European Journal ofP.sychology of Education2005. Vol. XX. n.docx

European Journal ofP.sychology of Education
2005. Vol. XX. n"2. 171-184
©2005.I.S.P.A.
A social-constructivist approach in physical
education: Influence of dyadic interactions on
tactical choices in an instructional team sport setting
Florence Damis-Paraboschi
Lucile Lafont
Andre Menaut
Universite Victor Segalen Bordeaux 2, France
The purpose of this study was to analyze the role of dyadic
verbal
peer interactions in a team sport such as handball. Participants.
20
boys and 20 girls aged between JI and 12. were assigned to two
learning condition groups. The task was an instructional setting
in team
handball (2 attackers against I defender in each half court). The
experimental group with verbal exchanges was e.xpected to
obtain
higher perfortnances in the post-tests than those who had not
interacted
verbally between playing sequences. The secondary objective
was to
investigate whether dyadic gender had an effect on tactical
choice and
cognitive skills in playing games. The experiment demonstrated
the
superiority of the dyadic verbal interaction group over the non-

interactive group as regards tactical choices and action projects.
It
also showed gender differences since males performed better
females
with regard to action efftciency. The results are discussed
within the
theoretical framework of the social psychology of acquisition
and
development and within that of teaching for understanding. In
conclusion, the socio-constntctivist approach would seem to be
pertinent in team sport decision-making tasks.
The socio-constructivist theory based on the concept of socio-
cognitive conflict (SCC)
(Perret-Clennont, 1980, Perret-Ciermont and Nicolct, 1988;
Doise and Mugny 1981. 1997}
outlines the role of social interaction in cognitive development.
The child can coordinate
his/her actions with others and then can develop systems of
organization of his/her actions. In
these conditions of interindividual coordination, the child
develops his/her own cognitive
structures through a mechanism of decentering. In exchange,
his/her cognitive progress will
allow him/her to participate in new, more elaborate social
interactions, which in turn will
modify the structuring of his/her thought. The supposed causal
link is circular and its progress
Aeitnowledgemcnls lo Gerville-Reache. L. for his advice with
Ilie statistics.
172 F. DARNIS-PARABOSCHI, L. LAFONT, & A. MENAUT

corresponds to the spiral posited by Piaget (1974) to describe
the vector of development
(Doise, 1988). Interactions between students therefore allow
cognitive development.
Nevertheless, improvement happens only wlien cognitive
conflict occurs between partners.
The conflict must be strong and bring to the fore disagreements
that have to be discussed and
argued in order to create an SCC. Gilly, Fraisse, and Roux
(1988) demonstrate the possible
efficiency of other forms of conflict-free interaction such as
acquiescent co-elaboration and
co-construction. Such mechanisms are able to induce cognitive
progress in problem-solving.
A key element here is the interactive dynamics between
partners. Both theories emphasize
intra-individua! prerequisites and regulation of socio-cognitive
interactions, and refer to
Vygotskian theory, which highlights peer roles in the concept
and knowledge building area.
Fraisse (1985) stresses the disruptive role of the partner in a
logic problem solving situation.
In this case, working with somebody may be better than
working alone when the initial level
of the participants, the socio-cognitive dynamics of the dyad,
and the intellectual functioning
demanded by the task are taken into account. Team sports seem
able to generate co-elaboration
and co-construction abilities with or without SCC between
partners, and a co-operative task
involving opposing points of view may be a way to develop
cognitive strategies.
In the domain of motor skill acquisition, the importance of
working in a dyadic peer
situation as a leaming method has been highlighted by Arripe-

Longueville (d'), Fleurance, and
Winnykamen (1995); Arripe-Longueville {d'), Gernigon, Huet,
Cadopi, and Winnykamen,
{2002a,b). In the first study, the task used was the forward
somersault. The results demonstrated
the superiority of both asymmetrical and symmetrical conditions
versus the individual
condition for all variables. The participants were adolescents
from 14 to 16 years old. In the
case of another morphokinetic skill, the breaststroke turn in
swimming, Arripe-Longueville
(d') et al. (2002b) demonstrated an interaction between gender
and dyadie situations. Heavily
asymmetrical situations were better for males whereas lightly
asymmetrical conditions were
better suited to females. In a pilot study, Darnis-Paraboschi,
Lafont and Menaut (2002)
demonstrated the efficiency of symmetrical dyadic situations on
tactical choices in an invasive
team sport during the deferred post-test. A weakness of the
study was the control of dyad
gender (female, male, mixed dyads). Moreover, Arripe-
Longueville (d') (1998) highlights
three peer interaction modes within dyads: guidance-tutoring for
asymmetrical dyads,
cooperative behavior in the case of girls and symmetrical dyads
and parallel activity mainly
adopted by boys. Charleswortli and Dzur (1987) showed the
preference of girls for tutoring
and co-operative behavior in comparison with boys, who were
more inclined to social
comparison. In a more recent study, Tutge (1992) reported that
girls and boys differ according
to collaboration, girls being more likely to regress because they
are more interested in
preserving good relations with their partners. Moreover, in a co-

operative situation involving
opposing points of view such as in an instructional setting in
team sport, we hypothesize the
existence of gender differences.
Dyadic interaction can also be examined from the point of view
of a theoretical
framework of co-operation leaming in a classroom setting in
physical education (Lafont &
Winnykamen, 1999). Co-operative leaming may be seen as an
organization mode in small
groups within the classroom. Co-operative situations are more
efficient than individual and
competitive leaming conditions inasmuch as three main fields
are concerned: interpersonal
relations, self-confidence and self-esteem, as well as academic
achievement (Johnson,
Muruyama, Johnson, Nelson, & Skon, 1981; Slavin, 1983). Co-
operation with competition
between groups appears to generate more interaction than inter-
individual competition and
working-alone situations (Slavin, 1983). However, co-operation
and competition are often
linked in sports, particularly in team sports where intra-group
co-operation exists alongside
inter-group eompetition (Lafont & Winnykamen, 1999). In the
reduced type situation studied
here, there is a co-operative goal both with the partner and the
opponent. In the same
theoretical perspective, Lafont, Proeres, Burvingt, Menaut, and
Poitreau (1999) investigated
the effects of team discussion (about playing strategies) on
interpersonal relations and skill
acquisition. In that study, an experimental group placed in a
situation of collective discussion
seemed to gain an advantage in the interaction situation with

regard to individual and
LEARNING IN DYADS IN TEAM SPORT 173
collective participation in the game. Moreover, according to
Bouthier (1988), verbalization
seems to constitute an essential operation for working out,
implementing, and regulating
collective motor skills. Its introduction into teaching team
sports and games should develop
dynamics and might particularly involve reciprocal effects
between the individual contribution
of the players and the collective performance. When building
knowledge and action rules,
collective discussions and verbalization help players to develop
tactical skills (Grehaigne &
Godbout, 1995; Grehaigne, Godbout, & Bouthier, 1999).
Several models describe the relationship between knowledge
and performance in the
development of complex skills within rapid time constraints.
French and Thomas (1987),
Thomas and Thomas (1994) and Williams and Davids (1995)
highlight the simultaneous
importance of declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge and
performance skills in team
sports. French and Thomas (1987) hypothesize that a foundation
of sport-speeific declarative
knowledge is necessary to make appropriate decisions within
the context of a game. They
demonstrate that both cognitive and motor skills contribute to
the development of children's
basketball skills. The improvement of specific declarative
knowledge might be related to

