This study examined how clothing style influences interactions between sellers and clients in Iran. Three female participants dressed in two different styles - one typically worn by upper-middle class (Style A) and the other by lower-class (Style B) - and had shopping experiences in two stores. Their interactions with sellers in each style were observed and analyzed both quantitatively (e.g. number of conversations, responses) and qualitatively (e.g. speech style, address terms). The goal was to determine if sellers reacted differently based on clients' clothing and appearance in an Iranian context.
This study examined differences in motivational factors for participating in action sports between Korean and American college students. A survey was administered to 492 participants, measuring 8 motivation dimensions. Results of statistical analysis revealed American students had significantly higher levels of motivation across all dimensions measured, even after controlling for gender, education, experience, and frequency of participation. This suggests cultural differences influence motivations for engaging in action sports between these two groups.
This article summarizes research on the effects of labeling students as learning disabled. The author reviewed 34 studies from 1970 to 2000 that addressed the impact of the learning disabled label. Four key themes emerged from the literature: 1) Labels can influence the expectations, stereotypes and attitudes of teachers and peers towards students; 2) Labels may lead to stigmatization, rejection and social distance from others; 3) There is a disconnect between expressed attitudes towards labeled students and actual treatment of them; 4) The influence of a label depends on other salient information provided about the student. The author aims to synthesize both qualitative and quantitative research on this topic.
Communication has verbal and nonverbal aspects.It has been estimated that 82% of class communication is nonverbal. While the role of nonverbal behavior in English classes is much it is hitherto an unexplored area. One subpart of nonverbal communication is proxemics or space. Combing nonverbal communication and the right to privacy, this article is aimed at exploring the attitude of foreign language students regarding nonverbal communication and privacy right in English classes. A nonverbal questionnaire along with privacy proposed by the researcher was answered by 107 general English participants. Based on their opinion the major findings were that students like, smiling, tidy and on time teachers who explain and illustrate in English classes. However, they do not like to answer questions regarding their personal life such as personal description, identification, health or background. As a result, their privacy right should be observed in communicative English classes.
This document summarizes a thesis defense that examines measuring organizational subcultures using Hofstede's model of national culture dimensions. The study applies Hofstede's Value Survey Model to measure the cultural dimensions of different directorates within a large joint military command (USJFCOM) to test if the directorates have distinct subcultures. The methodology involves surveying employees across three large USJFCOM directorates and comparing the dimension scores between directorates and to national scores. The implications are that validating Hofstede's model at the organizational level could provide a standardized way to measure and understand culture across different levels of analysis.
Peer Attachment and Intention of Aggressive Behavior among School Childreniosrjce
This paper attempts to ascertain the relationship between peer attachment and intention of
aggressive behavior amongst school children. There are literatures related to peer attachment quality and its
effects on adjustment and development.However, relatively little attention has been paid to the relationship
between peer attachments and intention of aggressive behavior. Positive peer attachment, respectively, have
been viewed as protective factors, that prevent peers from engaging in intention of aggressive behaviors, like
violence, risky sexual behavior, and bullying.. While the negative aspect of peer insecure attachment from the
school which is associated with more problematic functioning including higher rates of emotional problems,
substance use, aggression and delinquency. In this study, respondentswere 426 school children (males 199 and
females 227) between 13-17 years old. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and Pearson correlation
and t-test for student’sage groups.Peer attachment was measured using inventory of parents and peer
attachment (IPPA) with respect to peer attachment and adolescent intention of aggressive behaviour. Findings
have revealed that over all respondents show that there is a significant positive relationship between peer
influences on intention of aggressive behaviour.And there is no significant difference in age group of the
respondents and intention of aggressive behaviour. Peer influence on intention of aggressive behaviour is high
which is peer to peer aggressive act within the school environment which the harm that is always intention to
cause injuries, and destroy.Thus, expressive support and attention should be extended not just to the victims of
intention of aggressive behaviour cases, but also to intimidators. Recommendation of the study centers on the
need to examine the reports from school counselors and peers that engage in intention of aggressive behaviour.
This document discusses generational cohorts and generational transmission in developing markets. It defines generation cohorts as groups born during the same time period who experience similar events during late adolescence and early adulthood. The researchers conducted a study in Sarawak, Malaysia that found generation cohorts defined by major political, economic, social and technological events differed from models used in Western countries. They aim to further define cohorts in developing countries like Malaysia and develop new models to better explain generation formation and transmission across cultures.
Geert Driessen (2002) SEE School composition and achievement in primary educa...Driessen Research
This document summarizes a study that examines the effects of socio-ethnic school composition on language and math achievement among Dutch primary school students. The study uses large-scale data from over 14,000 4th grade and 12,000 8th grade students across 583 primary schools. It analyzes the relationships between student achievement, individual characteristics like ethnicity and parental education, and school-level factors like socio-economic composition and ethnic diversity. The results are intended to clarify inconsistent prior research on how school demographic characteristics influence educational outcomes.
This document summarizes a research study that investigated personal values across different generational cohorts in Sarawak, Malaysia. The study identified four cohorts based on major historical events: Neoteric-inheritors (aged 22 and below), Prospective-pursuers (aged 23 to 36), Social-strivers (aged 37 to 52), and Idealistic-strugglers (aged 53 to 71). Survey results from over 1,100 respondents found differences in internal, external, and interpersonal values across the cohorts, with the oldest cohort generally holding more distinct values. The findings provide insights into how generational experiences shape personal values in Sarawak.
This study examined differences in motivational factors for participating in action sports between Korean and American college students. A survey was administered to 492 participants, measuring 8 motivation dimensions. Results of statistical analysis revealed American students had significantly higher levels of motivation across all dimensions measured, even after controlling for gender, education, experience, and frequency of participation. This suggests cultural differences influence motivations for engaging in action sports between these two groups.
This article summarizes research on the effects of labeling students as learning disabled. The author reviewed 34 studies from 1970 to 2000 that addressed the impact of the learning disabled label. Four key themes emerged from the literature: 1) Labels can influence the expectations, stereotypes and attitudes of teachers and peers towards students; 2) Labels may lead to stigmatization, rejection and social distance from others; 3) There is a disconnect between expressed attitudes towards labeled students and actual treatment of them; 4) The influence of a label depends on other salient information provided about the student. The author aims to synthesize both qualitative and quantitative research on this topic.
