The document provides information about environmental science and engineering. It discusses 5 units: Environment, Ecosystem and Biodiversity; Environmental Pollution; Natural Resources; Social Issues and the Environment; and Human Population and the Environment. Key points include definitions of environment, environmental science, and environmental studies. The elements of environment are identified as physical, biological, and cultural. Ecosystem structure and functions like energy flow, food chains, and ecological pyramids are explained. The importance of environment and need for public awareness is highlighted.

1. EnvironmentalScienceandEngineering

2. UnitI –Environment, EcosystemandBiodiversity
UnitII –Environmental Pollution
UnitIII –NaturalResources
UnitIV –SocialIssuesandtheEnvironment
UnitV –HumanPopulationandtheEnvironment

3. UnitI / Environment,EcosystemandBiodiversity
Environment:
Definitions:
Environment –aFrenchword“Environner” –toencircle orsurround.
Thesumtotal of water, air andland andthe inter-relationships that exists amongthemandwith the human
beings, other living organisms andmaterials.

4. Environment:
Aperson’senvironment consistsofthesumtotal ofthestimulationwhichhereceives fromhis
conception until hisdeath.
the term environment is used to describe in the aggregate, all the
external forces, influences and conditions, which affect the life ,nature,behaviour and the growth
,development andmaturity ofliving organisms.
Externalforces: Physical,economic,political,cultural,social,moral andemotional activity
Other Definitions:
Environmental Science –Studyof environment, its biotic &abiotic componentsandtheir interrelationship.
Environmental Engineering –Application of environmental principles to the protection and enhancement.
Environmental Studies–Awareness onEnvironmental protection.

5. *

6. Elementsof Environment:
1)Physical 2)Biological 3)Cultural
Scopeof Environment:
 Awarenessandsensitivity+relatedproblems.
 Motivate activeparticipation.
 Identifyingandsolvingenvironmentalproblemsandskills.
 Necessityofconservationofnaturalresources.
 Environmental programs.

7. Importanceof Environment:
 Global vs. Local Natureof Environment.
Global W
arming Depletionof OzoneLayer DwindlingForest &EnergyResources Lossof Global Diversity

8. Importanceof Environment:
 IndividualisticNatureof Environment.
DrinkingW
ater HygienicLiving FreshAir FertileLand HealthyFood SustainableEnergy

9. Needfor PublicAwareness:
EnvironmentalissuesreceivedInternationalAttention onJune5, 1972at Stockholm(Sweden)
 Pressurecauseddueto population increase, urbanization andpoverty –Govt. andNGOsfor creating
awareness.
 Environmental pollution cannot be removedby laws alone – need active participation from the public /
individuals.
Summary:
 Implementationof Environmental ProtectionPlans.
 Developingsocieties, lifestyle andattitudes –self-oriented.
 Environmental pollutionawareness.

10. General:
World Environment Day – June 5 to raise global awareness of the need to take positive environmental action. It is run by
theUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme(UNEP).
Theme2014- Thethemefor thisyear’s WorldEnvironmentDaycelebrationsisRiseourvoice notthesealevel.
According to the UNFood and Agriculture Organization (FAO), every year 1.3 billion tonnes of food is wasted. This is
equivalenttothesameamount producedinthewholeofsub-SaharanAfrica.
One in every 7 people in the world go to bed hungry and more than 20,000 children under the age of 5 die daily from
hunger.
Think–Eat–Save:encouragesyoutobecomemoreawareoftheenvironmentalimpactofthefoodchoicesyoumakeand
empowersyoutomakeinformeddecisions.

11.  Hazard is the potential for harm.
A hazard is often associated with a condition or activity
that can cause undesired consequences such as injury or
illness if left uncontrolled.
Basically, a hazard can cause harm or adverse
health effects to individuals or to organizations as
property or equipment losses.
*What is hazard?

12. *1) Chemical hazards
 Chemicals can affect skin by contact.
Chemicals can also enter our body either through the
inhalation or digestive system if air is contaminated with
chemicals, vapor, mist or dust.
The accumulation of chemicals in or on our body will
cause acute (immediate) effect or chronic (long-term)
effect.
*Types of hazard

13. *2) Physical hazards
Physical hazard will cause injury risks on our body.
This category includes the hazards from working
in confined spaces, being hit by flying objects,
caught in explosions, hurt by collapsing machinery,
falling from heights and tripping on obstacles.

14. * 3) Biological hazards (biohazards)
 Biohazards refer to biological substances
that pose a harm to the health of living
organisms.
Sources of biological hazards may include
insects, bacteria, fungi, plants, worms, animals
and viruses.
These sources can cause a variety of health
effects ranging from skin irritation and allergies to
infections, cancer and so on.

