The document discusses various routes of drug excretion from the body. It describes renal excretion through glomerular filtration and tubular secretion/reabsorption in the kidneys. It also discusses non-renal routes of excretion including biliary excretion through the liver, pulmonary excretion through the lungs, and other minor routes like salivary, mammary, dermal, and gastrointestinal excretion. Key factors that influence the different excretion pathways include a drug's physicochemical properties, binding characteristics, urine and bile pH, and physiological conditions.

1. MAHARISHI ARVIND INSTITUTE OF PHARMACY MANSAROVAR, JAIPUR. Presented by : Mr. Pinkesh Patel Guided by : Mr. Mahesh Goyal

2. EXCRETION OF DRUGS “ Excretion is defined as the process where by drugs or metabolites are irreversibly transferred from internal to external environment through renal or non renal route.” Excretion of unchanged or intact drug is needed in termination of its pharmacological action. The principal organ of excretion are kidneys. Agent that excreted in urine are : 1. water soluble 2.non volatile 3. small in molecular size(< 500 daltons.)

3. TYPES OF EXCRETION RENAL EXCRETION NON RENAL EXCRETION Biliary excretion. Pulmonary excretion. Salivary excretion. Mammary excretion. Skin / Dermal excretion. Gastrointestinal excretion. Genital excretion.

4. ANATOMY OF NEPHRON

5. GLOMERULAR FILTRATION It Is non selective , unidirectional process Ionized or unionized drugs are filtered, except those that are bound to plasma proteins. Driving force for GF is hydrostatic pressure of blood flowing in capillaries. GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE: Out of 25% of cardiac output or 1.2 liters of blood/min that goes to the kidney via renal artery only 10% or 120 to 130ml/min is filtered through glomeruli. The rate being called as glomerular filtration rate GFR can be determined by an agent which are excreted by filtration and is neither reabsorbed nor secreted in tubules. Ex. Creatinine, inulin etc. The normal GFR rate is 120-130 ml/min.

6. ACTIVE TUBULAR SECRETION This mainly occurs in proximal tubule. It is carrier mediated process which requires energy for transportation of compounds against conc. gradient Two secretion mechanisms are identified. System for secretion of organic acids/anions E.g. Penicillin, salicylates etc uric acid secreted System for organic base / cations E.g. morphine, mecamylamine hexamethonium Active secretion is unaffected by change in pH and protein binding. Drug undergoes active secretion have excretion rate values greater than normal GFR e.g. Penicillin.

7. TUBULAR REABSORPTION It occurs after the glomerular filtration of drugs. It takes place all along the renal tubules. Reabsorption of drugs indicated when the excretion rate value are less than the GFR 130ml/min.e.g. Glucose TR can be active or passive processes. Reabsorption results in increase in the half life of the drug. Active Tubular Reabsorption: Its commonly seen with endogenous substances or nutrients that the body needs to conserve e.g. electrolytes, glucose, vitamins, amino acids.

8. Passive Tubular Reabsorption: It is common for many exogenous substances including drugs. The driving force is Conc. Gradient which is due to re-absorption of water, sodium and inorganic ions. If a drug is neither secreted nor re-absorbed its conc. In urine will be 100 times that of free drug in plasma. Reabsorption is mainly depend on several factor that are pH, pKa, lipophilicity of drug, urine flow rate.

9. FACTORS AFFECTING RENAL EXCRETION Urine pH and pKa. Urine flow rate. Physicochemical properties of drug. Distribution and Binding characteristic of drug. Blood flow to the kidneys. Biological factors. Drug interactions. Disease states.

10. pH and pKa OF THE URINE : It varies between 4.5 to 7.5 It depends upon diet, drug intake and pathophysiology of the patient . Acetazolamide and antacids produce alkaline urine, while ascorbic acid makes it acidic. IV infusion of sodium and ammonium chloride used in treatment of acid base imbalance shows alteration in urine pH. Relative amount of ionized ,unionized drug in the urine at particular pH & % drug ionized at this pH can be given by “ HENDERSON-HESSELBACH” equation.