better procedural knowledge and decision-making development.
According to French and
Thomas (1987), both declarative and procedural knowledge
improve decision-making ability.
To improve qualities of inference as well as "if., then... I do..."
statements, declarative
knowledge of the same type has to be developed. It seems that
dyadic interactions and peer
verbalisation are able to generate declarative knowledge as
action rules on tactical choices. In
Williams and Davids' framework (1995), declarative knowledge
is built through training and
playing, while procedural knowledge promotes the acquisition
and rclention of specific
declarative knowledge; i.e., knowing facilitates doing and doing
facilitates knowing. To study
the development of tactical efficiency in social interaction,
declarative knowledge and
procedural knowledge need to be explored and could have an
impact on performance.
Another framework is the Teaching Games For Understanding
(TGFU) model (Thorpe,
Bunker, & Almond, 1986; Grehaigne, Godbout, & Bouthier,
1999; Grehaigne, Godbout, &
Mahut, 1999) which highlights the debate concerning the
respective importance and role' of
techniques and tactics in learning games and sports. The model
proposes that priority should
be given to understanding and learning tactics related to a game
or a sport and to the specific
technical skills to be practiced when the need is perceived by
the student. We suggest a
tactical approach to teaching games in the light of a socio-
constructivist perspective of the
teaching-learning process through the notion of debate-ofidea

developed by Grehaigne,
Godbout, and Bouthier (2001). In a debate-of-idea setting,
retrospective verbalization seems to
provide information and stimulate reflection about obstacles
encountered by players in their
efforts to solve a problem. The construction of suitable personal
tactical skills in a specific
situation could be referred to as indirect teaching (Grehaigne,
Godbout, & Bouthier, 1999)
associated with a socio-constructivist approach which contends
that knowledge constructed by
the student is a result of the interaction between his/her
cognitive activity, reality, and other
people's. Conscious action-efficient rules emerge from peer
verbaiizalions. A co-operative
learning process in harmony with the internal logic of invasive
team sports requires both
eonceplualization of the action (Vergnaud, 1996) and
achievement of the playing action. Barth
(1993) developed a pedagogy focused on the student's cognitive
and meta-cognitive strategies.
Meta-cognitive knowledge corresponds to knowledge the
student has upon his/her own
knowledge and his/her cognitive operation. Meta-cognition is a
knowledge and attitude
transfer tool, so meta-cognitive processes seem to be developed
to generate conscious action-
efficient rules about decision-making in team sports and games.
It seems that social
interactions between peers enable the emergence of meta-
cognitive knowledge required in the
TGFU model.
The main purpose of tbis study therefore was to highlight the
role of dyadic peer
interactions to build action rules. Declarative, procedural and

meta-cognitive knowledge are
constitutive of tactical efficiency in a team sport. To our
knowledge, apart from the research
conducted by Darnis-Paraboschi, Lafont, and Menaut (2002),
the present experiment with
dyads is the first for this type of task. Following on from
Arripe-Longueville's results (1998),
the participants in dyads were expected to obtain higher
performances in the post-tests than
those who had not interacted between playing sequences. The
study is a quantitative one and
the verbal statements of the participants are not described here.
The secondary objective was
to observe the effect of dyadic gender on tactical choice and
cognitive skills in playing games.
However, previous studies do not allow precise hypotheses to be
made regarding the
differences between boys and girls.
Method
Participants and design
The participants were forty French students: 20 boys and 20
girls. Their average age was
1 1.2 years (SD=0.42) and they were from middle-class and
lower s o c i o - e c o n o m i c
backgrounds. They were selected from a sample of 72 pupils
attending three different classes
of two teachers who worked together on the same project in the
same school. These two

teachers were not part of the research team. All participants and
their parents provided
informed consent before they participated in the study. They
were told that they would be
filmed but that their privacy would be protected. The
experimental design was approved by
the university's ethical committee.
All the 72 pupils volunteered to participate in the study. We
selected beginners in the
team sport, i.e., only those who did not practise team sport
outside of the school and those
were present at the three stages of the experiment. Thus, 40
participants were randomly
assigned to the four independent groups of a 2x2 (Gender x
Learning condition) design.
Task materials
The required task was a reduced situation of European handball.
This instructional setting
was established within the planned sequence of activities for the
first year of secondary school
and was part of the basic program for teaching beginners how to
make decisions in the activity.
The experiment was carried out during a physical education
lesson. The class teacher took
charge of the pupils not selected by the experimental design but
did not participate in data
collection. The experiment took place in the middle of the
curriculum and the pupils knew the
basic rules. Lessons were given in a 40x20 meter gymnasium
with standard handball court
regulations. All the participants received the same verbal
instructions, and had to perform both
attacking and defensive tasks.

Figure I. The motor task, handball instructional setting
The attacking instruction was as follows: "you have to start at
the goal area line with one
ball for two players and you have to reach the opposite goal
area line to take a shot at the goal
without losing the ball. In order to succeed, you have to follow
handball rules."
LEARNING rN DYADS IN TEAM SPORT 175
The defensive instruction was as follows: "you have to divide
up into each half-court: one
defensive player in the half-court in front of the medium-tine
and the other one in the other
half-court behind the medium-line. You have to try to stop the
attacking players carrying the
ball toward your goal by intercepting the ball or trying to stop
the shot using handball rules".
The participants had to take turns in playing the role of attacker
and defender. The
players always rotated in the same manner, so each attacking
dyad always met the same
defensive dyad.
Videotape: Verbal exchanges were recorded on a Hitachi 8mni
Video Camera/Recorder
VM-E555LE and a directional microphone: Firstline Micro
Cassette Recorder.
Procedure

The first test consisted in assessing the initial level of the
participants in the instructional
setting {all participants were randomly assigned to a dyad).
Twenty dyads were composed,
10 female dyads and 10 male dyads assigned to two conditions:
with (experimental group) or
without verbalization (control group).
Pre-test. A declarative knowledge pencil and paper test ( D K l )
was performed with a
1 4 - p o i n t s c a l e for t h e o r e t i c a l t a c t i c a l c h o i
c e s . T h i s c o n s i s t e d of a m u l t i p l e - c h o i c e
questionnaire asking the pupils a series of if X occurs, then I do
V" statements. Each question
was illustrated by a diagram explaining the playing situation.
An action project questionnaire ( A P I ) using a 4-point scale
described the different stages
of learning the skill. A motor pre-test consisted in an
instructional setting in team handball. On
a handball court, one defender was on each half court with a
goalkeeper. Each dyad had to
move from one place to take the ball to the opposing goal area
and make a shot at goal, using
passes or dribbling, Each dyad had five attempts at attack and
five at defense. For each
attempt we assessed a choice relevance measure ( C R l ) using
a 20-point scale (a ratio of good
choices on all the choices observed multiplied by 20) and an
action efficiency measure ( A E l )
using a 5-point scale (1 point for every shot at the goalkeeper
on the goal area line).
Training in pairs
In the experimental conditions (Exp), the participants were

asked to discuss (3 times, 3
minutes) and to come to an agreement with the partner in order
to find a solution for winning.
In the control condition (Cont), the participants were asked to
make as many passes as
possible (3 times, 3 minutes). Between each training phase, one
attempt was made on the court
in the same conditions as the pre-test.
Immediate post-test. All participants performed five trials in the
same conditions as the
pre-test (2 attackers against 1 defender on each half court) and a
choice relevance measure
(CR2) and an action efficiency (AE2) measure were assessed.
Furthermore, a declarative
knowledge test (DK2) and an action project questionnaire (AP2)
were administered.
Deferred post-test. All participants performed five attempts in
the same conditions as the
pre-test one week later. For each attempt, a choice relevance
measure (CR3) and an action
efficiency measure (AE3) were assessed.
Measures
Dependent measures included choice relevance (CR) and action
efficiency (AE) for
motor performance. In accordance with previous research
(Arripe-Longueville (d'), 1998;
Damis-Paraboschi, Lafont, & Menaut, 2002), action project and
declarative knowledge were
also measured.