15. Hazard
Analysis
Analysing their
potential causes
First step
in a process
used to
assess risk
Result of a hazard
analysis is the
identification of
different type of hazards
Process of
recognizing
hazards that may
arise from a system or
its environment
*What is
Hazard
Analysis?

16. Determine the
hazards and
hazardous events
of the equipment
under control and
the control system
Analyse the event
sequences leading
to the hazardous
events identified
T
o analyse
the risk associated
with the hazardous
events
Identify hazards
Identify causes
Determine risks
Hazard
Analysis
Objectives

17. Ecosystem:
Concept:
Ecosystemisaself-regulatinggroupofbioticcommunitiesofspeciesinteractingwith
oneanotherandwiththeirnon-livingenvironmentexchangingenergyandmatter.
Ecologyisascientificstudyofinteractionsbetweenlivingandtheirenvironment.It
discoversand understandstherelationshipbetweenlivingthingsandtheir
environment.
Ecologistisapersonwhostudiesaboutecology

18. *
ecosystem
Natural
terrestial Aquatic
Aritificial
Marine Fresh Water

19. Ecosystem:
Structure:
ECOSYSTEM
- Living(Biotic)
- Producers
- Consumers
- Herbivores
- Carnivores
- Omnivores
- Detritivores
- Decomposers (bacteria &fungi)
- NonLiving (Abiotic)
- Physical Factors
- Chemical Factors
Sunlight,rainfall, wind,latitude, soil type, water)
Carbon,hydrogen,oxygen,sulphur)

20. Stepped Art
Smallest unit of a chemical element that
exhibits its chemical properties
Atom
Molecule
Chemical combination of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements
Cell
The fundamental structural and functional unit
of life
Organism An individual living being
Population A group of individuals of the same species
living in a particular place
Community
Ecosystem
A community of different species
interacting with one another and with their
nonliving environment of matter and energy
Populations of different species living in a
particular place, and potentially interacting with
each other
Parts of the earth's air, water, and soil
where life is found
Biosphere

21. *

22. Ecosystem:
FunctionalAttributes:
Primary Functions- Manufactureof starch (photosynthesis)
Secondary Functions- Distributing energy in the form of food to all consumers

23. Ecosystem:
FunctionStudies:
EnergyandMaterialFlow- Flowofenergyinanecosystemtakesplacethroughthe food chain and it is
energy flow which keepsthe ecosystem going.

24. FoodChain- Thesequenceofeatingandbeingeaterin anecosystemis knownasfoodchain
or
Transferoffoodenergyfromtheplantsthroughaseriesoforganismsis referredtoasfoodchain
.
AutotrophsVsHeterotrophs
FoodchaininVariousCondition
1.Foodchaininagrassland
2.Foodchaininapond
3.Foodchaininaforest

25. .
1.Foodchaininagrassland

26. .
2.Foodchaininapond

27. 3.Foodchaininaforest

28. ENERGY FLOW IN GRASS LAND AND FOREST ECOSYSTEM

29. *
TrophicLevels -Theposition occupied byanorganism in afood chain.

30. TrophicLevels - Theposition occupied byanorganism in afood chain.
TERTIARY
CONSUMERS
SECONDARY
CONSUMERS
PRIMAR
YCONSUMERS
PRODUCERS

31. FoodW
eb:
Foodweb is anetwork of food chains where different types of organisms areconnected at different tropic
levels.
(or)
Thefoodchaininanareaformsthefoodweb
Foodchain VsFoodweb-difference, importance

32. OXYGEN CYCLE

33. EcologicalPyramids: (Video Lecture)
Graphic representation of tropic structure and function of an ecosystem starting with producers at the base
andsuccessivetropic levels formingthe apexis knownasecological pyramid.
Autotrophs VsHeterotrophs

34. *Types:
Pyramidsof numbers-Thenumber of individual organisms ateachtropiclevel
Pyramidsof biomass-Thetotal biomassat eachtropic levelin afoodchain
Pyramidsof energy-Theamountof energypresent ateachtropiclevel

35. *Ecological Pyramids
*An ecological pyramid is a diagram that shows the
relationship amounts of energy or matter contained
within each trophic level in a food web or food
chain.
*Energy Pyramid only 10% of the energy available
within one trophic level is transferred to organisms
at the next trophic level.

36. *ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
*Food chains and food webs do not give any
information about the numbers of organisms
involved.
*This information can be shown through ecological
pyramids.
*Shows the number of organisms at each trophic
level per unit area of an ecosystem.

37. PYRAMID OF NUMBERS
Pyramid of numbers displays the number of individuals
at each level.
1 owl
25 voles
2000
grass plants

38. Biomass Pyramids
Displays the biomass at each trophic level.

39. Energy Pyramid
Fig. 4–19
In nature, ecological
efficiency varies from
5% to 20% energy
available between
successive trophic
levels (95% to 80%
loss). About 10%
efficiency is a general
rule.
*

40. Another Energy Pyramid
Annual pyramid of energy flow (in kilocalories per square
meter per year) for an aquatic ecosystem in Silver Springs,
FL.
Note: More individuals can be
supported at lower trophic
levels. Less energy is lost.

