face mask detection systems in the ongoing fight against the pandemic. Dilip Kumar Sharma | Aaditya Yadav "DeepMask: Transforming Face Mask Identification for Better Pandemic Control in the COVID-19 Era" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd64522.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electronics-and-communication-engineering/64522/deepmask-transforming-face-mask-identification-for-better-pandemic-control-in-the-covid19-era/dilip-kumar-sharma
Streamlining Data Collection eCRF Design and Machine Learningijtsrd
Efficient and accurate data collection is paramount in clinical trials, and the design of Electronic Case Report Forms eCRFs plays a pivotal role in streamlining this process. This paper explores the integration of machine learning techniques in the design and implementation of eCRFs to enhance data collection efficiency. We delve into the synergies between eCRF design principles and machine learning algorithms, aiming to optimize data quality, reduce errors, and expedite the overall data collection process. The application of machine learning in eCRF design brings forth innovative approaches to data validation, anomaly detection, and real time adaptability. This paper discusses the benefits, challenges, and future prospects of leveraging machine learning in eCRF design for streamlined and advanced data collection in clinical trials. Dhanalakshmi D | Vijaya Lakshmi Kannareddy "Streamlining Data Collection: eCRF Design and Machine Learning" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-8 | Issue-1 , February 2024, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd63515.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/biological-science/biotechnology/63515/streamlining-data-collection-ecrf-design-and-machine-learning/dhanalakshmi-d
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
2. International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (IJTSRD) @ www.ijtsrd.com eISSN: 2456-6470
@ IJTSRD | Unique Paper ID – IJTSRD30060 | Volume – 4 | Issue – 2 | January-February 2020 Page 471
What then do we mean by progress in Science or scientific
progress? The term scientific progress, suggests two
positions: progress with regards to the amelioration of the
predictive efficiency of Science, and progress from the stand
point of the quest for the addition of the number of truth
available. In other words, progress here,isdefinedfrom how
close science leads humanity to truth. This is because; from
the teleological perspective, as advocated by the realists,
scientific progress is an indication of an upward thrust
towards a finality which is truth. Antithetically, the
evolutionist perspective or the anti-realist position of
scientific progress demonstrates an amelioration of the
predictive efficiency of Science. This perspective looks at
scientific progress from its effectiveness in attaining to the
needs of humanity. While philosophers of modern science
such as Descartes, Newton and Bacon have variously stated
principles which must be respected to ensure scientific
progress, Feyerabend on his part is categorical to the fact
that Science is assured of progress only when scientific
practice adopts a plurality of approaches.
Pluralism as an old term in philosophy has proponents in
Ancient philosophysuchasEmpedocles,Anaxagoras,and the
atomists,(LeucippusandDemocritus).Theymaintainedthat,
reality was made up of a multiplicityofentities.Adherents to
this doctrine set them in opposition to the monism of the
Eleatic school (Parmenides), which thought that reality was
impermeable unity and unbroken solidarity.5 In
Epistemology or the Philosophy of Science, the pluralist
ideology sees nature as many sided and thus cannot be
studied from a single and universal position. This doctrine is
opposed not only to monism, but also to dualism, and holds
that it is impossible to reduce reality to one. Methodological
pluralism, an approach typical of Feyerabend, istheposition
that there is no single and universal methodapplicableto the
practice of science in all places and all epochs. By way of
example, Feyerabend holds that scientific observations in
different periods werefullytheoretical accordingto radically
incommensurable frameworks.6
It is important to state that the presupposition of
methodological monisminthemodernscientificmethod was
affirmed successively by the Empiricists such as Bacon, the
Rationalists such as Descartes, the PositivistssuchasComte,
and the neo Positivists (the inductivists of the Vienna Circle
and the Popperian Deductivists on the other hand). The
fundamental presupposition is the fact that science belongs
to itself and that it constitutes a form of knowledge which is
absolutely exceptional, conditioned by the strict respect of
unique methodological norms which guarantee progress in
science. The particularity of the critical reaction of
Feyerabend secedes on his radicalism,whichiscontrolledby
methodological pluralism aimed at destroying the scientism
of the modern scientific method without destroying science.
That is why he claims that; “Science is essentially an
anarchistic enterprise, theoretical anarchism is more
humanitarian and more likely to encourageprogressthan its
law-and-order alternatives.”7 This is because, History, even
5 Audi, R., The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, (1995),
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, Second Edition,
1999, p. 714.
6 Bunnin, N., and Yu, J., The Blackwell Dictionary of
Philosophy, (2004), Oxford, Blackwell Publishing, p. 254.
7 Feyerabend, P.K., 1993, Op. Cit., p. 9.
the history of science is always more varied and manysided.
At this juncture I assert that this work justifies theclaimthat
Feyerabend is a pluralist. I may, and do disagree with his
somewhat extremist pluralist stance on Science and
progress, but my opinion and that of others, I claim, only
goes a long way to justify his pluralist stance. A historical
study of his works attests to that fact. Second, it is aimed at
arguing, with evidence especially from Against Method and
The Tyranny of Science, that progress in science is directly
proportional to the adoption of a pluralistapproachtowards
the practice of science. At this juncture, the question is: How
does pluralism positively influence progress in science as
Feyerabend claims?