Communication has verbal and nonverbal aspects.It has been estimated that 82% of class communication is nonverbal. While the role of nonverbal behavior in English classes is much it is hitherto an unexplored area. One subpart of nonverbal communication is proxemics or space. Combing nonverbal communication and the right to privacy, this article is aimed at exploring the attitude of foreign language students regarding nonverbal communication and privacy right in English classes. A nonverbal questionnaire along with privacy proposed by the researcher was answered by 107 general English participants. Based on their opinion the major findings were that students like, smiling, tidy and on time teachers who explain and illustrate in English classes. However, they do not like to answer questions regarding their personal life such as personal description, identification, health or background. As a result, their privacy right should be observed in communicative English classes.
This document summarizes a thesis defense that examines measuring organizational subcultures using Hofstede's model of national culture dimensions. The study applies Hofstede's Value Survey Model to measure the cultural dimensions of different directorates within a large joint military command (USJFCOM) to test if the directorates have distinct subcultures. The methodology involves surveying employees across three large USJFCOM directorates and comparing the dimension scores between directorates and to national scores. The implications are that validating Hofstede's model at the organizational level could provide a standardized way to measure and understand culture across different levels of analysis.
Peer Attachment and Intention of Aggressive Behavior among School Childreniosrjce
This paper attempts to ascertain the relationship between peer attachment and intention of
aggressive behavior amongst school children. There are literatures related to peer attachment quality and its
effects on adjustment and development.However, relatively little attention has been paid to the relationship
between peer attachments and intention of aggressive behavior. Positive peer attachment, respectively, have
been viewed as protective factors, that prevent peers from engaging in intention of aggressive behaviors, like
violence, risky sexual behavior, and bullying.. While the negative aspect of peer insecure attachment from the
school which is associated with more problematic functioning including higher rates of emotional problems,
substance use, aggression and delinquency. In this study, respondentswere 426 school children (males 199 and
females 227) between 13-17 years old. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and Pearson correlation
and t-test for student’sage groups.Peer attachment was measured using inventory of parents and peer
attachment (IPPA) with respect to peer attachment and adolescent intention of aggressive behaviour. Findings
have revealed that over all respondents show that there is a significant positive relationship between peer
influences on intention of aggressive behaviour.And there is no significant difference in age group of the
respondents and intention of aggressive behaviour. Peer influence on intention of aggressive behaviour is high
which is peer to peer aggressive act within the school environment which the harm that is always intention to
cause injuries, and destroy.Thus, expressive support and attention should be extended not just to the victims of
intention of aggressive behaviour cases, but also to intimidators. Recommendation of the study centers on the
need to examine the reports from school counselors and peers that engage in intention of aggressive behaviour.
This document discusses generational cohorts and generational transmission in developing markets. It defines generation cohorts as groups born during the same time period who experience similar events during late adolescence and early adulthood. The researchers conducted a study in Sarawak, Malaysia that found generation cohorts defined by major political, economic, social and technological events differed from models used in Western countries. They aim to further define cohorts in developing countries like Malaysia and develop new models to better explain generation formation and transmission across cultures.
Geert Driessen (2002) SEE School composition and achievement in primary educa...Driessen Research
This document summarizes a study that examines the effects of socio-ethnic school composition on language and math achievement among Dutch primary school students. The study uses large-scale data from over 14,000 4th grade and 12,000 8th grade students across 583 primary schools. It analyzes the relationships between student achievement, individual characteristics like ethnicity and parental education, and school-level factors like socio-economic composition and ethnic diversity. The results are intended to clarify inconsistent prior research on how school demographic characteristics influence educational outcomes.
This document summarizes a research study that investigated personal values across different generational cohorts in Sarawak, Malaysia. The study identified four cohorts based on major historical events: Neoteric-inheritors (aged 22 and below), Prospective-pursuers (aged 23 to 36), Social-strivers (aged 37 to 52), and Idealistic-strugglers (aged 53 to 71). Survey results from over 1,100 respondents found differences in internal, external, and interpersonal values across the cohorts, with the oldest cohort generally holding more distinct values. The findings provide insights into how generational experiences shape personal values in Sarawak.
Este documento describe el proceso de comunicación. Explica que la comunicación es una actividad social compleja que involucra la interacción entre un emisor, mensaje y receptor. También describe diferentes modelos del proceso comunicativo como el modelo de Aristóteles y el modelo de Shannon y Weaver. Finalmente, explica los diferentes tipos de comunicación como la comunicación animal, química, kinésica y proxémica.
Este documento presenta un estudio sobre estrategias gerenciales para el manejo de conflictos entre el personal de la U.E.N. Los Corrales en el estado Portuguesa, Venezuela. El estudio tiene como propósito general desarrollar estrategias para mejorar las relaciones entre el personal a través de la diagnosis, planificación, ejecución y evaluación de acciones. El marco teórico cubre conceptos como estrategias gerenciales y manejo de conflictos. El enfoque metodológico es cualitativo usando investigación-acción con entrevistas
Dokumen tersebut membahas konsep asam dan basa, termasuk teori Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry, dan Lewis tentang asam dan basa. Juga dibahas sifat larutan asam dan basa, penentuan pH larutan asam dan basa kuat maupun lemah, serta konsep derajat ionisasi dan tetapan kesetimbangan asam dan basa lemah.
Dokumen tersebut membahas tentang teori-teori pembentukan tata surya dan komponen-komponennya. Terdapat beberapa teori utama tentang asal usul tata surya, yaitu teori nebula, teori planetesimal, teori pasang surut, dan teori awan debu. Tata surya terdiri atas matahari dan planet-planet yang mengelilinginya sesuai hukum gravitasi dan mekanika Kepler.
Dokumen tersebut membahas tentang akuntansi perusahaan dagang yang meliputi pengertian perusahaan dagang, mencatat transaksi ke dalam jurnal khusus seperti jurnal pembelian dan penjualan, serta posting ke buku besar utama dan pembantu.