41. Ecosystem:
Pyramidsof Numbers:
It represents thenumberof individual organisms at eachtropical levels
Producers
Herbivores
Carnivores
T
op
Carnivores
Grass
Insects
Frogs
Eagle
Carnivores
Herbivores
Producers
T
op
Carnivores
T
rees
Insects
Snakes
Lion
Producers
Herbivores
Parasites
Hyper Parasites Fleas
Bugs
Birds
T
rees

42. Pyramidsof Biomass:
It is basedonthetotal biomass ateachtrophic level ofafoodchain
Producers
Herbivores
Carnivor
es
Grass
Squirrel
Snakes
Produce
rs
Herbivores
Carnivores
T
ertiaryCarnivores BigFish
Small Fish
Insects
Phytoplankton

43. Pyramidsof Energy:
It isbasedontheamount of energy present at eachtrophiclevels.
It gives thebest representation oftrophic relationship. (always upright)
Carnivores
Herbivores
Producers
T
op
Carnivo
res

44. Ecological Succession:
The progressive replacement of one community by another till the development of
stable communityin aparticulararea.

45. Processof Succession:
Process of succession takes place in asymmetrical order of sequential steps
Nudation–Development of abareareawithout anylife form.
Causes:
Land Slides Volcano Drought
Glaciers
T
opographical Factor ClimaticFactor

46. Processof Succession:
Processofsuccessiontakesplacein asymmetricalorderofsequentialsteps
 Nudation–Development of abareareawithout anylifeform.
Causes:
Over grassing DiseaseOutbreak
BioticFactor

47. Processof Succession:
Processofsuccessiontakesplacein asymmetricalorderofsequentialsteps
 Invasion – Successful establishment of one or more species on a bare area through dispersal
or migration.
Process:
ByAir ByW
ater ByBirds Byinsects

48. Processof Succession:
Processofsuccessiontakesplacein asymmetricalorderofsequentialsteps
 Competition and Coaction – Competition between inter and intra species for space, water and
nutrition called coaction
 Reaction – Living organisms grow, use water from substratum and they in turn have strong
influence on the environment which is modified to a large extent. Modifications may become
unstable for existing species and favour new species which replaces them. This is called seral
communities.
 Stabilization – The succession ultimately culminates (ends) in more or less stable community
called climax which is in equilibrium with the environment. It is characterized by maximum
biomassandsymbiotic linkagesbetweenorganismandaremaintainedquiteefficiently.

49. Ecosystem:
Types:
Forest Ecosystem – Aforest ecosystem is the one in which a tall and dense
treesgrowthat support manyanimals andbirds.
Classification: Depending upon the climate conditions forests can
be classified intothefollowing types.
 Tropical rain forests
 Tropical deciduous forests
 Tropical scrubforests
 T
emperaterain forests
 T
emperatedeciduous forests

50. Types:
 i)T
ropicalRainForest:
 The tropical rainforest is a hot, moist biome found near Earth's
equator.
The world's largest tropical rainforests are in South America, Africa,
andSoutheastAsia.
Tropical rainforests receive from 60 to 160 inches of precipitation that
is fairly evenly distributed throughout theyear.
The combination of constant warmth and abundant moisture makes
the tropical rainforest a suitable environment for many plants and
animals.
 Tropical rainforests contain the greatest biodiversity in the world.
Over15million species ofplants andanimals live within this biome

52.  ii)T
ropicalDeciduousForest:
Tropical deciduous forests arealso called the"Monsoonforests".
Long dry season of summer leads these forests to shed their
leaves inorder toprevent evaporation.
Period of shedding the leaves varies for each species of trees.
Hence, all thetreesdonot shedleaves at oneandthesametime.
Tropical deciduous forests are grown in the areas with annual
rainfall of 70-200cm.
Sandal wood, Shisam, Mahua, Sal, T
eak and Bamboo
are important species of trees. They are famous for
their economic
importance.Theysupply timber for useinvariousactivities.
Shed–prevent -evaporation

53.  T
ropical DeciduousForest:
 Moistdeciduousandthedrydeciduousforestsaretwomajor categories of these
forests.
 The moist deciduous forests are found in Shiwalik foothills, Bhabar, T
arai, Chhota
NagpurPlateau, the North-eastern DeccanPlateau andNorth-south strip to the east
oftheWesternGhats.
 The dry deciduous forests are grown in the Central India where rainfall is
comparatively less.
Moist Forests-T
eak DryForests-Sal

54.  iii)T
ropicalScrubForest:
It isoneof thebiomesthat makeuparidland.
This type of biome also consists of desert and areas of low-lying, dense
underbrush.
It is anareaof little precipitation, plenty of continuous winds, poordrainage
andmediumtopoor soil quality
.
Theplants andanimalsof thetropical scrub foresthaveadapted to flourish
inthisharshenvironment.