Feyerabend and Methodological Pluralism in Against
Method
As mentioned in the introduction, Against Method is one of
Paul Feyerabend’s major works. In this work, Feyerabend is
critical of the claims that science relies on fixed rules and
principles to progress. That is, Feyerabend does notseehow
fixed and unchanging rules in the practice of science will
advance the latter. Rather, this stifles progress. Also,thetitle
of the book speaks for itself; Against Method. This title is
interpreted to mean, arguments against the uniqueness and
universality of the scientific method. In order words, this
book presents arguments against methodological monism.
By implication, he defends the contrary of methodological
monism, that is, methodological pluralism. To term him a
methodological pluralist is also, corroborative of his claim
that: “this book [Against Method] proposes a thesis and
draws consequences from it. The thesis is: the events,
procedures and results that constitute the sciences have no
common structure.”8 It should be noted that instead of
‘science’, Feyerabend uses ‘sciences’. This means that, he
does not see how one can talk of science in singular. To him,
the sciences are plural, representing the plurality of nature.
They have no common structure becausereality,whichisthe
object of Science, is viewed from diverse perspectives. For
this reason, the idea of a fixed method, of a fixed theory of
rationality, is a naïve one. It is the consequence of ignorance
of the happenings in one’s social surroundings. In line with
this argument, Einstein’s thinks that:
The external conditions, … ‘which are set for [the
scientist] by the facts of experience to do notpermittolet
himself too much restricted in the construction of his
conceptual world by the adherence to an epistemological
system. He therefore, must appear to the systematic
epistemologist as a type of unscrupulousopportunist…”9
The scientist, to Einstein, who wants to enhance progress
must take advantage of every approach that presents itself,
and not adhere to the law and other method of modern
science. This is because, experience presents a variety of
phenomena, and restricting one to strict rules hinders his or
her adequate exploitation of these phenomena.
Pluralism Challenges and Science’s Claims to Unity of
Method
Feyerabend is critical of claims to unity of the scientific
method, the oneness of approach, and its claims to
8 Ibid., P.1.
9 Einstein, A., Philosopher Scientist ed. P.A. Schilp. New York
1951, pp. 683ff.
3. International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (IJTSRD) @ www.ijtsrd.com eISSN: 2456-6470
@ IJTSRD | Unique Paper ID – IJTSRD30060 | Volume – 4 | Issue – 2 | January-February 2020 Page 472
universality. Contrarily to the positivist position of one
universal theory of rationality, he opines that researchisnot
successful because it obeyedfixedandunique principles.Itis
rather successful because researchers relied on one trick or
the other, because they diversified their search approaches.
This position, it must be noted, is antithetical to that of Lena
Soler, who is emphatic on the unity and rationality of
science, stating that concerningthegeneral characteristicsof
science; science furnishes‘knowledge’onitsobject,scientific
knowledge is based on objectively verifiable relations,
scientific knowledge is considered to be universal, scientific
knowledge is obtained thanks to a unique and determinate
method, and finally that, it can be considered as the sum
total of reliable knowledge.10 This unity and universality of
method is detrimental to progress because it discourages
creation and initiatives. It is also detrimental because it
forces scientists to act as robots, thereby dehumanizing
humans. (To use the words of Feyerabend in The Tyranny of
Science). They are conditioned to obey rules meanwhile
nature; the subject matter of Science is diverse, plural or
multi-dimensional. Feyerabend thus thinks that progress in
science is conditioned not by relying ona uniquemethodbut
on a multiplicity of methods.
Second, Feyerabend employs the pluralist stance as a
challenge to the consistency condition. The first chapter of
Against Method opens with an argument which epitomises
the difficulty involved in doing science according to fixed
principles. To him, scientific progress meets with
considerable difficulty when plurality of methods is shoved
aside. This, to him, is because nature is so diverse pluri-
dimensional , be it sociologically or culturally and defining
unchanging procedures to solving societal and scientific
challenges is rather too dogmatic. That is why he argues that
“there is no simple rule, however, plausible, and however
firmly grounded in epistemology that is not violatedatsome
time or another”11 I understand with him that the violation
of rules, recurrent in the sciences is not an accidental
phenomenon. It is rather a means to an end. This end is
progress in science.
In an attempt to elucidate his argument, Paul Feyerabend
uses some examples in the history of science such as the
invention of atomisminantiquity,theCopernicanrevolution,
the rise of modern atomism (kinetic theory: dispersion
theory: stereochemistry:quantumtheory).Healsomentions
the gradual emergence of the wave theory of light, to say
that, they occurred only because some thinkers decided to
not be tied down by the status quo, by the prevailing rules of
science but to think outside the box.12 When they decided to
give a deaf ear to calls for strict respect of rules and
approach phenomena from a pluralist perspective. By
implication, it is clear that Feyerabend thinks that progress
in science is a direct consequence of adherence to pluralism.