176 F. DARNIS-PARABOSCHI, L. LAFONT. & A. MENAUT
The declarative knowledge test (DK) described seven variable
situations all requiring
decision making by the player. For each "if-then " statement, we
assigned 2 points for the best
solution, 1 point for a halfway solution and 0 point for the
wrong solution. This test was
constructed by three expert team handball teachers and was
standardized in a pilot study
conducted with 34 boys and girls of the same age and skill
level.
According to Thomas and Thomas (1994), novices lack
declarative knowledge such as
offensive and defensive strategies. They often do not know
which skill to execute or when to
execute it. With more experienced students, the performance
differences tend to be less skill-
related and more knowledge-based (French & Thomas, 1987;
McPherson & Thomas, 1989).
However, in a situation of movement, it is possible to know
when and how to perform a
movement without actually being able to execute it (Thomas &
Thomas, 1994). We therefore
investigated choice-making declarative knowledge through this
test, looking first for a link to
choice relevance and secondly for the effect of the acquisition
process on it.
The action project questionnaire (AP) was a written
questionnaire asking the students
how to perform in order to succeed in the problem situation. It
stated: "In a 2 attacking
players against I defensive player situation, what do you both

have to do to succeed in making
a shot eveiy time without losing the ball?
Describe the possibilities in this situation and foresee the
solutions. "
The action project questionnaire was coded 1 point for a "you
have to pass the ball": 2
points for: "you have to pass^ the ball and tnove into space ".*
3 points for: "you have to pass
the ball or dribble, then tnove into space": 4 points for an
answer in which the various
possible answers were given according to the defensive player:
"If the defensive player does
that.... then I do that... ". This test had been used and
standardized in a pilot study with 34
boys and girls of same age and had been validated by three
expert handball teachers.
According to Grehaigne, Godbout, and Bouthier (1999),
efficiency during a game
depends on action efficient rules which learners try to
fonnulate. Tactical efficiency is linked
to a generative capacity to produce infinite tactical types of
behavior in response to infinite
configurations of play. We therefore expected ati improvement
in answers regarding the
tactical rules described in the action project questionnaire with
the training conditions. The
experimental group had to verbalize and discuss the best
solution for succeeding in the task.
For each handball team player, the (+) number was divided by
the action number (+;+/-;-)
and multiplied by 20. This gave a ratio of rather good choices
with regard to total action

function. This scale had been used and standardized in a pilot
study with 34 boys and girls of
same age and validated by three expert handball teachers
(Darnis-Paraboschi, Lafont, &
Menaut, 2002). Choice relevance (CR) using a 20-point scale
was measured by three teachers
who were handball experts. They observed the players in the
task and noted "good choices"
(+), "neutral choices" (+/-) and "poor choices" (-). A
concordance test (Kendall test:
^(2,24)=0.16,/?<.05) was performed and there were no
differences between the teachers.
We evaluated procedural tactical knowledge evaluation on the
choice relevance scale.
According to French and Thomas (1987), declarative knowledge
tests and choice relevance
scales are linked. Moreover, the learning condilions might
influence choice relevance
performance. Moreover, experimental group players who are
called upon lo perform verbal
exchanges in pairs should generate and produce better adapted
choices for the situation. They
should then improve their choice relevance score more than the
control group.
The action efficiency measure (AE) used a 5-point scale. For
each attempt the attacking
dyad players received one point if they succeeded in making a
shot at the goal line. They had
five attempts, and then a 5-point scale was used to measure
playing efficiency. We expected a
relationship between choice relevance and action efficiency as
well as a better training
condition effect.

Data analyses
First, correlational analyses were computed among relevant
variables. To test the
hypothesis that verbal interaction would lead to higher
performances than the control
condition (without interaetion) and to observe the potential
gender differences, a 2x2x2
(Gender x Learning condition x Period) analysis of variance
with repeated measures on the
last factor (RMANOVA) was conducted for Declarative
Knowledge and Action Project. For
Choice Relevance and Action Efficiency, a 2x2x3 (Gender x
Learning condition x Period)
analysis of variance with repeated measures on the last factor
(RMANOVA) was conducted.
Comparisons were conducted by univariate ANOVA. Eta
squared was computed to examine
the effect size of the significant differences. Following Cohen
(1988), ES is interpreted as 0.8
representing a large effect, 0.5 as a moderated effect and 0.2 as
a small effect.
With a view to comparing the four groups according to the
acquisition procedure, their
equivalence on the pre-test was verified. No difference was
found between the four groups for
all measures.
Results

Correlation analyses
Table 1
Correlational matrix
DK1 DK2 API AP2 CRI CR2 CR3 AEI AE2 AE3
DKl
DK2 .70***
API .27 .25
AP2 .18 .13 .57***
CRI .35* .35' .26 .30*
CR2 .45** .49*** .25 .37* .67***
CR3 .33* .42** .28 .48** .80*** .82***
AEI .16 .15 .09 .06 .58*** .33* .41**
AE2 .36 .31* .15 .02 .57*** .62*** .48** .69***
AE3 .28 .25 .18 .14 .62«** .55*** .56*** .88*** .87***
Note. •/7<.05,*V<.01,"**/J<.001.
The correlational analysis showed that all the measures were
related between the pre-test
and the post-tests. Moreover, declarative knowledge level was
positively related to choice rel-
evance on the pre-test and on the immediate post-test
(r=.35,p<.05 and r^.49,/j<.0l, respec-
tively). Declarative knowledge was also positively correlated to
action efficiency only on the
immediate post-test {r=3l, p<.05). Action project was positively
related to choice relevance
only on the immediate post-test (r=.37, p<.02). Choice
relevance was positively related to
action efficiency on the pre-test, the immediate post-test and the
deferred post-test (r=.58,
/K.00I;r=.62,p<.001 and r-.56,/7<.00l respectively).

Learning condition differences
Table 2 displays the means and standard deviations of all
measures for the two learning
conditions.
No difference was found when analyzing remainders. Observing
the scores diagrams of
the descriptive analysis did not reveal any outliers.
Table 2
Means (and standard deviations) of all measures for the two
learning conditions
Group
Experiment.
Control
Declarative
knowledge
1
10.2
(3.43)
10.1
(2.92)

2
10.65
(3.42)
9.50
(3.50)
Action project
questiontiaire
1 2
1.75 2.50
(0.97) (1)
1.80 1.90
(1) (1.12)
1
1288
(2.80)
12.22
(3.50)
Choice
relevance
2
14.92
(3.63)

12.49
(4.02)
3
14.85
(2.9)
12.31
(3.4)
1
2.50
(1.47)
3.3
(1.22)
Action
efficiency
2
3.1
(1.68)
3.8
(1.44)
3
3
(1.38)
3.4

(1.05)
Dyad gender and learning condition differences
Table 3 displays means and standard deviations for leaming
conditions by gender.
Table 3
Means (and standard deviations) of all measures for each group
Group
Feme I exp.
Femal control
Male exp.
Male control
Declarative
knowledge
1
8.60
(3.17)
10.60
(2.54)
11.80
(3.01)
9.60
(3.30)

2
10.10
(2.92)
9.60
(3.50)
11.20
(3.94)
9.40
(3.68)
Action project
questionnaire
1
!.7O
(0.82)
1.80
(1.23)
1.80
(1.13)
1.80
(0.79)
2
2.40
(0,70)

1.90
(f.28)
2.60
(1.26)
1.90
(0.99)
1
12.06
(2.53)
11.45
(1.23)
13.70
(2.92)
12.99
(2.56)
Choice
relevance
2
13.33
(1.98)
12.67
(5.20)
16.50

(4.28)
12.32
(2.65)
3
13.80
(1.40)
12.03
(4.05)
15.90
(3.66)
12.60
(2.79)
1
1.80
(1.23)
3.20
(1.23)
3.20
(1.40)
3.40
(1.26)
Action
efficiency