55. T
ropical ScrubForest:
Tropical scrub forests, or chaparral as they are referred to in
California, are found across the southern United States, along
the Mediterranean coastline, in north and central Africa and
withintheinterior ofAustralia.
Average annual rainfall is only 2 to 9 inches, and the
temperature fluctuates very little, averaging near 64 degrees
Fahrenheit all year round.
Virtually all tropical scrub forest is found in the same equatorial
region, andtemperaturesfluctuate little regardless of season.

56. *iv)Temperate Rainforest
*Mid Latitudes.
*1000- 1200 mm of Rain
per year average some
receive more.
*Winter temperatures
rarely drop below
freezing.
*Summer Temperatures
rarely exceed 80
degrees.
*Mild wet winters and
cool, foggy and
clouded summers.

57. *Temperate Rainforest Around
the World

58. *
A DECIDUOUS FOREST is used to describe a type of forest trees shed their
leaves during the cold months of the year and re-grow new leaves the next
Spring.
The major characteristic is that it has 4 DISTINCT SEASONS!

59. *
*Eastern third of the North
America
*western Europe
*China, Korea, Japan and
Australia
*southern tip of South
America
*The only part of Texas that
has this type of forest is far
East Texas

61. GrasslandEcosystem:
 Grassland occupies about 20%of earth’s surface. In addition to grass species, some
treesandshrubsarealsopresent.
Types:
Dependingupontheclimateconditionsgrasslandcanbeclassified into threetypes
 Tropical grasslands–savannas
 T
emperategrassland–pampas, steppes, prairies
 Polar grassland

63. T
emperategrassland

64. GrasslandCharacteristics:
 It isaplainlandoccupiedbygrasses
 Soil is veryrich in nutrientsandorganicmatter
 It is idealplaceforgrazinganimals.
 It ischaracterizedbylowor unevenrainfall
GrasslandStructure:
 Biotic
 Producers(grass, shrubs,forbsetc.)
 Consumers(cow
, buffaloes,deer, etc.)
 Decomposers(fungi andbacteria)
 Abiotic
 Physical Factor(rainfall,light,temperature)
 ChemicalFactor(organicandinorganicmatter,nutrient)

66. Desert Ecosystem:
 It isregionswhereevaporationexceedsprecipitations.
 It occupiesabout35%ofourworld’slandarea.
Types:
Dependingupontheclimateconditionsgrasslandcanbeclassified intothreetypes
 Tropical Desert –Sahara,Thar
 T
emperateDesert–Mojave
 Polar Desert - Gobi

67. Desert EcosystemCharacteristics:
Thedesert air isdryandtheclimateishot.
Annual rainfall islessthan25cm
Thesoil isverypoor nutrientsandorganicmatter
V
egetationis poor
Desert EcosystemStructure:
Biotic
Producers (Shrubs,Bushes, FewTrees)
Consumers (Squirrels, Mice, Rabbits)
Decomposers (Fungi, Bacteria)
Abiotic
Physical Factor(Rainfall,Light,Temperature)
ChemicalFactor(OrganicandInorganicmatters)

68. Aquatic Ecosystem:
Anaquatic ecosystemisanecosysteminabody of water.
Communities of organismsthataredependent oneachother andontheir
environment liveinaquatic ecosystems.
Types:
Freshwater
Pond
Lake
River
 Salt water
Ocean
Estuarine

69. PondEcosystem:
 Smallbodiesoffreshwaterwithshallowandstill water,marsh,andaquaticplants.
 Theycanbefurtherdividedintofourzones:
 vegetationzone
 openwater
 bottommud
 surfacefilm.
 The size and depth of ponds often varies greatly with the time of year; many ponds are
producedbyspringfloodingfromrivers.
 Foodwebsarebasedbothonfree-floating algaeanduponaquaticplants.
 There is usually a diverse array of aquatic life, with a few examples including algae, snails,
fish,beetles,waterbugs,frogs,turtles,ottersandmuskrats.
 T
oppredatorsmayincludelargefish,herons,oralligators.
 Since fish are a major predator upon amphibian larvae, ponds that dry up each year,
therebykilling residentfish,provide importantrefugiaforamphibianbreeding

70. 1.vegetation zone
2.open water
3.bottom mud
4.surface film.