In an attempt to drive home his pluralist approach to doing
science, Paul Feyerabend poses two questions:
1. Is it desirable to live in accordance with the rules of
critical rationalism?
10 Soler, L., Introduction á l’èpistemologie, Elipses, 2000, pp.
18-20.
11 Einstein, A., 1951, Op. Cit., pp. 683ff
12 Ibid.
2. Is it possible to have both Science as we know it and
these rules?13
His response to these interrogations is a representation of
his position vis-a-vis the conditions for progress in science.
To him; “such a procedure may satisfy a school master
philosopher. This is because he or she looks at life through
the spectacles of his or her own technical problems and
recognizes hatred, love, happiness only to the extent to
which they occur in these problems.”14 On the other hand, if
human interest is taken into account, especially human
freedom, (freedom from hunger, despair, and from the
tyranny of complicated systems),wewill cometorealisethat
claims to the universality of method and the consistency
condition miss the point. Particularly to the second question
“… the answer … is a resounding NO”15 that is to say science
does not and cannot progress with strict application of
specific or unique rules or theories. The major question now
is; how does Paul Feyerabend’s methodological pluralism
tackle the problem of the commensurability of new theories
to older theories?
Pluralism asaDefenceoftheIncommensurabilityThesis
In Feyerabend’s opinion, the consistency condition; the
imperative that new theories and approaches in science
must, as a matter of necessity, be consistent with older and
acceptable theories, is not favourableforprogressinscience.
This point of view in science has been termed the
commensurability thesis. He advances a contrary thesis,
which will be referred to as the incommensurability thesis,
thus introducing a new voice in the Philosophy of Science.
This concept dates back to Ancient Greek mathematics,
where it was used to imply “no common measures between
the length of a leg and the length of the hypotenuse of an
isosceles right triangle.16 However, in recent times
Feyerabend and Thomas Kuhn are the ones on whom the
term has been attributed. Laudan will define the term in the
following summary: “Incommensurability of theories at the
object level does not entail incompatibility at the meta-level.
The wide held assumption that a non-translatability leads
inevitably to cognitive relativism iswidelymistaken.”17 This,
it must be noted, was his attempt to argue against the
positivists’ view that new theories must, as a matter of fact,
follow the procedure laid down by older and more generally
accepted theories. Kuhn on his part posits that,
incommensurability implies for example, that where
proponents of the Newtonian theory see a pendulum, an
Aristolalian saw constrained free fall; where Priestly saw
dephogisticated air,LavoisiersawOxygen;whereBerthOllet
saw a compound that could vary in proposition,Provostsaw
only a physical mixture.”18 We notice from the examples
13 Feyerabend, P.K., 1993, Op. Cit., p. 153.
14 Ibid., p. 154.
15 Ibid.
16 Mill, J.S., On Liberty, Op. Cit., p. 293. In recent times, Paul
Feyerabend and Thomas Kuhn are the ones on whom, the
term is attributed. Here, the use it to question sciences
claims to nationality. In Stanford Encyclopaedia of
Philosophy, in
http://plato.standford.edu/entries/incommensurability.
17 Laudan, L., Beyond Positivism and Relativism Theory,
Method, and Evidence, Oxford, West View Press,1996, p.12.
18 Kuhn, T., The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Chicago,
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above that to Kuhn, theories are incommensuratewhenthey
cannot be compared. This lack of comparison is because
different scientists have different observations of the same
objects and thus come out with different analyses and
conclusions. The questionhowever remainstheonetoknow;
what is the relationship between methodological pluralism
and the incommensurability thesis?
The answer to the question above necessitates that we
consider what Feyerabend articulates in Against Method,
especially concerning the consistency condition. First of all,
to him, theories are hardly ever consistent with facts, thatis,
no theory is commensurate with clearly established ideas.
For this reason, the demand to admit only theories which
follow from facts leaves us “without any theory, for there is
not a single theory that is not in some trouble or another.”19
The meaning of this argument is that, the modernists’ view
that new ideas must be in line or agree with or form an
intrinsic part of older theories, (commensurability of
scientific theories) is a sham. It is a sham because no theory
ever agrees with facts and to say the least, every theory has
one weakness or another. As such, imposing the submission
of new theories to the already existing ones is cumulating
the weaknesses of the well-established theory to the newly
established one which already has enough weaknesses.
Secondly, Feyerabend’s argument in the support of
incommensurability and by implication, in defence of
plurality of ideas and approaches in science, can be deduced
from his argument against the imposition of western backed
rationality in non-western societies. To him, arguing that
new theories must be commensurate to old ones, to well
established ones, gives an unjustified privilege to the
hitherto established theory or method. This view is
corroborated by the fact that, there will always be a well-
known or an acclaimed way of doing thing. If new
approaches to knowledge must as a matter offactagree with
the already existing ones, then the survival of the new
theories of approaches is at the mercy of the existent theory.