2
2.00
(0.66)
3.60
(1.95)
4.20
(1.68)
4.00
(0.66)
3
2.20
(1.42)
3.40
(1.26)
3.80
(1.55)
3.40
(0.84)
No difference was found when analyzing remainders. Observing
the scores diagrams of
the descriptive analysis did not reveal any outliers.
Declarative knowledge
For declarative knowledge, the RMANOVA showed no effect
for Gender or learning

condition (F(l,36)=0.7 and F(l,36)=0.42, ;7>.O5). There was no
significant progress
(F(],36)=0.04) for declarative knowledge.
Action project
For action project, the RMANOVA revealed a main effect for
the Assessment period,
F(l,36)=8.26, ;7<.O1 (£5^.19). The analyses also indicated a
Leaming condition x Assessment
period interaction F(l,36)=4.82, p<.05 {ES=.2). Bonferroni's
post-hoc test indicated no
significant difference between groups. Nevertheless, for the
Assessment period, only the
experimental group of boys improved significantly (F(],9)^16,
p<.01) (£5'-.64). No
significant or interactional effects between Gender and Learning
condition emerged
(F(l,36)-.03,;7>.05).
Choice relevance (CR)
There was a significant effect of the Assessment period (from
pre-test to immediate post-
test and deferred post-test), F(2,72)=5.84,;;<.01 (£5-.14).
Between pre-test and immediate post-test, RMANOVA indicated
significant progress
( F ( ! , 3 6 ) ^ 6 . 8 3 , ;3<.O5 (£"5=.16). The analyses also
indicated a Learning condition x
Assessment period interaction, F(I,36)=3.96, p=.O5 (ES=.O).
Bonferroni's post-hoc test

indicated no significant differences between groups.
Nevertheless, on the immediate post-test,
ihere was a significant effect of group F(l,36)=4.I5,p<.05
(£5=.10). The experimental group
obtained a higher performance than the controls {M exp.= 14.92
versus M contr.= 12.50).
Furthermore, only the experimental group of boys progressed
significantly between the pre-
test and immediate post-test F{ 1,9)=8.14, / x . 0 5 (£S=.48).
Between the pre-test and deferred post-test, RMANOVA
indicated a significant effect of
Assessment period, F(l,36)=12.64, p<.01 (ES=.26), and a
significant interaction between the
training condition and assessment period F(l,36)^10.42, p<.0
{ES=.22). On the deferred
post-test, Bonferroni's post-hoc test indicated that the
experimental group of boys obtained a
higher p e r f o r m a n c e than female c o n t r o l s (M e x p .
M a l e s = 1 5 . 0 9 versus M c o n t .
Females=l2.03) (p^.O5). On the deferred post-test, ANOVA
group: F(l,36)=6.49, p<.05 {ES^.5). The experimental group
obtained a higher perfonnance
than the eontrols (M exp.= 14.85 versus A/contr.=^12.31).
Moreover, only experimental groups
progressed significantly, respectively: F( 1,9)^6.38,/j<.05
(£"5=.41) (for females) and
F(l,9)=20.17,/)<.01 (ES=.69) (for males). No other effects were
significant.
Action efficiency (AE)
There was a significant effect of the Assessment period,
F{2,72)=7J2, p<.0 (from pre-
test to immediate post-test and deferred post-test) (£5^.18).

Between the pre-test and immediate post-test, RMANOVA
indicated a significant effect
of the Assessment period, F(I,36)=8.64,/7<.O1 ( £ 5 - . 1 9 ) .
The analyses also indicated a
significant effect of Gender, F(l,36)=7.78,/7<.O1 {ES=.ii).
Boys performed significantly
better than girls on the immediate post-test (M males=4.1 versus
M females=2.8). The
Bonferroni's post-hoc test indicated that the experimental group
of boys had higher
performances than the experimental group of girls: M exp.
males=4.2 versus M exp.
Females-2 (p=.006).
Between the pre-test and deferred post-test, RMANOVA
Assessment period, F(l,36)=9, p<.0 iES=.2O) and Gender,
F(l,36)=4,8, p<.05 (ES=.12).
Boys performed significantly better than girls {M males=3.6
versus M females=2.8) on the
deferred post-test. The Bonferroni's post-hoc test showed that
the experimental group of boys
had higher performances than the experimental group of girls:
M exp. maies=3.8 versus M
exp. Females=2.2 (p=.0) on the deferred post-test. There was a
significant interaction
between Leaming condition and Assessment period F{,36)=4,
p<.05 (£5=. 10). RMANOVA
by groups showed that only the experimental group of boys
progressed significantly
F{,9)=3.5,p<.0 (£5=.60). No other effects or interaction
effects were significant.
Discussion

The main purpose of the present study was to explore the effects
of dyadic verbal
interaction on cognitive, motor and tactical variables.
Additionally, gender effect was
assessed. The results demonstrate the effect of training in
symmetrical dyads with
verbalization for action projects and for choice relevance on the
deferred post-test. This
demonstrates the role in understanding of verbalization for
tactical representation and for
tactical choices. Action-efficient strategies developed because
co-operation by verbal
interaction between peers allowed to effective tactical action in
the long term. These results
are consistent with those found by Lafont et al. (1999), for a
team sport and by Arripe-
Longueville (d'), Fleurance and Winnykamen (1995); Arripe-
Longueville (d') et al. (2002a,b)
for other sports and other motor skills. The results also confirm
the importance of verbal
exchanges (Bouthier, 1988; Grehaigne, 1999).
Following Cohen (1988) we observed moderated effects for the
progress of experimental
group, but small effects for learning condition. These moderate
or small effects may be due to
several factors. First, although they were selected as novices,
some participants obtained quite
good motor scores at the beginning of the tests. Moreover, the
interactive session was rather
brief. Finally, the motor task was a complex one used in

physical education. For these reasons,
the ecological validity of the situation may have attenuated the
observed effects.
In the present study, no differences were found between boys
and girls for choice
relevance, declarative knowledge or action projects. In a
preliminary study, 144 boys and girls
performed equally well in tactical choices (Damis-Paraboschi,
1998). Boys were better than
girls only with regard to action efficiency. This may be due to
differences in socialization and
experience: boys are generally more skilled than girls in team
sports because they have greater
practical experience of ball games (Anderson, Gebhart, Pease,
& Rupnow, 1983). Moreover,
studies have shown that males are generally more motivated for
competition than females
(White & Duda, 1994; Ryckman & Hamel, 1995). White (1991)
showed that competitive
coaction enhances motor performance for men, but not for
women. Consequently, boys may
increase their action efficiency more significantly than girls
because the goal of the task and
the verbal instructions may elicit competitive orientation.
Concerning interaction differences
between boy and girl dyads, the present findings are quite
different from those reported by
Arripe-Longueville (d') et al. (2002b) for morphokinetic skills.
They showed that girls prefer
verbal exchanges whereas boys score higher in physical
involvement. Certain reasons may
explain why gender differences have not emerged. However, the
experimental designs and
interactive situations were rather different between authors
study and the present one.

Nevertheless, a qualitative analysis is to be conducted on the
whole corpus in reference to
"conversational analysis" and to peer interactive modes within
the dyads.
A c c o r d i n g to French and Thomas (1987), declarative k n o
w l e d g e and procedural
knowledge measured by choice relevance level are positively
correlated. To improve our
results we hypothesized that logical thought and the subject's
operative level infiuence the
ability to put inferences into words as "if... then" statements.
The subject's hypothetical-
deductive thought might influence his/her declarative and
procedural knowledge regarding
tactical choice. As expected, there was a positive correlation
between choice relevance and
action efficiency. Thus, procedural knowledge and motor skills
are linked in team sports.
Declarative knowledge was positively related to action
efficiency only on the post-test. These
results are consistent with those of French and Thomas (1987),
Thomas and Thomas (1994)
and Williams and Davids (1995) who highlighted the
simultaneous importance of declarative
knowledge, procedural knowledge, and motor skills in team
sport learning. We found a
positive correlation between action projects and choice
relevance on the immediate post-test,
as well as a significant effect of the assessment period. These
results are in agreement with
those of Grehaigne and Godbout (1995) and Grehaigne (1999)
showing that tactical efficiency
(measured by choice relevance) implies the capacity to produce
conscious action-efficient
rules {measured by action project).