71. PondEcosystemCharacteristics:
It istemporary
It isastagnant freshwater body
It maybeseasonal

72. LakeEcosystem:
 Lakeecosystemscanbedividedintozones.
 Onecommonsystemdivides lakesinto threezones(seefigure).
 Thefirst,thelittoralzone- shallowzoneneartheshore,whererootedwetlandplantsoccur.
 Theoffshoreis dividedintotwofurtherzones,anopenwaterzoneandadeepwaterzone.
 Intheopenwaterzone(orphoticzone)sunlightsupportsphotosynthetic algae,andthe
speciesthat feeduponthem.
 Inthedeepwaterzone(oraphoticzone),sunlightis notavailable andthefoodwebis based
ondetritusenteringfromthelittoralandphoticzones.
 Theoffshoreareasmaybecalled thepelagiczone,andtheaphoticzonemaybecalled the
profundal zone.
 Inlandfromthelittoralzoneonecanalsofrequentlyidentify ariparian zonewhichhasplants
still affectedbythepresenceofthelake—thiscanincludeeffectsfromwindfalls,spring
flooding, andwinter icedamage.

74. LakeEcosystemCharacteristics:
It isashallowfreshwater body
It isapermanent waterbody
It helps inirrigationanddrinking
Organism: Planktons, Nektons, Neustons, Benthos, Periphytons

75. Types of Lakes: Oligotrophic
(LowNutrient)
Eutrophic
(HighNutrient)
Dystrophic
(LowpH)
Endemic
(HasFauna)
Artificial
(Dueto Dams)
DesertSalt
(HighSalt)
Volcanic
(V
olcanic Eruption)
Meromictic
(Rich inSalt)

76. River Ecosystem:
 The ecosystem of a river is the river viewed as a system operating in its natural environment, and
includes biotic (living) interactions amongst plants, animals and micro-organisms, as well as abiotic (non-
living) physical andchemical interactions.
 Riverecosystems areprimeexamples of lotic ecosystems.
 Lotic refers to flowing water, fromthe Latin lotus, washed.
River EcosystemCharacteristics:
 Flowisunidirectional.
 Thereis astateof continuous physical change.
 Thereis ahigh degree of spatial andtemporal heterogeneity at all scales(microhabitats).
 V
ariability between lotic systemsisquite high.
 Thebiota is specialized to live with flow conditions

77. OceanEcosystem:
 MarineecosystemsareamongthelargestofEarth'saquaticecosystems.
 They include oceans, salt marsh and intertidal ecology, estuaries and lagoons, mangroves and
coralreefs,thedeepseaandtheseafloor.
 Theycanbecontrastedwithfreshwaterecosystems,whichhavealowersaltcontent.
 Marine waters cover two-thirds of the surface of the Earth. Such places are considered
ecosystemsbecausetheplantlife supportstheanimallifeandvice-versa.
OceanEcosystemCharacteristics:
 Marine ecosystems are very important for the overall health of both marine and terrestrial
environments.
 According to the WorldResource Centre, coastal habitats alone account for approximately 1/3 of
all marine biological productivity, and estuarine ecosystems (i.e., salt marshes, sea-grasses,
mangroveforests)areamongthemostproductive regionsontheplanet.
 Marine ecosystemssuchas coral reefs, provide food andshelter to the highest levels of marine
diversityintheworld.
 Marine ecosystems usually have a large biodiversity and are therefore thought to have a good
resistanceagainstinvasivespecies.

78. OceanEcosystemStructure:
T
ypesof Zones:
 CoastalZone–Warm,nutrientrichshallowwater
 OpenSea–Deepest
 EuphoticZone–Receivesabundantlight andshowshighphotosynthetic activities.
 Bathyal Zone–It receivesdull light
 Abyssal Zone–It isthedarkzone(2–5kmdeep)

79. EstuarineEcosystem:
 An estuary is a partly enclosed coastal body of brackish water with one or more rivers or
streamsflowinginto it, andwithafreeconnectiontotheopensea.
 Estuariesformatransitionzonebetweenriver environmentsandmaritimeenvironmentsandare
subjecttobothmarineinfluences,suchastides, waves,andtheinfluxofsaline water.
 The inflows of both sea water and fresh water provide high levels of nutrients in both the water
columnandsediment,makingestuariesamongthemostproductive naturalhabitatsin theworld.
KlamathRiver –NorthCalifornia

80. EstuarineEcosystem Characteristics:
EstuariesaretransitionZones
Watercharacteristics areperiodically changed
Salinity remains highest during thesummerandlowest during thewinter.
It isstrongly affectedbytidal action.
The organisms (Eurythermal and Euryhaline) present in estuaries show a wide
range oftolerance totemperatureandsalinity.

81. Biodiversity:
Definition:
 Biodiversity is the degree of variation of life forms within a given species, ecosystem, biome,
or planet.
 Terrestrial biodiversity tends to be highest at low latitudes near the equator,which seems to be
theresultofthewarmclimateandhighprimaryproductivity.
 Marine biodiversity tends to be highest along coasts in the Western Pacific, where sea surface
temperatureis highestandinmid-latitudinalbandinall oceans.
 Biodiversity generally tends to cluster in hotspots, andhas beenincreasingthrough time but will
belikelytoslowinthefuture.
 Rapid environmental changes typically causemassextinctions.Oneestimate is that <1%-3%of
thespeciesthat haveexistedonEarth areextant.