This short document promotes the creation of presentations using Haiku Deck on SlideShare. It includes photos from three photographers and encourages the viewer to get started making their own Haiku Deck presentation by clicking a button. The overall message is to try making a presentation with Haiku Deck on SlideShare.
Buku ini membahas tentang pencatatan transaksi perusahaan dagang, harga pokok penjualan, neraca saldo, neraca lajur, jurnal penyesuaian, laporan keuangan, jurnal penutup, neraca saldo setelah penutupan, jurnal pembalik, unsur-unsur manajemen, fungsi manajemen dalam pengelolaan badan usaha, peran badan usaha dalam perekonomian nasional, pembagian sisa hasil usaha, cara pengembangan koperasi dan koperasi se
Dokumen tersebut membahas tentang pengertian dan unsur-unsur penalaran dalam karangan ilmiah, meliputi pengertian penalaran, unsur-unsur penalaran karangan ilmiah, penalaran induktif dan deduktif beserta contohnya, serta soal latihan tentang penalaran.
Introduction to Angular JS [2014-06-19]
During the session live implementation was shown to explain Angular components :
https://github.com/Renien/angularjs-fundamentals-demo
La Unión Europea ha propuesto un nuevo paquete de sanciones contra Rusia que incluye un embargo al petróleo ruso. El embargo se aplicaría gradualmente durante seis meses para el petróleo crudo y ocho meses para los productos refinados. Este paquete de sanciones requiere la aprobación unánime de los 27 estados miembros de la UE.
Ecología estudia las interrelaciones entre seres vivos y su entorno. La densidad de población mide el número de organismos por unidad de espacio de su hábitat. La natalidad cuantifica los niveles de fecundidad. La tasa de mortalidad mide las muertes respecto al total de población. La tasa de crecimiento expresa el aumento demográfico de una población en un período. Los productores autótrofos sintetizan alimentos a partir de sustancias inorgánicas. Los niveles tróficos
Los Estándares Curriculares de Ciencias para la educación secundaria en México buscan desarrollar en los estudiantes cuatro categorías de competencias:
1. Conocimiento científico sobre temas de biología, física y química.
2. Capacidad para aplicar el conocimiento científico y tecnológico a situaciones cotidianas.
3. Habilidades asociadas a la ciencia como observar, clasificar, medir, formular hipótesis e interpretar datos.
4. Actitudes vinculadas a la ciencia como el
Three approaches to studying intercultural communicationS.m. Jamaal
Three main approaches to studying intercultural communication are discussed: the social science approach, the interpretive approach, and the rhetorical approach. The social science approach uses methods like surveys and observations to describe and predict behavior. It views reality as external and human behavior as predictable. The interpretive approach assumes reality is subjective and human behavior is creative. It uses methods like field studies to understand how culture is created and maintained through communication. The rhetorical approach examines texts and speeches in their original contexts.
Academic Voices And Claims Reviewing Practices In Research WritingCharlie Congdon
This document summarizes a research paper that analyzes how politeness strategies involving reporting verbs are used in literature review chapters of English and Spanish PhD theses in computer science. It examines how writers establish their voice and attribute voices to other authors through citations and reporting verbs. The research compares 10 theses written in English at the University of Glasgow to 10 written in Spanish at the Polytechnic University of Valencia. It finds that English writers show more tentativeness and personal commitment, while Spanish writers tend to mask individual voices and avoid confrontation.
Este documento describe el proceso de comunicación. Explica que la comunicación es una actividad social compleja que involucra la interacción entre un emisor, mensaje y receptor. También describe diferentes modelos del proceso comunicativo como el modelo de Aristóteles y el modelo de Shannon y Weaver. Finalmente, explica los diferentes tipos de comunicación como la comunicación animal, química, kinésica y proxémica.
Este documento presenta un estudio sobre estrategias gerenciales para el manejo de conflictos entre el personal de la U.E.N. Los Corrales en el estado Portuguesa, Venezuela. El estudio tiene como propósito general desarrollar estrategias para mejorar las relaciones entre el personal a través de la diagnosis, planificación, ejecución y evaluación de acciones. El marco teórico cubre conceptos como estrategias gerenciales y manejo de conflictos. El enfoque metodológico es cualitativo usando investigación-acción con entrevistas
Dokumen tersebut membahas konsep asam dan basa, termasuk teori Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry, dan Lewis tentang asam dan basa. Juga dibahas sifat larutan asam dan basa, penentuan pH larutan asam dan basa kuat maupun lemah, serta konsep derajat ionisasi dan tetapan kesetimbangan asam dan basa lemah.
Dokumen tersebut membahas tentang teori-teori pembentukan tata surya dan komponen-komponennya. Terdapat beberapa teori utama tentang asal usul tata surya, yaitu teori nebula, teori planetesimal, teori pasang surut, dan teori awan debu. Tata surya terdiri atas matahari dan planet-planet yang mengelilinginya sesuai hukum gravitasi dan mekanika Kepler.
Dokumen tersebut membahas tentang akuntansi perusahaan dagang yang meliputi pengertian perusahaan dagang, mencatat transaksi ke dalam jurnal khusus seperti jurnal pembelian dan penjualan, serta posting ke buku besar utama dan pembantu.
This short document promotes the creation of presentations using Haiku Deck on SlideShare. It includes photos from three photographers and encourages the viewer to get started making their own Haiku Deck presentation by clicking a button. The overall message is to try making a presentation with Haiku Deck on SlideShare.
Buku ini membahas tentang pencatatan transaksi perusahaan dagang, harga pokok penjualan, neraca saldo, neraca lajur, jurnal penyesuaian, laporan keuangan, jurnal penutup, neraca saldo setelah penutupan, jurnal pembalik, unsur-unsur manajemen, fungsi manajemen dalam pengelolaan badan usaha, peran badan usaha dalam perekonomian nasional, pembagian sisa hasil usaha, cara pengembangan koperasi dan koperasi se
Dokumen tersebut membahas tentang pengertian dan unsur-unsur penalaran dalam karangan ilmiah, meliputi pengertian penalaran, unsur-unsur penalaran karangan ilmiah, penalaran induktif dan deduktif beserta contohnya, serta soal latihan tentang penalaran.