Socio-cognitive learning frameworks (Perret-Clennont, 1980;
Perret-Clermont & Nicolet,
1988; Doise & Mugny, 1981, 1997) demonstrate greater
efficiency for interactive work over
individual work, in particular for Piagetian tasks. Our study
demonstrates the value of a socio-
constructivist approach to team game decision-making tasks.
Dyadic verbal interactions make
co-constructive project actions possible as well as collaborative
establishment of action-
efficient rules. Since team sports are characterized by the need
to cooperate, co-ordinated
points of view are required to establish one or several strategies
aiming at confrontation.
Therefore, social interaction is necessary at all stages of the
game. Verbal interactions involve
the formulation of word sets, and thus conceptualization and
thought-making. Awareness
processes are at the heart of meta-cognitive processes and
generate the "understanding of
learning" (Grehaigne & Godbout, 1995; Grehaigne, Godbout, &
Mahut, 1999). Piaget (1974)
drew attention to the difference between achievement and
understanding. He believed that
exercise achievement was task-dependent and was subsumed by
intuitive or tacit know-how,
whereas understanding was process-dependent. While social
development psychologists
underline intelligence building in social interaction (Perret-
Clermont, 1980), the team sport

models discussed here place much emphasis on tactical choice
building in social interaction.
A socio-constructivist teaching model should enhance students'
construction of tactical
knowledge and the development of their decision-making skills.
A reduced situation
highlighting tactical problems should comprise an instructional
setting in which verbalizations
between partners should be encouraged in order to promote the
emergence of action-efficient
rules. The present study shows the importance of alternating
between reduced situations,
verbalization and debate about idea sequences. Indeed, it might
encourage teachers to set up
dyadic interaction within the classroom since peers interactions
seem to develop relevant
tactical choices in problem-solving situations.
These findings open up new perspectives. First, it may be of
interest to create a new
experimental design with longer interaction within the dyads.
Various reduced situations
highlighting tactical problems could be investigated with regard
to verbalizations between
partners. Second, it would be interesting to examine the degree
of symmetry of the dyads to
assess its influence on improving tactical choices. Arripe-
Longueville (d") (1998)
demonstrated the greater efficiency of slightly asymmetrical
dyads compared to symmetrical
ones for morphokiTietic tasks. Future research should confirm
these results in the case of
tactical choices for a team sport. Although verbalizations have
not been systematically studied,
it appears that interactions between peers constitute co-

elaboration and co-constructions
(Gilly, Fraisse, & Roux, 1988). It would be of interest to
analyze verbal interactions in the
experimental group with progress made in cognitive and tactical
performances. Finally, future
research might examine the role of contextual characteristics
upon the kind of interactive
process. Particularly, the infiuence of competitive contexts and
the role of initial instnictions
and goal task could be measured with regard to dyadic
interactions in physical education and
sports contexts.
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275.
Cette etude se propose de mettre en evidence le role des
interactions verbales en dyades parilaires dans t'apprentissage
d'un
sport collectif comme le handball. Les participants, 20 gar^-ons
et 20
fdles. dgees de 11 a 12 ans. etaient repartis en deux groupes
selon la
condition d'appreniissage. La tdche est une situation dejeu
reduite du
handball: 2 attaquants contre 1 defenseur dans chaque moitie du
terrain. Les participants du groupe experimental, beneficiant
d'interactions verbales entre pairs, etaient supposes obtenir de
meilleurs resultats aitx post-tests que ceux du groupe te/noin, n
'ayant
pas interagi verbalemenl entre les sequences dejeu. Le second
objectif
etait d 'observer si le genre avait un effet sur les performances
tactiques
et sur les connaissances en jeu. L'experimentation demontre la
superiorile du groupe beneftciant d 'interactions verbales en
dyades par

rapport au groupe n 'ayant pas interagi au regard des choix
lactiques et
du projet d'action. En outre des differences de genre out ete
trouvees
dans le sens oit les gar<,'ons obtiennent de meilleures
performances que
lesfilles au niveau de I 'efficaclte de I 'action. Ces resultats sont
discutes
dans la perspective theorique des travaux de psychologic sociale
des
acquisitions et du developpemenl et dans le courant de
I'apprentissage
par la comprehension. Cette etude experimentale demontre un
interet
pour une approche socio-constructivisle de la prise de decision
en
sports collectifs.
Key words: Dyads, Team handball. Verbal interaction.
Received: May 2003
Revision received: May 2004
Florence Darnis-Paraboschi. University Victor Segalen
Bordeaux 2, Faculte des Sciences du Sport et de
TEP, Laboratoire VSTIl, EA 498, 12 Av. Camille Jullian, 33607
Pessac Cedex, France. Professeur
agrege d'E.P.S., docteur en STAPS a ITnstltut Universitaire de
Fomiatlon des Maitres d'Aquitaine, 49
rucdc TEcoleNormale, BP219, 33021 Bordeaux Cedex, France;
E-mail: [email protected]
Current theme of research:
Cognitive and socio-cogniiive factors on the foundations of
tactical abilities in team sports.

Most relevant publications in the field of Psycholog}' of
Education:
Damis, F., Lafoni, L., & Menaut, A. (2002). Effels des
interactions dyadiques sur la competence tactique en sports
colleclifs chez des sujets de 11-12 ans. Actes du congres de la
SFPS (pp. 25-28), 2 1 . 22 mars 2002. Limoges,
Krance.
Damis-Paraboshi, F. Lafont, L., & Menaut, A. (2004).
Verbalisations en dyades dans une silualion de cooperation et
d'affrontement en E.P.S. Communieation orale au Congres
International: Faut-il parler pour apprendre?
Dialogues. yerbali.tation et apprentissages en situation de
travad a I'ecole: Acquis et questions vives. 17, 18, 19
mars 2004, Arras, France.
Darnis, F. (2004). Place et role du developpement ccgnitif et de
^interaction sociale dans I'acte tactique et jeii.x et
sports collectifs. Unpublished doctoral dissertation in STAPS,
University of Bordeaux 2, France.
Lucile Lafont. Maitre de conferences HDR, Universite Victor
Segalcn Bordeaux 2, Faculte des Sciences
du Sport el de I'EP, Laboratoire VST2I. EA 498, 12 Avenue
Camille Jullian, 33607 Pessae Cedex;
B-mail: [email protected]
Interactive imitation. Peers interaction. Tutoring. CoDperative
learning. Modeling.