82. Biodiversity:
Definition:
 Biologists most often define biodiversity as the "totality of genes, species, and ecosystems of a
region".
 An advantage of this definition is that it seems to describe most circumstances and presents a
unifiedviewofthetraditional threelevelsatwhichbiologicalvarietyhasbeenidentified:
 Speciesdiversity
 Ecosystemdiversity
 Geneticdiversity

83. SpeciesDiversity:
 Species diversity is the effective number of different species that are represented in a collection
of individuals (adataset).
 The effective number of species refers to the number of equally-abundant species needed to
obtain the same mean proportional species abundance as that observed in the dataset of
interest(whereall speciesmaynotbeequallyabundant).
 Speciesdiversity consistsoftwocomponents,speciesrichnessandspeciesevenness.

84. EcosystemDiversity:
 Ecosystemdiversity referstothediversity ofaplaceatthelevel ofecosystems.
 Ecosystem diversity can also refer to the variety of ecosystems present in a biosphere, the
varietyofspeciesandecologicalprocessesthatoccurin differentphysicalsettings.
2001 2002

85. GeneticDiversity:
 Genetic diversity, the level of biodiversity, refers to the total number of genetic characteristics in
thegeneticmakeupof aspecies.
 It is distinguished from genetic variability
, which describes the tendency of genetic
characteristicstovary.
 Geneticdiversity servesasawayforpopulationstoadapttochangingenvironments.
 Withmorevariation, it is morelikely that someindividuals in a population will possessvariations
ofalleles thataresuitedfortheenvironment.
 Thoseindividualsaremorelikely tosurvivetoproduceoffspringbearingthatallele.
 Thepopulation will continueformoregenerationsbecauseofthesuccessoftheseindividuals.

86. GeneticDiversity:

87. BiogeographicallyClassificationofIndia:
Indiahasdifferenttypesofclimateandtopographyindifferentpartsofthe
country andthesevariations haveinduced enormousvariability in flora and
fauna.
It occupies tenth position amongtheplant rich nations oftheworld.
Biogeography deals with thestudyof distribution, evolution, dispersal and
environmental relationship ofplants andanimals in time andspace.
Inourcountry,it has been classifiedintotenbiogeographic zones.Each of
thesezones hasits owncharacteristic climate, soil, topography andbiodiversity.

88. Biogeographically Classificationof India:
 Biogeographic classification of India is
to biogeographic characteristics. Biogeography
the division of India
according is the study of
the distribution
of species (biology), organisms, and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological
time.Thebiogeographic zonesofIndiaareasfollows:
 Himalayanzone
 Desert zone
 Semiarid zone
 WesternGhatszone
 Deccanplateauzone
 Gangeticplainzone
 Northeast zone
 Coastal zone
 Islandspresent near theshoreline
 TransHimalayanzone.

89. BiogeographicallyClassificationofIndia:

90. Valueof Biodiversity:
Food Fuel Drug

91. V
alueof Biodiversity:
ElephantTusk Silk Wool

92. V
alueof Biodiversity:
Tulsi Plant SacredFlowers Snakes

93. V
alueof Biodiversity:
Awareness

94. V
alueof Biodiversity:
T
ourism

95. V
alueof Biodiversity:
Potential Cure

96. V
alueof Biodiversity:
Preventing
Soil Erosion
Flood
Prevention Global
Warming
Awareness

97. BiodiversityLevels:
GlobalBiodiversity:
 Terrestrialbiodiversity ofearthis called asbiomes.
 Biomes: thelargestecologicalunitspresentin differentgeographicareas
andarenamedafter thedominantvegetation
eg.Tropicalrainforests,tall grassprairies, savannas,desert,tundra.
T
ropicalrainforests:
 Largest storehouseof biodiversity
 About50to80%ofglobalbiodiversity lies intheserainforests.
 Morethan1/4th oftheworld’s prescriptiondrugsareextracted
 70% Cancerfightingplants.
 Oneofthecreepingvines in rainforestsatCameroontocureAIDSvirus

98. National Biodiversity:
India ranks10thamongtheplant rich countries oftheworld.
11thin termsof endemic species of higher vertebrates.
India ranks 6th amongthecenters of diversity andorigin of agricultural crops.
Indiaisoneof themega-biodiversity countries inworld.
Outof 25biodiversity hot-spots in theworld, 2Hotspots are in India.