This will rather hinder research than ameliorate it. This is
principally because even the so called ‘already established
idea or approach to knowledge’ began somewhere as an
unknown idea. It started as a primitiveidea,yetwasgivenan
to opportunity manifest. Critics who refer to him as
relativist, anarchist and the worst enemy of science take
advantage of this position vis-a-vis primitive myths and
legends. In my opinion, Feyerabend rather stretches the
elasticity of his methodological pluralism when he gives
credence to Primitive theories and approaches outside
modern science’s approach. He rather is determined to
propose a more accommodating approach to science, to
ensure that nothing that is capable of encouraging progress
in science is sacrificed on the altar of methodological
monism. No doubt he is quick to assert that: “primitive
myths appear strange and nonsensical only because the
information they contain is either not known or is distorted
by philosophies or anthropologists unfamiliar with the
simplest physical, medical or astronomical knowledge.”20
What Feyerabend means here is that, making it obligatory
University of ChicagoPress,1962/1970,SecondEdition with
Post Script), p. 128.
19 Feyerabend, P.K., 1993, Op. Cit., p. 49.
20 Ibid., p. 35.
for voodoo, for example, as a theory to be compatible and
comparable with well-established doctrines in modern
science, is an attempt to deny it the very essence of its
existence as a theory destined to complete and overall the
limitations of Western Science. The need for
incommensurability really comesoutclear whenwetakethe
example of the revival of traditional medicine in communist
china. In the foot notes , he explains that the author of
Traditional Medicine in Modern China gives very interesting
and fair account of developments withnumerousquotations
from news-papers, books, pamphlets, but is often inhibited
by his respect for 20th century science.
21 This respect for
Western Science is what has contributed to its chauvinism.
To justify this claim, he says that; “science is imported,
taught, and pushes aside all traditional elements. Scientific
chauvinism triumphs; what is compatible with science
should live and what is incompatible with science should
die.”22
By way of conclusion, from the history of science as
documented in Against Method, we understand that
incommensurability, which underscores and defends
plurality or diversity, hasalwaysbeenthefoundational pillar
for advancement in science. For example, he narrates that
when the Pythagorean idea of the motion of the earth was
revived by Copernicus, it met with difficulties which
exceeded the difficulties encountered by contemporary
Ptolemic astronomists. But the fact is that when Galileotook
upon him to make sense of this Copernican idea, he took
upon himself to make sense of this Copernican idea, he took
for granted that it has been refused. This refutationbased on
the fact that it was incommensurate to Aristotle’s version as
well as the facts from sense data. Since Galileo was
convinced of the view of Copernicus, he looked for new kind
of facts that will support Copernicus yet he accepted byall.23
In order to obtain these facts, there was the need partly for
the telescope to be invented, and to adopt his principle of
relativity and his dynamics. Whatever the case, we must
state the telescope was not commensurate to the
instruments (scientific instrument) of the day nor was his
principle of relativity. To him, both the results of the
telescope and the new ideas of motion put forth were not
welcome by common sense, and the theories associated toit
could easily be disproved. Yet these false theories, says
Feyerabend, these unacceptable phenomena were
transformed by Galileo and convertedintostrongsupportof
Copernicus. From here, we understand that new idea or
theory may not only be incommensurate to the status-quo.
But as Feyerabend insinuates, facts are arranged “in a new
way”, approximations are made known effects are omitted,
different conceptual lines are drawn, so that a new kind of
experience arises and manufacturedalmostoutofthinair.”24
This distortion as we understand permitsGalileotoadvance,
but it prevents almost everyone else from making his efforts
the basis of a critical philosophy. With commensurability,
scientists, like the defenders of the one true Religion pride
themselves with the right to provide everyone with the
“right” way to attain “salvation” or “getting results” andthey
deny such authority from others.25
21 Feyerabend, P.K., 1993, p. 36.
22 Ibid.
23 Ibid.
24 Feyerabend, P.K., 1993, Op. Cit., p. 120.
25 Ibid., p. 160.
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In order to challenge Science’s claims to superiority and to
further strengthen the doctrine of incommensurabilityasan
off-shoot of methodological pluralism, Feyerabend argues
that “one must remember those cases where science left to
itself, committed grievous blunders” and this goes to
elucidate the fact that science is only one of the many
instruments people invented to cope with their
surroundings. It is not the only one, it is not infallible and it
has become too powerful too pushy, andtoodangerousto be
left on its own. In addition one disadvantage of the
commensurability thesis and the unanimity of laws,
Feyerabend states, is that a society based on well-defined
and restrictive rules, “forces the dissenter in to a no-man’s-
land of no rules at all and thus robs him of his reason and his
humanity.”26 For this reason, Feyerabend by way of
conduction argues that the chauvinism of science is a much
greater problem than the problem of intellectual pollution.