Most relevant publications in the field of Psychology of
Education:
Lafont, L., & Winnykamen, F. (1999). Cooperation and
competition in children and adolescents: Current issues and
perspectives in physical education. In Y. Vanden Auweele, F
Bakker, S. Biddle. M. Durand, & R. Seiler (Eds.),
Textbook on psychology for physical educators (pp. 379-404).
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Lafont L. (2002). Efficacit^ compar^e de la demonstration
explicitee el de I'imitation-modelisation interactive pour
l'acquisition d'une sequence dansee chez des adolescentes de 12
^ 15 ans. STAPS, S8,69-79.
Lafont L., Bedouret T., Py Y., Ricordeau L., & Guilbeau H.
(2003). Le tutorat en action: Observations et analyses.
Recherche et Eormation, 43, 65-81.
Damis-Parabosbi, F. Lafont, L., & Menaut, A. (2004).
Verbalisations en dyades dans une situation de cooperation et
d'affrontetnent en E.P.S. Communication orale aii Congri-s
International: Faut-il parler pour upprendre?
Dialogues, verhalisalion et apprentissages en situation de travail
a I'ecole: Acquis et questions vives, 17, 18, 19
mars 2004, Arras, France.
Munoz, E., & Lafont, L. (submitted). Adult tutoring for motor-
skill acquisition: The role of different guidance methods
in novices' motivation and performance.
Andr£ Menaut. Universite Victor Segalen Bordeaux 2, Faculte
des Sciences du Sport et de I'Education
Physique, EA 498 Vic Sportive: Tradition, Innovalicm,
Intervenlion (VST2I}, 12 avenue Camiile

Jullian, 33607 Pessac Cedex, France; E-mail: andre.menaut(@u-
bordeaux2.fr
Cognition, strategies des acteurs et environnements sportifs.
Cognition et phenom^nes collectifs dans les pratiques
physiques et sportives.
Most relevant publications in the field of Psychology of
Education:
Menaut, A. (1993). A propos d'un type particulier de conduite
cognitive: La pens6e tactique. Bulletin de Psychologie.
4l2[XiM). 684-693 (septembre-octobre, n" special "Cognition
Education Langage").
Menaut, A. (1998). Le reel et le possible dans la pensee
tactique. Contribution a une Iheorie dujeu sportif Bordeaux:
PUB, Nov. 1998.
Menaut, A. (2002). L'art d'entrainer et la quete du sens: Etudes
praxeologiques, L'exemple du football professionnel.
Colloque International de Praxeologie Atotrice (20, 21 et 22
juin 2002). Paris.
Vallet, C , Goodall, C . & Menaut, A. (2000), L'ajustement
spatio-teniporel du danseur face au stress. Science et
Motricite. 41,61-76.

ional Journal of athletic therapy &
training
© 2015 Human Kinetics - IJATT 20(4), pp. 44-50
http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijatt.2014-0090
Original CliniCal researCh
ollegiate athletes belong to a special cohort
commonly examined in sports medicine
research. Conducting epidemiological stud-
ies on both the risks and rates of injury are
important to address gaps in injury pre-
vention and sport safety.1–3 In 2007 an epidemiological
review of collegiate injuries across 15 different sports
governed by the National Collegiate Athletic Association
(NCAA) in the United States was conducted.1 Although
the review noted some important findings in regard to
injury rates, it lacked information on injury severity risk
(the risk of sustaining a severe injury in comparison with
a nonsevere injury). Furthermore, sex and sport were
looked at independently, and therefore comparisons
cannot be made.1 While knowledge of injury rates plays
a key role in injury prevention strategies, it is also import-
ant to understand the risk of sustaining a severe injury.
Possible risk factors for severe injury in sport may include
the nature of the sport itself (contact or noncontact), age,
competition level, and sex.1,2,4,5
Previous results have shown that males have a
higher rate of injury, calculated by number of injuries
Johanna M. Hurtubise, MA, CAT(C), Cheryl Beech, MA,

CAT(C), and Alison Macpherson,
PhD • York University
Comparing Severe Injuries by Sex and Sport
in Collegiate-Level Athletes:
A Descriptive Epidemiologic Study
context: There is a lack of research on sex differences for
severe injuries across a variety of sports at the
collegiate level. objective: To compare differences in injury
severity and concussion between sexes and
collegiate sports. Design: Descriptive epidemiological study.
participants: 1,657 injuries were analyzed from
collegiate teams at York University. Data collection and
analysis: Injuries were assessed by a certified or
student athletic therapist and were categorized based on degree
of tissue and/or joint damage as either severe
or nonsevere. Severe injuries included those with third degree
damage, while all others were classified as
nonsevere. Injury severity was compared between the sexes and
across different sports using Pearson chi-
square analysis. Logistic regression was used to assess the
relative contribution of each covariate. results:
Males sustained 1,155 injuries, with 13.3% of them being
severe, while females sustained only 502 injuries,
17.7% of which were severe. The odds of sustaining severe
injuries among female athletes are 1.4 times
the odds of male athletes (OR: 1.40, CI 1.05–1.86). Eleven
percent of all female injuries were concussions—
significantly more than males (χ2 = 11.03, p = .001). The odds
of female athletes having a concussion are
1.9 times the odds of a male athlete (OR: 1.85, CI 1.28–2.67).
conclusion: Based on our analysis, females
are at an increased risk of sustaining a severe injury,
particularly concussions. These findings highlight the
need for future research into sex and sport-specific risk factors.

This may provide information for health care
professionals, coaches, and athletes for the proper prevention,
on-field care, and treatment of sport injuries.
Key Words: injury severity, sex differences, concussions,
collegiate sports
C
45
per unit of exposure. Females, however, have a greater
number of injuries per athletes, indicating that females
have a greater risk of injury than males.2,4–6 The major
drawback of these studies is that their findings are spe-
cific to either one sport or to high school sports, and
therefore cannot be compared with the collegiate-level
athletes in Canada. Our study looks at a wide variety
of sports to compare both sex and sport difference
regarding injury severity risks.
We also chose to compare concussion risk
between sex and sport. There has been an increase
in the number of reported concussions over the past
two decades, either due to increased reporting and
detection of concussions, or due to an increase in the
number of concussive impacts occurring.1,7,8 Although
the effects of concussion are still under investigation,
it is known that concussions may lead to long-term
consequences, and as such require diligence in their
prevention and care.8,9 Hootman et al. found that
women’s hockey had the highest rate of concussions
compared with all other sports.1 Meanwhile, Daneshvar
et al. found that concussions represented a greater

proportion of total injuries in females compared with
males in basketball, ice hockey, and soccer.7 In our
study we will look at the risk of concussion associated
with both sex and sport to add further evidence to this
area of research.
The purpose of our study is to determine if a differ-
ence in injury severity risk exists between males and
females in sex-matched sports at the collegiate level.
Information regarding types of injuries sustained by
sport will also be included. To our knowledge, there
is no existing research looking at this risk across a
variety of sports at the collegiate level in Canada. We
hypothesize that females will have a higher percentage
of severe injuries and a greater percentage of reported
concussions.
Methods
Study Design
This is a descriptive epidemiologic study using previ-
ously collected data from York University’s Gorman/
Shore Sport Injury Clinic sport injury database. Data
were de-identified before collection and therefore
exempt from ethical approval. The outcome variable
was injury severity for the first analysis and concussion
for the second analysis. Exposure variables were sex
and sport.
Participants
Participants were student-athletes on the York Univer-
sity Lions’ varsity teams, as determined by the Ontario
University Athletics (OUA) association. These athletes
were treated at the Gorman/Shore Sport Injury Clinic at
York University (Toronto, Ontario, Canada) from August

1, 2008 through July 31, 2012. The York University
Lions collegiate men’s and women’s teams included
in this study were as follows: soccer, ice hockey, vol-
leyball, basketball, cross-country, and track and field.
Men’s football and women’s rugby were also included.
Data excluded from this study were injuries sustained
by athletes not on one of the aforementioned sport
teams or athletes injured outside of collegiate events,
including recreational activities, intramurals, or activity
courses as part of an academic program.
Injury Information
A sport injury was defined as any physical complaint
sustained by an athlete during competition or training,
which required medical attention by an athletic thera-
pist or medical doctor.2,3,10 An injury assessment form
was completed by a certified athletic therapist (CAT)
or athletic therapy certificate student therapist, which
was subsequently entered into Injury Zone, an Inter-
net-based sports medicine database (https://sports1.
injuryzone.com/iZoneWeb/) monitored by Presagia
(Montreal, Quebec, Canada). Injuries were categorized
as severe or nonsevere based on the degree of tissue
damage as determined during the initial assessment.
Injuries involving first aid treatment, in which assess-
ment forms were not completed, were excluded.
Severe injuries included those defined as third degree
joint or tissue damage in which there is gross instability
and complete tear or rupture of the involved tissues.11
Concussions were included as a severe injury as all
athletes with concussions were seen by a medical
doctor and removed from game play for a minimum of
five days, as per the current international concussion
protocol.9 All other injuries, including first and second
degree tissue damage, were considered nonsevere. See