Introduction to Angular JS [2014-06-19]
During the session live implementation was shown to explain Angular components :
https://github.com/Renien/angularjs-fundamentals-demo
La Unión Europea ha propuesto un nuevo paquete de sanciones contra Rusia que incluye un embargo al petróleo ruso. El embargo se aplicaría gradualmente durante seis meses para el petróleo crudo y ocho meses para los productos refinados. Este paquete de sanciones requiere la aprobación unánime de los 27 estados miembros de la UE.
Ecología estudia las interrelaciones entre seres vivos y su entorno. La densidad de población mide el número de organismos por unidad de espacio de su hábitat. La natalidad cuantifica los niveles de fecundidad. La tasa de mortalidad mide las muertes respecto al total de población. La tasa de crecimiento expresa el aumento demográfico de una población en un período. Los productores autótrofos sintetizan alimentos a partir de sustancias inorgánicas. Los niveles tróficos
Los Estándares Curriculares de Ciencias para la educación secundaria en México buscan desarrollar en los estudiantes cuatro categorías de competencias:
1. Conocimiento científico sobre temas de biología, física y química.
2. Capacidad para aplicar el conocimiento científico y tecnológico a situaciones cotidianas.
3. Habilidades asociadas a la ciencia como observar, clasificar, medir, formular hipótesis e interpretar datos.
4. Actitudes vinculadas a la ciencia como el
Three approaches to studying intercultural communicationS.m. Jamaal
Three main approaches to studying intercultural communication are discussed: the social science approach, the interpretive approach, and the rhetorical approach. The social science approach uses methods like surveys and observations to describe and predict behavior. It views reality as external and human behavior as predictable. The interpretive approach assumes reality is subjective and human behavior is creative. It uses methods like field studies to understand how culture is created and maintained through communication. The rhetorical approach examines texts and speeches in their original contexts.
Academic Voices And Claims Reviewing Practices In Research WritingCharlie Congdon
This document summarizes a research paper that analyzes how politeness strategies involving reporting verbs are used in literature review chapters of English and Spanish PhD theses in computer science. It examines how writers establish their voice and attribute voices to other authors through citations and reporting verbs. The research compares 10 theses written in English at the University of Glasgow to 10 written in Spanish at the Polytechnic University of Valencia. It finds that English writers show more tentativeness and personal commitment, while Spanish writers tend to mask individual voices and avoid confrontation.
This paper delves into the critical factors that determine dress sense among female Senior High School Teachers in the Kumasi Metropolis. The understanding and appreciation of dress sense is a strong predictor for the fashion taste and dresses put on by female Secondary School Teachers
This document reviews research on nonverbal communication in teaching. It discusses how nonverbal communication plays an important role in the teaching process and precedes verbal communication in human development. Classroom teaching involves an interpersonal communication process where nonverbal behaviors are as influential as what teachers say. The review examines previous studies on various aspects of nonverbal communication in educational settings, such as environmental factors, proxemics, kinesics, and paralanguage. It emphasizes making teachers aware of the nonverbal aspects of communication to improve the teaching process.
(1) The document contains a literature review on effective communication between students and student affairs departments. It discusses trends in the literature around providing helpful information to students and barriers to communication.
(2) The methodology section describes a survey given to 30 students, 15 local and 15 international, to understand their needs and experiences with the student affairs department. Quantitative data from the survey is presented in a table.
(3) Key findings from the survey include international students preferring to handle problems themselves rather than contact the school. The orientation program was rated as average quality, and students provided suggestions for improvement.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
- The document discusses how wearing new clothing can positively influence a person's mood. It analyzes various factors related to clothing that may trigger mood, such as color, style, print, fabric, and social factors.
- A study was conducted of 5,000 people from different age groups and income levels to determine how 13 clothing-related constructs influence mood when wearing new clothes. Availability of accessories, fittings/stitching, appearance pleasing others/self, style, and comfort of cultural dresses most significantly impacted mood.
- The findings indicate that all clothing-related constructs positively influence mood when wearing new clothes. Wearing new clothes gives feelings of happiness, newness, and a nice change that boosts mood through
The document examines differences in models of agency between college-educated (BA) and less educated (HS) European Americans. Through three studies, the authors found that:
1) BA participants and their preferred cultural products (rock lyrics) emphasized expressing uniqueness, controlling environments, and influencing others, whereas HS participants and their preferred products (country lyrics) emphasized maintaining integrity, adjusting selves, and resisting influence.
2) When given choices, BA participants liked chosen objects more, but choice did not affect HS participants' preferences, reflecting their different agency models.
3) The findings suggest BA and HS models of agency qualitatively differ, though there is overlap between their worlds.
This document discusses a qualitative research study on fashion, gender, and social identity. It includes:
1) An introduction outlining the role of clothing in constructing social identity and gender.
2) A description of the research method which was informal interviews of 4 women, 4 men with photos of various styles.
3) Key results showing that clothing strongly influences perceptions of masculinity and femininity, as some photos led to confusion over the biological sex of models. Clothing plays an important role in gender identity.
Write a 3–4-page analysis of gendered verbal and nonverbal communi.docxambersalomon88660
Write a 3–4-page analysis of gendered verbal and nonverbal communication behaviors that you observe in others. In preparation for the assessment, observe individuals in a public space and take note of your observations.
In this assessment, you will apply your knowledge of gendered communication to explain the communication styles you observe in the world around you.
By successfully completing this assessment, you will demonstrate your proficiency in the following course competencies and assessment criteria:
· Competency 2: Evaluate personal and social dimensions of gender, communication, and culture.
. Explain gendered verbal and nonverbal communication in a public setting.
· Competency 3: Compare and contrast both verbal and nonverbal communication differences between men and women.
. Describe traditional expectations for nonverbal communication.
. Examine patterns of nonverbal behavior between men and women.
. Explain violations of nonverbal expectation.
· Competency 5: Communicate effectively in a variety of formats.
. Communicate effectively and concisely using APA formatting.