This to him is because scientists are not content with
running their own play pens in accordance with what they
regard as the rules of scientific method. They want to
universalize those rules, they want them to become part of
the society at large and they use every means at their
disposal…”27Communist china, discovered this aim of
western science, that is, its chauvinistic attitude, its
dogmatism and most especially its doctrine of the one and
only universal method, and proceededtodivertfromitintoa
direction that best suits their cultural and traditional
background. That is how they developed Chinese traditional
medicine.
Paul Feyerabend and the Plurality of Methods in The
Tyranny of Science
The title of Paul Feyerabend’s work published
posthumously, The Tyranny of Science speaks volumes. It
speaks volumes about the intentions oftheauthor.Areading
of The Tyranny of Science unveils Feyerabend’s zeal to
liberate science from all tyranny, the tyranny of science
included. It demonstrates his desire to introduce the
pluralist approach to doing science. From the title of the
book, one understands that modern science as it is, is a
tyrant. It is a tyrant because of its autocratic approach,
because it imposes on scientists a unique and unchanging
approach to research. This view of science and its method
has been defended variously by different modern
philosophers of science such as Francis Bacon who thinks
that:
If all the ages had or shall hereafter meet together, if the
whole human race shall hereafter apply themselves to
philosophy, and the whole earth had been or shall be
nothing academic and collegesandschoolsoflearnedmen,
still without the experimental historysuchasIamgoingto
prescribe, no progress of the human race could have been
made or can be made in philosophy and science.28
By this pronouncement, Baconsystematicallyeliminatesany
other approach to scientific knowledge or epistemic
certitude. He thinks that if his knowledge is approached in
every other way, apart from the way conceived by him, then
26 Ibid., p. 162.
27 Ibid., p. 163.
28 Bacon, F., “Preparative towards a Natural Experimental
History”. Retrieved from: http//Baconian science and
experiments//history, on the 10th May 2011.
science and philosophy will not progress. This is what has
been referred to as the scientism of Modern Science.Itisthis
tyranny, this autocratic approach to knowledge, which
Feyerabend is critical about in The Tyranny of Science. To
him, only a pluralist approach to science can defeat the
tyranny inherent in modern science and its philosophy.This
view in defence of science’s exclusive superiority and
authority in the quest for epistemic certitude is summed up
by Meynell who claims that, “… it is the supreme and unique
merit of the scientific method that it has been the means of
discovering the truth where ignorance and superstition had
previously prevailed…”29 This book is therefore an attempt
to expose this tyrannical nature inherent in modern science.
It is aimed also at showing that, despite the abstract
epistemic claims to the unity of scienceandtheuniquenessif
method, historical examples are indicative of the fact that
science often progresses when scientists abandon the tools
of uniqueness and universality of method and think outside
the box. He is critical of the claim that. Sciencealone,andthis
means its statements and the world views constructed from
them, tells us what really happens in nature and views of
Modern Science is the assertion that Science tells you
everything there is to be known about the world, and that
ideas which conflict with science are not worth
considering.30
The meaning of the above assertion isthat,whateveranswer
one needs to have about humanity, society, nature or the
absolute, there is one source to provide the answer, science.
Truth, according to philosophers of Modern Science is not
found outside Science and its Method.Scienceisthereforeall
knowing, all encompassing,self-rectifying,andtheonly‘way’
to true and objective knowledge. In Paul Feyerabend’s,view,
this conception of Science will certainlycreatea monster. No
doubt he says that; “the one monster SCIENCE that speaks
with a single voice is a paste job constructed by
propagandists, reductionists and educators.”31 Thequestion
now is; how does Paul Feyerabend unravel hisphilosophyof
methodological pluralism in The Tyranny of Science?
Feyerabend Views all Approaches and Forms of
Knowledge as Same
Paul Feyerabend’sargumentsagainstMethodismismandthe
universalism is mainly that it stifles progress in Science.
Strict respect of stereotype rules of method leads humanity
to a one single religion called Science. He thus raises
arguments against these autocratic claims of modern
science. To him, science is not singular; Science cannot
progress if it is tied down by strict and universal rules. On
the contrary, people who say that it is science that
determines the nature of reality assume that the sciences
speak with a single voice. They think that there is a monster,
science, and when it speaks, it alters andrepeats and repeats
and repeats again a single coherent message.Hethusaddsas
a form of contradiction that “nothing could be further from
the truth.”32 This notion about science is just a fairy-tale.Itis
a fairy-tale because, “different sciences have vastly different
29 Meynell, H., Science, the Truth and Thomas Kuhn, Mind,
New Series, 84(333), 1975, p. 79.
30 Feyerabend, P.K., The Tyranny of Science, Edited and with
an Introduction, by Eric Oberheim, Cambridge, Polity Press,
2011, p. 54.