99. Local Biodiversity:
 Pointrichness: numberofspeciesthatcanbefoundatasinglepointinagivenspace.
 Alpharichness : numberof species found in asmall homogeneousarea. Alpha-richness is
stronglycorrelatedwithphysicalenvironmentvariables.
Eg: 100speciesoftunicatesin arctic waters,400speciesintemperatewaters.
 Betarichness: rate of changein speciescompositionacrossdifferent habitats. Cumulative
numberofspeciesincreasesasmoreheterogeneoushabitatsaretakeninto consideration.
 Gammarichness: rateofchangeacrosslargelandscapegradients.

100. IndiaasaMega-diversityNation:
 Indiacontains about8%ofworld’sbiodiversity on2%oftheearth’ssurface.
 India records 47,000 species of plants and 81,000 species of animals which is about 7% and
6.5%of global floraandfauna.
 Indiais hometo5worldheritagesites.
 33%oflife formsarefoundinIndia andis oneamongthe12megadiversity countries.
 33BotanicalGardens,89NationalParks,275Zoos,504sanctuaries and12biospherereserves
in India.
 Western Ghatsare site of maximumendemism(specieswhichare restricted only to a particular
area.62%Amphibiansand50%lizards)
 5000speciesoffloweringplantshadtheiroriginin India.
 Center of origin of 166species of crop plants and320species of wild relatives of cultivated
crops.

101. IndiaasaMega-diversityNation:
 Along 7500Km long coastline of our country in the mangroves, estuaries, coral reefs, back
watersetcthereexistsarichbiodiversity.
 340speciesofcoralsofworldarefoundhere.
 Richinmollusks, crustaceans, polychaetesandcorals.
 SeveralspeciesofMangroveplantsandseagrassesarefoundin ourcountry.
 Indian forests cover 64.1 million hectares having a rich biodiversity of plants in Trans-Himalayan,
north-west, west, central and eastern Himalayan forests, western ghats, coasts, deserts,
Gangeticplains,AndamanandNicobar,Lakshadweepislands.

102. Hot Spotsof Biodiversity:
 Areaswhichexhibit highspeciesrichnessaswell ashighspeciesendemism(restricted toonlya
particularregion)aretermedashotspotsofbiodiversity.
 Hotspots cover less than 2% of the world’s land area are found to have about 50% of the
terrestrialbiodiversity.
 According to Myer’s et al (2000) an area is designated as a hotspot when it contains at least
0.5%of theplant speciesasendemics.
 About 40% of the terrestrial plants and 20% of vertebrate species are endemic and found in
thesehotspots.
 After the tropical rain forests, the second highest number of endemic plant species are found in
the Mediterranean. Broadly, these hot spots are in Western Amazon, Madagascar, North and
EastBorneo,NorthEasternAustralia,W.AfricaandBrazilianAtlantic forests.

103. Hot Spotsof Biodiversity :
 Theseareas havehighdiversity, endemismandalso threatened byhuman activities.
 Indian hot spots are not only rich in floral wealth, endemic species of plants but also reptiles, amphibians
andsomemammals.
 Eastern Himalayas:
 Ultra-varied topography that fosters species diversity andendemism.
 Numerous deep and semi-isolated valleys in Sikkim which are extremely rich in endemic plant
species.
 Forestcover of Eastern Himalayas decreased to about 1/3rdof its original cover.
 Certain species like Sapria himalayana(a rare holoparasitic flowering plant related to Rafflesia
found in the Eastern Himalayas) wasseenonlytwiceinlast 70years.

104. Hot Spotsof Biodiversity :
 NorthEast India:
 Cradle of flowering plants.
 Outof the world’s recorded flora 30%areendemicto India of which 35,000 arein Himalayas
 W
estern Ghats:
 17,000Km2stripofforestsinMaharashtra,Karnataka,T
amilNaduandKeralahas40%of total
endemicplant species, 62%amphibians and50%lizards areendemicto WesternGhats.
 MajorcentersareAgastyamalai Hills andSilent Valley : the NewAmambalam Reserve Basin.
 Only6.8%of original forests areexisting today.
 Common plants include T
ernstroemia japonixa, Rhododendron and Hypericum while common fauns
includes laughing thrush, lizardhawk, Fairybluebird.