Language and Gender
Men and women often exhibit very distinct verbal and nonverbal communication styles. Specifically, both masculine and feminine verbal and nonverbal communication styles include behaviors that help us define and better understand how gender is connected to communication. Language often defines men and women differently, and in turn, male and female communication and language styles help shape our awareness. It is important to understand that gendered language is often learned, and our individual cultures help shape our verbal communication mannerisms. Specifically, "because we use symbols to communicate, language shapes how we think of ourselves in addition to how we see the world around us" (Wood, 2015, p. 91). These combined factors can lead to miscommunication and misinterpretation.
Keep in mind the following (Wood & Bodey, 2011, pp. 85–86):
· Male generic language excludes women.
· Language defines men and women differently.
· Language shapes awareness.
· Language organizes perceptions of gender.
· Language evaluates gender.
· Language allows self-reflection.
· Nonverbal communication is all elements of communication other than words.
· Scholars state that the majority of meaning comes from nonverbal behaviors.
Nonverbal Communication
When it comes to nonverbal communication, the signs and signals we use to communicate are extremely important. Often, these things help shape who we are as well as our communication style. Scholars estimate that nonverbal communication accounts for almost 65 percent to 93 percent of communication meaning (Jolly, 2000). Nonverbal communication also relates to gender. "Like language, nonverbal communication is related to gender and culture in two ways: It expresses cultural meanings of gender, and men and women use nonverbal communication to present themselves as gendered people" (Fixmer-Oraiz & Wood, 2019, p. 1.
The document discusses how materialism, brand engagement, and status consumption influence clothing involvement and brand loyalty. It presents hypotheses that materialism, brand engagement, and status consumption will positively correlate with clothing involvement and brand loyalty based on previous research. The document provides an overview of literature on these topics and concepts in order to develop the hypotheses.
Agency And Communion Attributes In Adults Spontaneous Self-RepresentationsAudrey Britton
This study investigated how adults described themselves in terms of agency (assertiveness, independence) and communion (relationships, cooperation) attributes. It found that younger adults included more agency attributes, while older adults included more communion. Men listed more agency attributes and women more communion. Agency attributes correlated with personality traits, while communion correlated with well-being. Differences emerged between age groups and sexes in how important agency and communion were in self-portraits.
Exploring the relationsip between diversity and workplace friendshipAlexander Decker
1) The document examines the relationship between diversity (measured by perceived value diversity and diversity climate) and workplace friendship.
2) It presents a literature review on diversity, diversity climate, perceived value diversity, and workplace friendship. Conceptual frameworks on social identity and relational approaches to diversity are discussed.
3) A survey was conducted of 196 employees in Nigeria to examine the hypotheses that diversity climate and perceived value diversity predict and are related to workplace friendship. Statistical analyses found significant relationships between the variables as predicted.
Social cognitive learning theory (SCLT) posits that learning occurs through observation and imitation within a dynamic context of personal factors, behaviors, and the social environment. Key concepts include reciprocal determinism, symbolization, forethought, vicarious learning, self-regulation, self-reflection, and self-efficacy. SCLT provides a framework for understanding behaviors and how cognitive processes mediate learning. For individuals with autism spectrum disorder, weaknesses in symbolization, attention, joint attention, and imitation may impair observational learning and social cognitive development as described by SCLT.
Chapter ii review_of_related_literaturebellesaguit
The document provides a review of literature and related studies on self-monitoring and its relationship to English proficiency. It discusses Mark Snyder's original work developing a self-monitoring scale and describes key differences between high and low self-monitors. Research has shown that high self-monitors are more influenced by social situations and cues from others regarding their behaviors and emotions, while low self-monitors rely more on internal traits. The literature review aims to provide context and background for the current study examining correlations between self-monitoring and English proficiency.
Chapter ii review_of_related_literaturebellesaguit
The document provides a review of literature and related studies on self-monitoring and its relationship to English proficiency. It discusses Mark Snyder's original work developing a self-monitoring scale and describes key differences between high and low self-monitors. The literature notes that self-monitoring interventions can help students identify and increase positive behaviors to succeed academically.
Peer Acceptance and the Emotional Well-Being of DisabledAbigail Burmeister
This document summarizes a study about how knowing someone with a disability affects acceptance of others with disabilities and how acceptance impacts emotional well-being. The study found that people who know someone with a disability are more accepting of others. Previous research also found peer acceptance is important for emotional well-being of those with disabilities. The study measured acceptance by asking if respondents would be friends with someone who has a disability and found those who know someone with a disability were more likely to say yes.
Chapter 6 Personality,Temperament, and CommunicationTraits.docxketurahhazelhurst
Chapter 6 Personality,
Temperament, and Communication
Traits
No two people are exactly alike. There are literally thousands of ways people
differ from each other, including such obvious characteristics as height,
weight, sex, eye color, nose size, skin color, hand size, hair color, vocal
quality, bone structure, and facial features. Most of us are well aware that
these individual features are a function of the genetic heritage of each
individual. Barring cosmetic surgery and/or severe dietary restrictions, there
is little one can do about such features. Of course, not all individual
differences are so obvious at first sight.
Each person has a unique personality. An individual’s personality includes a
collection of traits, which are characteristic of that individual. It is these
characteristics that distinguish one person from another. Among these
characteristic traits are predispositions and tendencies toward
communication, which collectively permit us to see how one person is unique
from another.
Personality and Temperament
Over the past eight decades, personality psychologists have identified more
than 2,000 different personality traits. This massive research effort has made
us very aware of how complex human personalities are. It has also made it
obvious that we cannot realistically expect to understand all of these
personality traits and how they impact individuals with whom we are in
contact on a daily basis.
This research has led investigators to study the association of each of these
traits with other traits and attempts to identify which are most important. This
effort has resulted in the identification of what has been called “super traits”
or “temperament” variables. These super traits have been found to be
associated with many personality variables and have made it possible to
understand how groups of personality traits impact human behavior,
including communication behavior. The most prominent classification of
super traits was advanced by Hans Eysenck (1990). Eysenck labeled his three
temperament variables as extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism.
Eysenck and his colleagues also reported research that indicates that these
temperament variables are genetically based. Other psychobiologists (people
who study psychology from a biological perspective) have suggested that
there are five temperament variables. Like Eysenck, Costa and McCrae
(1992) also labeled their first two variables extraversion and neuroticism. The
remaining three variables (a breakdown of psychoticism) were labeled
openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness.