31 Ibid., p. 56.
32 Feyerabend, P.K., 1993, Op. Cit., p. 54.
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ideologies. There is molecular biology… there is also the
theory of elasticity.”33 Thismeans,thereisnouniformway to
view the world, there is no uniform methodology to be
practised in science, if this assertion is taken seriously, then
the question is, what is the way forward to acquire
knowledge in a world so complex and complicated, In a
world that lacks uniformity, In a world that diversity of
cultures and traditions appear to overshadow unanimity of
thought and opinions. To Paul Feyerabend, there is one
definite response to the above interrogations; it is the need
to adopt the pluralist approach to doing science. In an
attempt to demonstrate the relationship between pluralism
and progress in science, he poses the question; “… is there a
single world view?”34 This question means; is there onlyone
way of searching for the truth? Are there no other
procedures or methods that can lead man to attaining
certitude than the law and order method in science? Is
method of modern science the only right and reliable way or
approach to life?
Paul Feyerabend’s reply is categorical: the materialist
approach to science does not describe the world as it is, ‘in
and for itself’; it describes an aspect of an otherwise
unknown entity. This argument tells usthatModernScience,
otherwise called material Science is part of reality, and it
provides part of the explanation vis-à-vis the nature of the
universe. It does not provide us with the entire truth. In
other words, true and objective knowledge about nature,
society and metaphysics, to name but these cannot and will
not be provided by material science and its method alone.
There is a multiplicity, diversity or a plurality of thoughts
that seeks to and explains the universe fromoneperspective
or another. Western rationality, Paul Feyerabend says is
simply a part of this explanation. To substantiate this
position, Paul Feyerabend argues that “all cultures are in
touch with reality.”35 That is to say, everyoneintheuniverse,
no matter the race is also connected to reality just like
anyone else. This makes it such that, “we can learn from the
most down troddenandthe mostbackwardpeople.”36 Thisis
because these people also have an approachtolife,tonature,
to handling challenges, peculiar or unique to them. “… and
that an attempt to force ‘genuine’ knowledge onthemshows
not only disrespect but also a good deal of ignorance.”37 In
order to corroborate the assertion above, Paul Feyerabend
adds that reason alone, that is; we mean western backed
rationality cannot alone lead mankind to the truth about
universe. He rather proposes plurality of methods. By this,
he says that “progress in science depends on an openness to
the world”38 an openness to alternative methods, an
openness to allow diversity of opinions to compete withone
another.
From the above arguments, we understand what Paul
Feyerabend once said in Against Method; “pluralism of the
theories and metaphysical view is not only important for
methodology, it is also an essential part of the humanitarian
outlook.”39 That is to say, methodological diversity or
33 Ibid., p. 56.
34 Ibid., p. 35.
35 Ibid., p. 38.
36 Ibid.
37 Ibid.
38 Ibid., p. 43.
39 Ibid., p. 38.
pluralism is a panacea against the tyranny of western
civilization againstnon-westerncultureswhichcomesin. the
guise of modern science and its law and order method.
Methodological pluralism to him is the way forward to free
humanity form the tyranny of science because, “it, (science,
reason) cannot stand divergent opinions, it calls them lies,it
puts itself above.”40 Feyerabend thinks, as Malolo Dissake
puts it, that science, after all is our creation, and not our
master. For this reason it should be our slave and not the
tyrant of our desires.41 Western backed methodology has a
negative prejudice on non-westernideologies;nodoubtPaul
Feyerabend says that “this is the attitude that destroyed
Indian cultural achievements in the USA”42
Modern Science’s Claims to Superiority as Unfounded
It is not uncommon to have philosophersofsciencedrum the
virtues of modern science, sing its glories and claim that
there is no other source of knowledge that is capable of
satisfying man’s quest for certitude other than Science.
These claims, they say, are corroborated by the fact that
modern science is capable of attaining objective truth while
others are not. Here, the rational nature of science is
emphasized as a virtue over the irrational nature of non-
scientific sources of knowledge. It is from this perspective
that Rene Descartes developed his rational rulesofmethods.
These principles,whenstrictlyfollowed,Descartesthink that
will take the scientific enterprise a step forward. On the
contrary, Paul Feyerabend is categorical to the fact that
“Reason alone is not a sufficient guide to life.”43 To him,
human life and its challenges cannot be run by the simple
application of reason, that is, westernbackedrationality.Life
is more complex than modern scientific principles can
explain. Plato says it all, when he explains the effectiveness
of the use of dialogue in his works; “… dialogue resembles a
personal conversation which he thought was the best
method for exploring problems.”44 This view is relevant in
our present discussion. Conversations, what Chimakonam
Jonathan calls horizontal conversations in his article;
“African Philosophy and Global EpistemicInjustice”goa long
way to expantiate on the idea that thesuperioritycomplex of
modern science is challenged by Paul Feyerabend‘s
introduction of methodological pluralism. This challenge to
science’s claims to rationality is even more profound when
Paul Feyerabend states that the jurors in a trial involving
experts or the inhabitants of a country blessed with nuclear
reactors must study documents and listen to experts.
However, they can judge what they have heard or read
without taking five semesters of physics I and II and three
semesters of calculus and algebra and so on.45 On this count,
we can say that, modern science capitalizesontheignorance
of outsiders and claims to be the most superior form of
knowledge. He thus adds that, the old distinction between
the physical sciences and the social sciences, the distinction
between science and non-science, as is the case with Karl
Popper, is a distinction without a corresponding difference.