11. HENDERSON-HESSELBACH EQUATION For weak acids : pH= pKa +log [ ionized ] [unionized] % of drug ionized = 10 X 100 1+10 For weak base : pH=pKa +log [unionized] [ionized] % of drug ionized = 10 X 100 1+10 (pH – pKa) (pH – pKa) (pKa - pH) (pKa - pH)

12. The significance of pH-dependant excretion for any particular compound is greatly depends upon its pKa & lipid solubility. A characteristic of drugs, pKa value govern the degree of ionization at a particular pH. A polar & ionized drug will be poorly reabsorbed passively & excreted rapidly. Reabsorption is also affected by the lipid solubility of drug ; am ionized but lipophilic drug will be reabsorbed while an unionized but polar one will be excreted. The toxicity due to overdose of the drug whose excretion is sensitive to pH change can be treated by acidification or alkalinisation of the urine.

13. PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF DRUG : Like molecular size, pKa , lipid solubility Molecular size Drugs with Mol.wt <300 are excreted in kidney. Mol.wt 300 to 500 Dalton are excreted both through urine and bile. BINDING CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DRUGS : Drugs that are bound to plasma proteins behave as macromolecules and cannot be filtered through glomerulus. Only unbound or free drug appear in glomerular filtrate. Protein bound drug has long half lives.

14. BIOLOGICAL FACTORS : Age, sex, species, strain difference etc alter the excretion of the drug. Sex – Renal excretion is 10% lower in female than in males. Age – The renal excretion in newborn is 30-40 % less in comparison to adults. Old age – The GFR is reduced and tubular function is altered which results in slow excretion of drugs and prolonged half lives . BLOOD FLOW TO THE KIDNEY : Important in case of drug excreted by glomerular filteration and those are actively secreted only. Increase the perfusion enhance the elimination.

15. URINE FLOW RATE : Polar drug are not affected by urine pH hence not get reabsorbed so unaffected by urine flow rate. Only those drugs whose reabsorption is pH sensitive Ex. Weak acids and bases depend on urine flow rate. Urine flow rate can be incresed by forced diuresis by large fluid intake or other diuretics. DRUG INTERACTIONS : Any drug interaction that result in alteration of binding characteristics, renal blood flow, active secretion, urine pH, and forced diuresis would alter renal clearance of drug. Alkalinization of urine with citrates and bicarbonates promote excretion of acidic drugs.

16. DISEASE STATE : RENAL DYSFUNCTION Greatly cause the elimination of drugs those are primarily excreted by kidney. Some of the causes of renal failure are hypertention, Diabetes, hypovolemiya(low blood supply to kidney), heavy metals. UREMIA Characterized by Impaired GF , accumulation of fluids & protein metabolites. Half life increased resulting in drug accumulation and increased toxicity.

17. Drug Clearance : ‘ Clearance is defined as the hypothetical volume of body fluids containing drug from which the drug is removed or cleared completely in a specific period of time.’ Clearance [CL]=Elimination rate/plasma drug conc . The sum of individual clearance by all eliminating organ (kidney, liver, lungs, biliary systems) called as ‘Total body clearance’. Renal Clearance ; ‘ The volume of plasma which is completely cleared of the unchanged drug by the kidney per unit time’

18. RC = UV/P RC = renal clearance rate U = drug concentration in urine V = flow rate of urine (ml/min) P = plasma drug concentration Renal clearance tests are used to: Determine the GFR Detect glomerular damage Follow the progress of diagnosed renal disease RC = rf+rs-rr/P rf = rate of filtration rs = rate of secretion rr = rate of reabsorption

19. NON-RENAL ROUTE OF DRUG EXCRETION Various routes are ; Biliary Excretion Pulmonary Excretion Salivary Excretion Mammary Excretion Skin/dermal Excretion Gastrointestinal Excretion Genital Excretion

20. 1 ) BILIARY EXCRETION : Bile juice is secreted by hepatic cells of the liver. Its important in the digestion and absorption of fats. 90% of bile acid is reabsorbed from intestine and transported back to the liver for resecretion. The metabolites are more excreted in bile than parent drugs due to increased polarity. Several factor influence secretion of drug in bile are; Molecular weight. Polarity. Nature of biotransformation. Other factor like sex,spices, disease state, drug interation.

21. Nature of bio-transformation process: Phase-II reactions mainly glucuronidation and conjugation with glutathione result in metabolites with increased polarity and molecular weight for biliary excretion. Ex. of drugs excreted in the bile are chloromphenicol, morphine and indomethacin. For a drug to be excreted in bile must have polar groups like –COOH, -SO 3 H. Conjugation with amino acids ,acetylation ,methylation do not result in metabolites with high molecular weight and polarity hence little influence on biliary excretion.