Temperament/Personality and
Communication
The association of temperament and personality with communication has
been specifically noted by psychobiologists. As Eysenck (1986) put it,
temperament represents the “ways in which individuals can interact” (p. 14).
As Bates (1989), another leading psychobiologist, put it, “there is general
agreement [among psychobiologists] that temper ...
Chapter 6 Personality,Temperament, and CommunicationTraits.docxrobertad6
Chapter 6 Personality,
Temperament, and Communication
Traits
No two people are exactly alike. There are literally thousands of ways people
differ from each other, including such obvious characteristics as height,
weight, sex, eye color, nose size, skin color, hand size, hair color, vocal
quality, bone structure, and facial features. Most of us are well aware that
these individual features are a function of the genetic heritage of each
individual. Barring cosmetic surgery and/or severe dietary restrictions, there
is little one can do about such features. Of course, not all individual
differences are so obvious at first sight.
Each person has a unique personality. An individual’s personality includes a
collection of traits, which are characteristic of that individual. It is these
characteristics that distinguish one person from another. Among these
characteristic traits are predispositions and tendencies toward
communication, which collectively permit us to see how one person is unique
from another.
Personality and Temperament
Over the past eight decades, personality psychologists have identified more
than 2,000 different personality traits. This massive research effort has made
us very aware of how complex human personalities are. It has also made it
obvious that we cannot realistically expect to understand all of these
personality traits and how they impact individuals with whom we are in
contact on a daily basis.
This research has led investigators to study the association of each of these
traits with other traits and attempts to identify which are most important. This
effort has resulted in the identification of what has been called “super traits”
or “temperament” variables. These super traits have been found to be
associated with many personality variables and have made it possible to
understand how groups of personality traits impact human behavior,
including communication behavior. The most prominent classification of
super traits was advanced by Hans Eysenck (1990). Eysenck labeled his three
temperament variables as extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism.
Eysenck and his colleagues also reported research that indicates that these
temperament variables are genetically based. Other psychobiologists (people
who study psychology from a biological perspective) have suggested that
there are five temperament variables. Like Eysenck, Costa and McCrae
(1992) also labeled their first two variables extraversion and neuroticism. The
remaining three variables (a breakdown of psychoticism) were labeled
openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness.
Temperament/Personality and
Communication
The association of temperament and personality with communication has
been specifically noted by psychobiologists. As Eysenck (1986) put it,
temperament represents the “ways in which individuals can interact” (p. 14).
As Bates (1989), another leading psychobiologist, put it, “there is general
agreement [among psychobiologists] that temper.
This document provides an abstract and introduction for a dissertation analyzing representations of individuals with facial disfigurements in newspaper articles using thematic analysis. The dissertation examines how media representations may influence public perceptions and behaviors towards those with facial disfigurements based on social learning theory. Previous research found biases towards facial disfigurements and stereotypical media portrayals. The dissertation aims to provide further understanding of these issues through a thematic analysis of newspaper articles.
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1. International Journal of Linguistics
ISSN 1948-5425
2013, Vol. 5, No. 2
www.macrothink.org/ijl34
Does it Matter What We Wear? A Sociolinguistic Study
of Clothing and Human Values
Mohammad Aliakbari (Corresponding author)
Dept. of English, Ilam University
PO Box 516, Ilam 69315, Iran
Tel: 98-918-341-3283 E-mail: maliakbari@hotmail.com
Khadijeh Abdollahi
Dept. of English, Ilam University
PO Box 516, Ilam 69315, Iran
Tel: 98-939-707-6335 E-mail: Khadijeh.abdollahi@yahoo.com
Received: January 16, 2013 Accepted: February 5, 2013 Published: April 22, 2013
doi:10.5296/ijl.v5i2.3051 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.5296/ijl.v5i2.3051
Abstract
This paper sets out to examine the differences in people’s reactions to each other as a
function of dress style to see how a stranger clothed in different modes of dress is
reacted against. Effects of two dress conditions, the former normally worn by
upper-middle class members of society and the latter often worn by lower-class
members (style A and style B, hereafter), were investigated under controlled conditions.
To this end, three female housewives clothed in the two sets of polar garment styles
were selected as buyers to have shopping experiences in different settings. Results
indicated that participants (clients) of the study received different reactions from their
respondents (sellers) in the two different conditions of dressing. In other words,
participants in style A were accepted more readily than when they were dressed in the
style B. This seems to indicate that clothing has a great impact on social interaction and
impression management.
Keywords: Non-verbal communication, Clothing signals, Human values, Garment
style
2. International Journal of Linguistics
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1. Introduction
Non-verbal communication usually occurs through the process of communicating wordless
messages using the medium of “silent language” as called by Edward Hall (1959). It is
accomplished through different types of nonverbal communication signals such as gesture,
body language or posture, facial expression and eye gaze, object communication such as
clothing, hairstyles or even architecture, vocal cues, etc. In fact, a significant amount of
communication that goes on between people is nonverbal. To Brown (2007), what we
communicate nonverbally in our conversations is so much that it often makes the verbal aspect
of the communication negligible. While communicating with each other, people are constantly
sending nonverbal signs to each other and make an impression about themselves to the
surrounding people and that impression forms the basis of their acceptance. This acceptance,
in turn, functions as a criterion for the success or failure of their communication. Along with
all other nonverbal signals, clothing as probably the most prominent source of nonverbal
communication transmits messages which are important aspects of communication (Brown,
2007). Even in the presence of other indicators, clothing makes a statement and tells people
more about their wearers before opening their mouth to speak (White, n.d.).
Clothes often signal a person’s sense of self-esteem, personality, education, general character,
background, socioeconomic status and credibility (Brown, 2007). According to Morris (1977)
wearing clothes without transmitting non-verbal cues is impossible; a person’s dress discloses
a great deal about that person. Like other nonverbal cues, clothing signals can be
communicated intentionally or unintentionally and they can, thus, be interpreted consciously
or unconsciously by the observer (Morris, Gorham, Cohen, and Huffaman, 1996). In other
words, clothing, according to Molloy (1977) is a primary impression management tool.