105. ThreatstoBiodiversity:
 Extinction orelimination ofaspeciesis anaturalprocessofevolution
 Theprocessofextinctionhasbecomefasterduetohumancivilization
 Thefigureofextinctionis atarateof10,000speciesperyearor27perday.
 Onethirdtotwo-thirdofourcurrentbiodiversity will belostbytheyear2050
 Causes:
 Lossof Habitat or Habitat Degradation
 Poaching
 Invasionof Non-nativeSpecies
 Pollution
 Over-exploitationof Resources
 Global EnvironmentalChange

106. Man-WildlifeConflicts:
 Wildlife causingdamageanddangertohumansandproperties–crops/houses
 InSamalpur(Orissa)195humanswerekilled in thelast5yearsbyelephants.
 Humansrespondedbykilling 98elephantsandinjuring 30elephants.
 InNepal,17peopleswerekilled in theRoyalChitwanNationalParkbyaman-eatingtiger.
 Electrical fencing,explosives weresomeofthemethodsadoptedbyvillages tokill wildanimals.
 Causes:
 Humanencroachment intoforest areas
 Animalssufferingfromillness, weakandinjuredtakehumans
 Lack of alternate cultivation practices (paddy, sugarcane) by forest department for animals
like elephantswhenbambooleavesarenotavailable.
 Electric fencing causesinjury toanimals,whichin returnturnviolent
 Poorcashcompensationbygovt. to farmersfor cropdamages,turn farmerto take revenge
onwildanimals

107. EndangeredSpeciesofIndia:
 Extinct species - Whenit is not seen in the wild for 50 years at a stretch. Eg., Dodo,passenger
pigeon.
 Endangeredspecies- Whenitsnumberhasbeenreduced toa criticallevelor whose habitats
are drastically reduced and if such a species is not protected and conserved, its in immediate
danger of extinction.
 Vulnerable species - If a population of a species is facing continuous decline due to
overexploitationor habitual destruction.
 Rarespecies- Specieswhicharenotendangeredorvulnerableatpresentbutatarisk.
 InternationalUnionforConservationofNatureandNaturalResources(IUCN) publishes Red
DataBook(list of endangeredspeciesof plantsandanimals.
 Nearly450plantspecieshavebeenidentified ascategoriesofendangered,threatenedorrare.

108. EndemicSpeciesof India:
 Specieswhicharerestricted onlytoaparticularareaareknownasendemic
 Outof47,000speciesofplantsin ourcountry7,000areendemic.
 Indiansubcontinenthasabout62%endemicflora,restrictednamely toHimalayas, Khasi Hills
andWesternGhats.
 EndemicFlora: SapriaHimalayana, Pitcher plantsandOrchids
 Outof81,000animalspecies–largenumberofspeciesaredescribedtobeendemic
 WesternGhats:62%amphibians,50%Lizardsareendemic
 Endemicspecies: reticulatedpython,IndianSalamanderandViviparous toad.

109. Conservationof Biodiversity:
 In Situ Conservation (within habitat) - achieved by protection of wild flora and fauna in nature
itself.
 Eg.Biospherereserves,NationalParks,Sanctuaries,Reserveforestsetc.
 ExSitu Conservation(outsidehabitat) - donebyestablishmentof genebanks,seedbanks,
zoos, botanical gardens, culturecollections.

110. Conservation of Biodiversity:
 InSituConservation:
 7 major biosphere reserves, 80 national parks, 420 wild-life sanctuaries, 120 Botanical gardens in our
countrycovering4%of geographic area.
 Biosphere reserves - conserve some representative ecosystems as a whole for long-term in situ
conservation.
 In India, we have Nanda Devi(U.P
.),Nokrek (Meghalaya), Manas (Assam), Sunderbans (West
Bengal), Gulf of Mannar (T.N.),Nilgiri (Karnataka, Kerala,T.N.),Great Nicobars, Similipal (Orissa)
biosphere reserves.
 National Park - area dedicated for the conservation of wildlife along with its environment. Its meant
for enjoyment through tourism.
 Grazing of domestic animals, all private rights, forestry activities are prohibited within a National
Park

111. Conservationof Biodiversity:
 Wildlife Sanctuaries - Protected areas where killing, hunting, shooting or capturing of
wildlife areprohibitedexceptunderthecontrolofhighestauthority.
 ProjectTiger,GirLionProject,CrocodileBreedingProject,ProjectElephant,Snow
LeopardProject.

112. Conservationof Biodiversity:
 ExSuit Conservation:
 Conservation of crop varieties, wild relatives of crops and all local varieties (conserve total
geneticvariability of cropspeciesfor futurecropimprovement).
 ImportantGenebank/Seedbankfacilities:
 NationalBureauofPlantGeneticResources(NBPGR): locatedinNewDelhi.
 Agricultural, horticultural crops, their wild relatives are preserved by cryo-preservation of
seeds,pollenetcbyusingliquid nitrogenatatempaslowas-1960c.

113. ExSuit Conservation:
Varieties of rice, pearl millet, Brassica, turnip, radish, tomato, onion, carrot,
chilli, tobacco, poppy etc : preserved in liquid nitrogen for several years
without losing seedviability
.
National Bureau ofAnimal Genetic Resources (NBAGR) located at Karnal,
Haryana. Preservessemenof domesticatedbovine animals.
National Facility for plant tissue culture repository (NFPTCR) : development
of facility of conservation ofvarieties of cropplants/trees bytissueculture.