All sciences are humanities and all humanities are science.46
40 Feyerabend, P.K., 1997, Op. Cit., p. 74.
41 Malolo, E.D., Feyerabend, EpistemologyandtheFreeSociety,
Paris, PUF. 2001, p. 112.
42 Ibid.
43 Ibid., p. 102.
44 Feyerabend, P.K., 2001, Op. Cit., p. 103.
45 Ibid., p. 36.
46 Feyerabend, P.K., Three Dialogues on Knowledge, Oxford,
Blackwell, 1991, p. 145.
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This implies that, these is no superior discipline, they are
interchangeable depending on which one produces better
results or satisfies human desire for certitude.
In addition, science’s claims to superiority is challenged
when Paul Feyerabend, in an attempt to expantiate on the
need for alternative procedure to be given the chance to
compete with modern scientific theories, argue that even
scientists make mistakes. For him, scientists also begin with
assumptions which can also be wrong. 47 The analogy of the
counting horses tells us that an idea or a theory can produce
results, are performant yet wrong or based on false
assumptions. It is based on this that Paul Feyerabend adds
that, in China, scientists use a multiple approaches
corresponding to the many different regions of nature and
variety of their products. This example serves as an
encouragement to other non-Western societies not to stick
on the Western approach whose superiority, though
emphasized, is yet to be confirmed in all domains oflife.This
means that he or she may also decide not to use science,
rather he or she may be contented with employing
alternative solutions to life’s challenges or to handle
practical matters.48 A good example in recent times is
President Clinton of the USA. He selected non-professionals
in his economic team leaving aside the ‘professional’. Why
should Paul Feyerabend think that scientists should not
claim superiority over knowledge, even scientific
knowledge?
The answer to this question is evident in his assertion that
questions of reality are too important to be left to science.
That is to say, modern Science is not capable, without the
collaboration of alternative sources of knowledge to attain
human objectives. The limitations of science stem from the
fact that:
1. The reality about the world of experience lies within its
diversity while the principles of modern science rest
upon the theory of abstraction and unity. This is evident
in the assertion that when we talk about scientists, we
mean people who rely on abstract principles and not
practical experience.49
2. Historically speaking, scientific assumptions do not
always rely on experience but on non-factual ideas.
Taking the exampleofCopernicus,Paul Feyerabendsays
that true empiricists would not have been happy with
his ideas for they were a sharp contrast with the
experience of the day,50 even much earlier, Thales’ideas
and Parmenides unity as the basis of all diversity does
not endorse diversity. Though we may not agree with
his mean doctrine of pluralism, especially with the way
he interprets it, attributing to it the need for different
theories to compete with each other, we still think that
Paul Feyerabend went a mile to develop the argument
against methodological monism and scientific
dogmatism while at the same time presenting sufficient
arguments to substantiate his thesis on science.
Pluralism as the Basis of Results in Science
One major characteristic of Science used to challenge other
sources of knowledge contrary to Modern Science’s
47 Feyerabend, P.K., 2001, Op. Cit., p. 36.
48 Ibid., p. 55.
49 Ibid., p. 64.
50 Ibid., p. 53.
approach to knowledge is that, science, with its unique
approach, produces result and its alternatives do not. The
results of science are thus tagged to its method and its
universality. Philosophers of modern science claim that
science is indispensable if we want to attain human’s
domination of nature. To them, the strict respect of the
precepts and ideals of the modern scientific method plays
the magic one to make humankind the masterandpossessor
of the world. It is based on this contention that Bacon
advises that; “… as in religion we are warned to show our
faith by works, so in philosophy, by the same rule. The
system should be judged by its fruits and pronounce
frivolous if it is barren; …”51 On the contrary, Feyerabend
does not seem to see it that way. This is because, to him,
even though scientists may have improved on ideas, science
does not have monopoly over truth. He wants to know;
.. What’s so great about science?... For what the general
public seems to assume is that the achievements they
read about in the educational pages of their newspapers
and the threats they seem to perceive come from a single
source and are produced by a uniform procedure… But
these disciplines,… arise when ‘the scientific way’ is
applied to different topics; … scientific practice is much
more diverse...52
This is an argument which is strongly contested by Michael
Mathews who thinks that,
… Relativists and ‘multi-science’ arguments are not
convincing. Their core problem is that they assume
empiricist views about whatconstitutesscientific activity
and knowledge. As a consequence, they underestimate
the peculiar features of the western scientific tradition,
and so regard as science, activities and bodies of
knowledge which are very different in structure, form
and procedure from western science.53
Unfortunately, this ‘peculiar features of western scientific
tradition’ is what Feyerabend refers to as, the claim to the
superiority of Western Science. He thus argues that the
advocates of the superiority of science over other forms of
knowledge usually claim that science deserves a special
position because it has produced results and they will use
examples such as technological advancements, cures to
dangerous diseases and so on. To them, there are many
examples to articulate the conception that science is
superior to other forms of knowledge. This claim to Paul
Feyerabend is problematic because science is not the only
form of knowledge which has produced good results. There
exist a good number of non-scientific andtobemore precise,
non-Western traditions which have proven to be a force to
reckon with especially in non-Western medicine or
technology54
51 Bacon, F., The New Organon, (1620), NewYork,Cambridge
University Press, 2000, p., 124.