Accordingly, the first impression produced as a function of clothing messages leads to
different reactions and decisions on the part of the receiver. Thourlby (1978) states that
people make decisions about others’ level of sophistication, level of success, economic level,
educational level, trustworthiness, social position, economic background, social background,
educational background, and moral character solely upon clothing. In addition, judgments
about one’s credibility, likability, interpersonal attractiveness, and dominance are affected by
clothing (Molloy, 1988; Raiscot, 1986). Generally speaking, appropriate clothing choices can
result in effective impression management which may in turn lead to desired reactions in any
particular setting. In other words, though people expect to be judged by their knowledge,
personalities, skills and ability, it is their mode of dress that influences others’ judgments and
reactions towards them (White, n.d.). This seems to be quite contrary to the prevalent cultural
and religious values held in Iran, where human beings are claimed to be judged according to
their personalities. Because of such discrepancy and the scarcity of scholarly research in
Iranian contexts, the present study is an attempt to investigate whether the outward
appearance or mode of dress can influence peoples’ reaction towards their interlocutors in
Iranian context.
3. International Journal of Linguistics
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2. Clothing Style in the Literature
Over few decades ago, the role of clothing and interpersonal perceptions has been
investigated from different perspectives by researchers in psychology and clothing fields
(Paek, 1986). The literature in general, seems to give strength to the position that garment
style, as a nonverbal component of communication and as a useful means for gaining some
initial understanding of people and interacting with them on a daily basis, plays a key role in
our real-world interactions (Jones, 1987). For instance, researchers have reported that attire
has an influential role in first impression formation (Buckley, 1983; Rucker, Taber &
Harrison, 1981; Lennon & Miller, 1984); that there is a relationship between attire and
personality (Aiken, 1963; Dubler & Gurel, 1984; Rosenfeld & Plax, 1977); that there are
similar tendencies toward preferred clothing styles (DeLong & Larntz, 1980; Dillion, 1980;
DeLong, Salusso-Deonier & Larntz, 1983); and that attire influences the credibility of
individuals (Paek, 1986; Lang, 1986; Forsythe, Drake & Cox, 1984; Korda, 1975).
A good number of researchers investigating the role of clothing, except for a few, have
conducted their studies mostly on the basis of questionnaires. Aiken (1963), for instance, in
his study administered an 80-item opinionnaire to 300 undergraduate women in a
southeastern college. 33 of the items were used to constitute 5 "dress clusters"-decoration,
comfort, interest, conformity, and economy. 160 of the original 300 women completed the
revised 33-item opinionnaire, the Study of Values, the Sixteen Personality Factor
Questionnaire, the California Psychological Inventory, and the F Scale. The results indicated
that there were significant correlations among the dress and personality variables. Results
also revealed that both high scorers on decoration and interest tended to be uncomplicated
and socially conscientious and high scorers on comfort were characterized as "controlled
extroversion”. Finally, the data suggested that high scorers on economy in dress tended to be
intelligent and interested in the discovery of truth.
Similarly, Jones (1987) investigated the effect of attire on forensic competitors and judges in
order to come up with standards for attire in intercollegiate forensic competition. To this end,
the author distributed questionnaires to both students and judges attending two national
intercollegiate forensic tournaments sponsored by the University of Texas at Arlington.
Based on the findings, it was concluded that attire is influential, that attire standards exist in
forensic competition for male and female competitors as well as for male and female judges;
and that standards for female judges and competitors are more conservative than they are for
male competitors and judges. Furthermore, a student's attire may affect his or her rating and
may influence other competitors' performances.
In another study, Johnson, Francis, and Burns, (2007) investigated the relationship between
personality and appearance emphasis by means of questionnaires. Two questionnaires, one
measuring five personality factors and the other including nine appearance emphasis items
were administered to a sample of undergraduate female college students. Linear regression
demonstrated that there is a relationship between certain personality traits and appearance
emphasis variables. Neuroticism, extraversion, and openness to experience were found to be
moderate predictors for appearance emphasis. The findings of this investigation had
4. International Journal of Linguistics
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theoretical implications for the social-psychological aspects of appearance or dress and
personality research.
Paek (1986) studied the effects of attire on personal traits formed by perceivers of a stranger
clothed in two sets of polar garment styles of daring-conservative and dressy-casual. He also
explored the relationship between interest rating of subject and personal trait ratings of each
garment style. One hundred and three subjects rated 18 personal traits of wearers presented to
them on slides and responded to clothing interest measures and questions about personal
backgrounds. Results revealed that a stranger dressed in a conservative casual style was
perceived to be more self-controlled, understanding, and reliable, whereas a person dressed in
daring style was regarded as more attractive and individualistic than a person clothed in other
clothing styles. On the other hand, a stranger clothed in dressy style conveyed social unease
and dependency on others. Significant positive correlations existed between the clothing
interest ratings of subjects and several personal traits of daring garment style, while
significant negative correlations were revealed between the former and attractive and popular
traits of conservative and casual styles. These findings also indicated that clothing interest of
perceivers influenced first impression conveyed by different clothing styles.
Instead of using questionnaires, Morris et al. (1996) conducted an experimental study in a
live context to investigate contemporary effects of instructor attire on students’ perceptions of
college teachers. For this purpose, the influence of three dress conditions of formal
professional, causal professional and casual were tested under tightly controlled experimental
conditions. Results indicated that instructors with more formal dress were perceived to be
more competent. It was also indicated that the positive influences of instructor dress were
found in the highly casual condition. Perceptions of homophily produced a small amount of
variance in instructor ratings, but there was no significant effect of dress conditions on ratings
of homophily.
As (Morris et al., 1996) truly noticed, across the body of literature available to date, it can be
concluded that few studies have empirically examined the effect of clothing and most of them
have used responses to photographs, slides, and questionnaires. It is also obvious that except
for studies related to the subject of clothing, with reference to different variables such as
personality traits, first impression formation, and so forth, no other study, to date, has tackled
the object of the present study.
3. Objectives of the study
With reference to the background presented in the previous two sections and regarding the
significance of nonverbal communication in general and clothing nonverbal cues in particular,
this study is to determine whether in an Iranian context clothing makes any difference in
reactions among strangers (here sellers and clients) engaged in their real-world activities. In
other words, the present study is an attempt to probe whether in an Iranian context clothing
can provide the basis of one's failure or success in their daily social activities or not.