Table 1 for a complete list of injuries in this study. Injury
data that was incomplete or inconsistently reported
were excluded from analysis.
Statistical Analysis
Statistical analysis was conducted using SPSS 19.0.0
(IBM, Armonk, NY). The exposure variables were sex
and sport, and the outcome variables were injury
training
severity and concussion. Chi-square analyses, with an
a priori level of significance set at p = .05, were per-
formed to examine the association between exposure
and outcome variables. Further logistic regression anal-
yses, with an a priori level of significance set at p = .05
and a 95% confidence interval, were used to quantify
the associations between sex and severe injury and
sex and concussion. Concussions were analyzed as
a proportion of both all injuries and severe injuries.
We were limited by the data available, however the
power calculation based on unequal groups revealed
a 1-β of 80%.
Results
Injuries
There were 1,657 injuries included in the study,
of which 1,414 (85.3%) were nonsevere and 243
(14.7%) were severe (Table 1). Overall, the most
common injuries were nonsevere strains (22.9%)

and sprains (23.0%) (Table 1). Concussions (7.7%),
fractures (1.9%), and subluxations (1.6%) were the
most common severe injuries (Table 1). Of the 243
severe injuries reported, approximately half (52.3%)
were concussions.
Sex Differences
The number of reported male injuries outnumbered
female injuries threefold: 1,155 (69.7%) and 502
(30.3%), respectively (Table 2). Of these, males had
154 severe injuries, while females had 89; however,
females had a significantly higher proportion of severe
injuries (17.7%) compared with males (13.3%) (Table
2; χ2 = 5.40, p = .02). These results show that female
athletes have 1.4 times the odds of severe injury than
males (OR: 1.40, CI: 1.05–1.86).
Table 1. Frequency of Type of injury by sex
among Collegiate athletes at York University,
august 2008–July 2012
Type of Injury
M a l e s ( n = 1 , 1 5 5 ) ,
n ( % )
Fe m a l e s ( n = 5 0 2 ) ,
n ( % )
To t a l
( n = 1 , 6 5 7 ) ,
n ( % )
Severe

Concussion 72 (6.2) 55 (11.0) 127 (7.7)
Fracture 19 (1.6) 13 (2.6) 32 (1.9)
Subluxation 19 (1.6) 7 (1.4) 26 (1.6)
Dislocation 16 (1.4) 6 (1.2) 22 (1.3)
Rupture/tear 12 (1.0) 4 (0.8) 16 (1.0)
Other–surgical repair 16 (1.4) 4 (0.8) 20 (1.2)
Total 154 (13.3) 89 (17.7) 243 (14.7)
Nonsevere
Sprain 263 (22.8) 118 (23.5) 381 (23.0)
Strain 280 (24.2) 100 (19.9) 380 (22.9)
Tendinitis 88 (7.6) 40 (8.0) 128 (7.7)
Tightness/spasm 85 (7.4) 39 (7.8) 124 (7.5)
Contusion 88 (7.6) 22 (4.4) 110 (6.6)
PFPS 25 (2.2) 17 (3.4) 42 (2.5)
Impingement 25 (2.2) 11 (2.2) 36 (2.2)
Joint irritation 13 (1.1) 6 (1.2) 19 (1.1)
Bursitis/fasciitis 11 (1.0) 7 (1.4) 18 (1.1)
Cartilaginous 15 (1.3) 0 (0.0) 15 (0.9)

Other 108 (9.4) 53 (10.6) 161 (9.7)
Total 1,001 (86.7) 413 (82.3) 1,414 (85.3)
Abbreviations: PFPS = patellofemoral pain syndrome.
international Jou
47
Concussions
Eleven percent of all female injuries were concus-
sions—significantly more than in males (6.2%) (Table
3; χ2 = 11.03, p = .001). Female athletes were at
greater odds of sustaining a concussion than male ath-
letes (OR: 1.85, CI: 1.28–2.67). Similarly, concussions
made up 61.8% of all female severe injuries and 46.8%
of male severe injuries (Table 3; χ2 = 4.47, p = .03).
Within severe injuries, female athletes had significantly
higher odds of sustaining a concussion compared with
males (OR: 1.86, CI: 1.07–3.23).
Sport Differences
Women’s hockey (23.9%), rugby (21.3%), and soccer
(20.3%) had the highest percentage of severe injuries
(Table 2). Nearly all women’s sports reported a higher
proportion of severe injuries when compared with
males of the same sport; however, the only statistical
significance was found when comparing men’s football
to women’s rugby (Table 2; χ2 = 3.90, p = .05). The
only exception to this was volleyball, in which males
showed a slightly higher proportion of severe injuries

(Table 2). Women’s ice hockey (19.6%), rugby (13.9%),
and basketball (13.3%) had the highest proportion of
concussions compared with all other teams (Table 3).
Although females typically had a higher proportion of
concussions compared with males in the same sport,
this was only significant in ice hockey and rugby/foot-
ball (Table 3; χ2 = 5.42, p = .20; χ2 = 12.02, p =
.001). When looking at the proportion of concussions
to severe injuries, it is important to note that in both
soccer and cross-country/track and field, males had a
higher proportion of concussions to severe injury than
females (Table 3).
Discussion
Our results show that males generally incur more
injuries, but females had a significantly higher pro-
portion of severe injuries. Furthermore, females had
a significantly higher proportion of concussions. Some
sports of interest include: volleyball, which was the only
sport that males had the greater proportion of severe
injuries; soccer, where females had a lower proportion
of concussions compared with males; and ice hockey,
Table 2. injury severity by sport and sex
among Collegiate athletes at York University,
august 2008–July 2012
S e v e r e, n
( % )
N o n s e v e r e, n
( % ) To t a l P -Va l u e
Sex
Male 154 (13.3) 1,001 (86.7) 1,155

Female 89 (17.7) 413 (82.3) 502 .020
Total 243 (14.7) 1,414 (85.3) 1,657
Sport
Football (M) 74 (14.1) 450 (85.9) 524
Rugby (F) 26 (21.3) 96 (78.7) 122 .048
Basketball (M) 20 (14.6) 117 (85.4) 137
Basketball (F) 12 (20.0) 48 (80.0) 60 .344
Volleyball (M) 13 (19.7) 53 (80.3) 66
Volleyball (F) 13 (18.3) 58 (81.7) 71 .836
Soccer (M) 10 (10.6) 84 (89.4) 94
Soccer (F) 14 (20.3) 55 (79.7) 69 .086
Ice hockey (M) 29 (18.0) 132 (82.0) 161
Ice hockey (F) 22 (23.9) 70 (76.1) 92 .260
Cross country/track & field (M) 5 (3.0) 161 (97.0) 166
Cross country/track & field (F) 5 (5.3) 90 (94.7) 95 .362
Abbreviations: M = male; F = female.
training

where females had a significantly higher proportion of
concussions than males.
Although the injury incidence rate is an import-
ant factor to consider when looking into possible
injury prevention and treatment protocols, the risk
of sustaining a severe injury is also essential to study.
Previous studies have found similar results to ours, in
that females are at a higher risk for sustaining a severe
injury.2,4 Powell and Barber-Foss concluded that major
injuries in females occur more often than in males in
high school basketball and soccer.4 Similarly, Darrow
et al. found that severe injuries accounted for 14.9%
of all injuries sustained in high school and, among
sports that were comparable (soccer, basketball, and
baseball/softball), females sustained a higher rate of
severe injury that males.2 Future research on females
and sport-specific risk factors is important to better
understand causes of injury and ways to prevent them.
It is interesting to note that both men and women
volleyball players sustained a low, but similar percent-
age of severe injuries. This emphasizes the importance
of understanding risk factors associated with each
sport to apply prevention and coaching programs for
improved sport safety. In an epidemiology study of
female collegiate volleyball players, it was found that
23% of all injuries sustained were considered severe.12
Of these, 44% were ankle ligament damage resulting
from contact with a teammate or opposing player.
This study did not look at men’s volleyball injuries, so
a comparison between the sexes cannot be made.12
However, we can speculate that the low risk of severe
injuries in volleyball is perhaps attributed to rules and