22. Efficacy of drug excretion by biliary system can be tested by an agent that is completely eliminated in bile, Ex. sulfobromophthalein. This marker is excreted in half an hour in intestine when hepatic function is normal. Delay in its excretion indicates hepatic and biliary malfunction. Some drugs which are excreted as glucuronides or as glutathione conjugates are hydrolyzed by intestinal or bacterial enzymes to the parent drugs which are reabsorbed. The reabsorbed drugs are again carried to the liver for resecretion via bile into the intestine.

23. This phenomenon of drug cycling between the intestine & the liver is called Enterohepatic circulation Enterohepatic Circulation is important in conservation of vitamins, folic acid and hormones. This process results in prolongation of half lives of drugs like DDT, oral contraceptives. 2 ) PULMONARY EXCRETION : Gaseous and volatile substances such as general anesthetics (Halothane) are absorbed through lungs by simple diffusion. Pulmonary blood flow, rate of respiration and solubility of substance effect pulmonary excretion. Intact gaseous drugs are excreted but not metabolites. Alcohol which has high solubility in blood and tissues are excreted slowly by lungs.

24. 3 ) SALIVARY EXCRETION : The pH of saliva varies from 5.8 to 8.4. Unionized lipid soluble drugs are excreted passively. The bitter taste in the mouth of a patient is indication of drug excreted. Some basic drugs inhibit saliva secretion and are responsible for mouth dryness. Compounds excreted in saliva are Caffeine, Phenytoin, Theophylline. 4 ) MAMMARY EXCRETION : Milk consists of lactic secretions which is rich in fats and proteins. 0.5 to one litre of milk is secreted per day in lactating mothers. Excretion of drug in milk is important as it gains entry in breast feeding infants.

25. pH of milk varies from 6.4 to 7.6.Free un-ionized and lipid soluble drugs diffuse passively. Highly plasma bound drug like Diazepam is less secreted in milk. Since milk contains proteins. Drugs excreted can bind to it. Amount of drug excreted in milk is less than 1% and fraction consumed by infant is too less to produce toxic effects. Some potent drugs like barbiturates and morphine may induce toxicity. ADVERSE EFFECTS : Discoloration of teeth with tetracycline and jaundice due to interaction of bilirubin with sulfonamides. Nicotine is secreted in the milk of mothers who smoke.

26. 5 ) SKIN EXCRETION : Drugs excreted through skin via sweat follows pH partition hypothesis. Excretion of drugs through skin may lead to urticaria and dermatitis. Compounds like benzoic acid, salicylic acid, alcohol and heavy metals are excreted in sweat. 6 ) GASTROINTESTINAL EXCRETION : Excretion of drugs through GIT usually occurs after parenteral administration. Water soluble and ionized form of weakly acidic and basic drugs are excreted in GIT. Example are nicotine and quinine are excreted in stomach. Drugs excreted in GIT are reabsorbed into systemic circulation & undergo recycling.

27. EXCRETION PATHWAYS, TRANSPORT MECHANISMS & DRUG EXCRETED. Excretory route Mechanism Drug Excreted Urine GF/ ATS/ ATR, PTR Free, hydrophilic, unchanged drugs/ metabolites of MW< 300 Bile Active secretion Hydrophilic, unchanged drugs/ metabolites/ conjugates of MW >500 Lung Passive diffusion Gaseous &volatile, blood & tissue insoluble drugs saliva Passive diffusion Active transport Free, unionized, lipophilic drugs. Some polar drugs Milk Passive diffusion Free, unionized, lipophilic drugs (basic) Sweat / Passive diffusion Free, unionized lipophilic drugs Intestine Passive diffusion Water soluble. Ionized drugs

28. REFERENCES Brahmankar M D., Jaiswal S B., Biopharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics A Treatise vallabh prakasan I edition 2002, p.no;178-192. Shrgel L., Wu-Pong S., Yu A B C., Applied Biopharmaceutics & Pharmacokinetics V edition 2005,Mc Graw Hill publication house p.no;131-159. Venkateswarlu V., Biopharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics II edition 2008, PharmaMed Press, p.no;103-145. Gibaldi M., Biopharmaceutics and Clinical Pharmacokinetics IV edition 2006, PharmaMed Press,p.no; 203 Ali J., Khar R K., Ahuja A., A Text Book of Biopharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics , II edition 2005, Birla Publication Pvt.Ltd, p.no;121-131.

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