52 Feyerabend, P.K., 1975, Op. Cit., p. 258.
53 Mathews, M., “Multicultural Science Education: The
Contribution of History and PhilosophyofScience”,inCohen,
N.R., SCIENCE, MIND AND ART, Essays on Science and the
Humanistic Understanding in Art, Epistemology, Religion and
Ethics In Honor of Robert S. Cohen, London, Kluwer academic
Publishers, 1993, p. 166.
54 Feyerabend, P.K., 1981, Op. Cit., p. 161.
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The above argument is in agreement with that of Couvalis,
who argues that “the assertion that current scienceisa more
secure way of gathering knowledge than cleaning it from
religious text is merely the unjustifiable assertion of the
superiority of one world picture over another”55 In fact, we
cannot claim that Science is superior to other traditions or
forms of knowledge because we cannot objectivelycompare
them. They fall under different domains of knowledge. As
such, to argue that science is more reliablewhileotherforms
of knowledge are not is not an argument based on
objectivity. What is certain, Paul Feyerabend claims, is that
the dominance or superiority of science cannot be rationally
justified. In the practice of science, to attain epistemic
certitude, we need scientific approaches as well as we need
the approaches outside science. This is what we mean when
we say, Feyerabend’s position vis a vis epistemology in
general and the practice of science that leads to progress, in
particular, is a pluralist one.
Conclusion
Summarily, this work raises concerns to the fact that
different critics of Feyerabend’s works begin either with the
claim that it is difficult to understand Feyerabend, that his
position vis-a-vis the philosophy of science cannot be easily
traced, that Feyerabend mean different things to different
persons. In my opinion, the above claims about him are a
proof that he successfully defended his philosophy of
pluralism to the extent that he won for himself a pluralist
interpretation, a diversity of answerstoonequestion;whois
Karl Paul Feyerabend. That is why, I raised a thesis and
attempted a defence. The thesis was that, contrary to many,
who claim that Feyerabend cannot fit in a single and
categorical description, to me, he does, and I call him a
pluralist. I used two of his works, one at the earlyyearsof his
career and the second published posthumously to defend or
elucidate this description. Without defending Feyerabend’s
claims that science is essentially an anarchistic enterprise, I
am emphatic that this statement gave many of his critics the
license to refer to him as an epistemological anarchist, a
relativist, the worst enemy of science and even a Dadaist.
True as it may be that Feyerabend himself used some of
these terms to describe his work; for instance, Against
Method is subtitled: Outline of An Anarchistic Theory of
Knowledge. Also, when posed the questioninthelastchapter
of The Tyranny of Science; “would you like to explainthesub-
title of your book Against Method, you wrote an ‘anarchist’
and more over from a ‘Dadaist’ point of view.”Feyerabendin
his response says; “the whole thing is a joke.”56 The whole
thing is a joke because this extreme position is to him, an
adequate response to the extremist position adopted by the
philosophers of Science, a position, which, to him, illustrates
Scientism and Methodism of ModernScienceanditsmethod.
It is with this interpretation of his ‘anything goes’ that I call
him an extreme pluralist and not an anarchist. My
interpretation of him does not, however claim that other
readings of him are completely misconstrued, I rather think
that in a typical Feyerabendian style, a multiplicity of
interpretations and readings of his works justifies its
pluralist outlook. That is why, while I comment that the
different descriptions of him are necessary, they are not
sufficient to give a full picture of this philosopher of science.
55 Couvalis, G., The philosophy of science: Science and
Objectivity, London, Sage, 1997, pp. 111-112.
56 Feyerabend, P. K., 2011, Op. Cit., p. 129.
The pluralist description of him, as I have stated fully
represents him because it is holistic, including the relativist
and the anarchist descriptions of who Paul Feyerabend is in
the history and Philosophy of Science. For example, in order
to illustrate my claim, I considered his challenge with the
consistency condition and the commensurability thesis, his
objection to the unity of science, and science’s claims to
superiority over other forms ofknowledge.Atthesametime,
he defends the use of diversity of approaches in scientific
enterprise he is constructing a philosophy of pluralism.
When he argues that science has always progressed when
scientists choose to abandon theiruniquemethod,andadopt
any approach capable of producing results, I call him no
better and more accommodatingnamethana pluralist.Ithus
used instances from Against method and The Tyranny of
Science to substantiate the claims above. I may not
personally agree with many of his pronouncements,
especially his claim, Science is closer to myths and religion
than many philosophers of Science will want to accept, yet I
agree that this position epitomises his pluralist standpoint.
Far from being an anarchist, I rather want to call him an
extreme pluralist.
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