regulations that enhance player safety for both sexes,
such as the center line rule which was introduced to
the NCAA in 1998.12,13 This rule permits the encroach-
ment of the opposing team’s side as long as there is
no safety hazard present or does not interfere with the
opponent’s play, thus eliminating this particular risk
factor.12 Further investigation into the reasons behind
the low risk of severe injury in volleyball is needed
to implement possible rules or prevention programs
throughout other female sports.
Table 3. Proportion of Concussions among all injuries
and severe injuries among Collegiate athletes
at York University, august 2008–July 2012
To t a l
C o n c u s s i o n s
To t a l
I n j u r i e s
( n )
P r o p o r t i o n
o f C o n c u s s i o n s
( % ) p - Va l u e
S e v e r e
I n j u r i e s
( n )
P r o p o r t i o n
o f C o n c u s s i o n s

( % ) p -Va l u e
Sex
Male 72 1,155 6.2 154 46.8
Female 55 502 11.0 .001 89 61.8 .024
Sport
Football (M) 27 524 5.2 74 36.5
Rugby (F) 17 122 13.9 .001 26 65.4 .011
Basketball (M) 10 137 7.3 20 50.0
Basketball (F) 8 60 13.3 .176 12 66.7 .358
Volleyball (M) 5 66 7.6 13 38.5
Volleyball (F) 7 71 9.9 .637 13 53.8 .431
Soccer (M) 7 94 7.4 10 70.0
Soccer (F) 7 69 10.1 .544 14 50.0 .327
Ice hockey (M) 15 161 9.3 29 51.7
Ice hockey (F) 18 92 19.6 .020 22 81.8 .026
Cross country/track &
field (M)
4 166 2.4 5 80.0
Cross country/track &

field (F)
2 95 2.1 .875 5 40.0 .197
Abbreviations: M = male; F = female.
49
Females have 1.9 times the odds of sustaining a
concussion as compared with males, and this finding
is consistent with current research.1,7,8,14–17 In previous
epidemiology studies of sports in the NCAA, it was
found that 5% of all injuries were concussions and that
females had a higher percentage of concussions than
males in basketball, ice hockey, soccer, and lacrosse.1,7
Likewise, Gessel et al. found that 8.9% of all high
school injuries and 5.8% of all collegiate injuries were
concussions.14 Females were found to have a higher
rate of concussions, and a higher proportion of con-
cussions compared with all injuries in sports played
by both sexes.14 Sex differences and concussions are
highly scrutinized in present sports medicine research
in an attempt to discover the reasons behind such
disparities.14,16,18 Some proposed explanations for sex
differences with concussions include: (1) biomechani-
cal—females have weaker neck muscles and therefore
greater angular acceleration of neck and head;14,18
(2) psychosocial—some suggest males are socially
encouraged to play through injuries, while females are
more concerned with long-term effects on health and
therefore may be more honest about symptoms;14,18
and (3) hormonal—estrogen, which maintains normal
cerebral blood flow16,18 plays a protective role in males

while increasing mortality in females.14,18 The values
found in our study suggest that research focusing on
the risk factors of concussions, as well as on prevention
strategies targeted at female athletes, should be of high
priority in concussion research. This is necessary to
help decrease the risk of concussion in female athletes,
which will allow for safer participation in sport.
There were some noteworthy sport-specific differ-
ences when looking at concussion risk and sex. For
instance, we noted that in some sports, such as soccer,
the risk of concussion when compared with other
severe injuries was higher in males than in females.
This may be due to the high risk of other severe injuries
to females in soccer, but requires further investigation
into sport-specific risk factors. Current literature has
found that females are more likely to sustain an ankle
or knee injury than males, and are three times more
likely to tear their anterior cruciate ligament.5 A study
looking at men’s and women’s soccer injury rates
found that 44% of severe injury in females was due
to knee derangement, while this only accounted for
11% of severe injuries in males.19,20
In addition, the differences between concussion
risk in male and female ice hockey players are essen-
tial to highlight. Women’s ice hockey not only had the
highest proportion of concussions compared with all
other teams, but was also significantly higher than
men’s ice hockey. This holds true when comparing the
proportion of concussions to all injuries, or to severe
injuries only. This strengthens the fact that sex-specific
risk factors in this sport need to be better understood
to implement prevention programs. Women’s ice
hockey, although similar to men’s, has an important

rule distinction, in which intentional body checking
is not allowed.18 In theory, this should reduce the
number of concussions as player contact should also
be reduced, however this does not seem to be the
case.18 In an epidemiological study on collegiate-level
ice hockey players in the United States, it was found
that concussions were the most common injury seen
in female hockey players (21.6%), while concussions
constituted only 9% of injuries sustained for males.21,22
Furthermore, this study found that over 40% of concus-
sions were due to contact with another player.21 Schick
and Meeuwisse found that 96% of injuries sustained
by females are due to contact with either an opponent
or the boards, whereas males received 79% of their
injuries from contact.23 It has been suggested that
unanticipated body checking in women’s hockey may
lead to increased player contact and thus an increased
concussion risk.21,23 This unanticipated checking and
player contact may be caused by variability in play
seen in women’s ice hockey. This variability may be
influenced by coaching styles during player develop-
ment, as some females may play with male leagues
and may be more comfortable with contact, while
others may not. Moreover, inconsistent enforcement
of the body checking rule increases variability between
games.21,23 The results found in both our study, as
well as throughout the literature, suggest the need for
further investigation into the effectiveness of current
rules in hockey to prevent the potential severity and
morbidity associated with concussion.
The measure of severity of injury is a limitation to
this study. We were unable to confirm interrater reliabil-
ity of those evaluating injuries due to the surveillance
nature of our data. Furthermore, although degrees of
injury are a common method of determining tissue

damage in the medical field, this was not confirmed
through actual imaging of the tissue itself. While time
lost due to injury is the leading measure of injury
severity in the literature,24 this information was not
available in the database and may have strengthened
training
the criteria of severe and nonsevere injuries, thereby
increasing accuracy in categorizing the injuries. Finally,
this study was conducted among collegiate-level ath-
letes, and therefore may not be generalizable to other
populations.
Conclusion
This study highlights sex differences of severe injury
in Canadian collegiate sport. Females, when compared
with males, have higher odds of incurring a severe
injury, as well as higher odds of sustaining a concussion
in collegiate sport participation. This emphasizes the
need for further research on risk factors which may
influence these results. A better understanding of both
injury epidemiology, as well as potential risk factors,
may allow sport medicine personnel, coaches, trainers,
and athletes to implement proper injury prevention,
education, and management to improve sport safety
for female athletes.
Acknowledgments
We thank Dr. Frances Flint who supervised and guided
us and Tracy Meloche of the Gorman/Shore Sport
Injury Clinic at York University for coordination of

data collection.
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Johanna M. Hurtubise and Alison Macpherson are with the York
University Sports Medicine Team, York University, Toronto,
ON.
Cheryl Beech is with York University, Toronto, ON.
Matthew Hoch, PhD, ATC, Old Dominion University, is the
report
editor for this article.
Copyright of International Journal of Athletic Therapy &
Training is the property of Human
Kinetics Publishers, Inc. and its content may not be copied or
emailed to multiple sites or
posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express
written permission. However, users
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