5. International Journal of Linguistics
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4. Research Question
To specify the point and in order to gain knowledge as to the effect of clothing in an Iranian
context, this study was designed to address the following research question:
To what extent is sellers’ reaction influenced by their clients’ appearance or mode of dress?
5. Methodology
5.1 Participants
Three female housewives with undergraduate degrees, an average physical build, and
relatively similar level of attractiveness, whose ages range between 25to30, participated in
this study. Prior to the study, they were informed about the research objectives and were thus
volunteers to participate. Each of them had the similar experience of going to a single store
twice. As buyers, they were asked to wear two sets of polar garment style in each experience
with the same store. Sellers in the two specified stores, stated bellow, were two males in early
middle ages with almost equal years of experience. They were observed without being
informed about the purpose of the study.
5.2 Pilot Study
Before the commencement of the main study, a pilot study was conducted with the intention
to check for the practicality factors and observe if any variation in sellers’ reaction as a
function of cloth manipulation could be found. For this purpose, one researcher clothed in
two polar garment styles had some shopping experiences in different settings. Findings
showed that cloth manipulation resulted in difference in sellers’ reaction towards their client.
Decision about the procedures of the research and aspects brought to investigation was made
according to the pilot study.
5.3 Procedures
Settings for the study were a jeweler’s and a cosmetic store selected mainly according to the
element of unfamiliarity since familiarity has been shown to affect the effect of cloth
manipulation. Attempt was made to control factors such as the sellers’ ages and years of
experience. The subjects of the study as buyers had two experiences of shopping with each of
the specified settings of the study. Altogether, every person had 4 shopping experiences, two
in the jeweler’s and two in the cosmetic store. Their visit was once in garment style A and
once in style B. Style A was normally worn by upper middle-class members of the society
and style B was one often worn by lower-class members. In their first encounters with each
seller subjects clothed in garment style B and in the second one clothed in garment style A. In
order to avoid the effect of familiarity, one week time interval between the two experiences
was decided. Barring mode of dress manipulated during the study, other factors such as time
of shopping, subjects’ speaking style, gender, age, physical build, level of attractiveness and
education were kept consistent. During each experience, one researcher accompanied the
subjects for observation and note-taking purposes. Finally the findings of the study were
analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively with respect to different variables in order to
gain knowledge as to the effect of clothing in an Iranian context.
6. International Journal of Linguistics
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5.4 Classification Scheme
For ease of presenting and discussing the results, individuals involved in the study, the sellers
and clients were anonymously named seller X, seller Y, client1, client2, and client3. As
stated earlier each subject had 4 shopping experiences, two in the cosmetic store with seller X
and two in the jeweler’s with seller Y. Their two visits with each seller were once in garment
style A and once in style B. Altogether, there were 12 shopping experiences. It is
schematically represented in Table 1 blow.
Table 1. Schematic presentation of shopping experiences
Clients Styles Seller
encountered
Experiences
1
2
3
A
B
A
B
A
B
Seller X
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
A
B
A
B
A
B
Seller Y
7
8
9
10
11
12
After observing each experience, the interactions between clients and sellers in the two polar
dress conditions were analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. Aspects brought to
investigation in quantitative part of the study included number of times the clients addressed
the sellers to initiate a conversation, number of turns taken by conversation participants, types
of responses given by sellers, number of interrogative and imperative sentences used by the
clients and the sellers in the course of conversation, price ranges and items suggested by
sellers to their clients in different modes of dress, and finally total time of conversation
between the sellers and the clients in each different occasion. It should be noted that since the
length of responses given by the sellers in their turns varied from a single word to a complete
story, types of responses were divided into two types, telegraphic and sentence-length; the
former included single word or semi-sentence responses and the latter included full-sentence
responses.
7. International Journal of Linguistics
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For the qualitative part of the study, it was decided to investigate address terms used by
sellers, sentence voice, speech style including formal, informal, respectful, and friendly
speech styles, and finally immediacy variables such as (sellers’) smiling and looking at
clients, using a stern/ friendly tone, and paying compliments while talking.
6. Results
What resulted from shopping experiences were conversations between sellers and buyers that
were analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. As mentioned before, regarding the
quantitative part of the study, conversations were analyzed in relation to aspects such as
speaking turns and the number of interrogative and imperative sentences. Table 2 presents
this information.
Table 2. Speaking turns and sentence types
Experiences Subjects’ Names Speaking turns Interrogative sentences Imperative sentences
1
Seller X 6 5 3
Client 1, A 5 2 0
2
Seller X 4 3 0
Client 1, B 8 3 0
3
Seller Y 4 5 1
Client 1, A 5 2 1
4
Seller Y 4 1 0
Client 1, B 4 1 0
5
Seller X 5 4 2
Client 2, A 5 3 1
6
Seller X 3 3 0
Client 2, B 4 2 0
7
Seller Y 9 5 1
Client 2, A 7 3 1
8
Seller Y 4 1 0
Client 2, B 2 3 0
9
Seller X 6 7 3
Client 3, A 6 4 1
10
Seller X 3 1 0
Client 3, B 3 3 1
11
Seller Y 7 4 2
Client 3, A 6 4 0
12
Seller Y 3 0 0
Client 3, B 2 3 0
Moreover, types of responses given by the sellers, times of addressing the sellers, price
ranges, number of items suggested by sellers, and finally total time of conversation were
addressed. Frequency of each one is reported hereunder in Table 3.
8. International Journal of Linguistics
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Table 3. Values for quantifiable variables in different situations
Clients’
Names
Dress
Style
Types of responses
Times of
addressing
the seller
Price-ranges
suggested by
sellers
Total time of
conversation
(min)
Number
of items
suggested
by sellers
telegraphic Sentence-length
SX SY SX SY SX SY SX SY
SX SY SX SY
Client 1
Style
A
2 1 8 5 1 0 50-100 2-4 m 25 16 17 5
Style
B
4 3 1 0 2 3 15-35 600-1m 5 4 4 1
Client 2
Style
A
1 2 10 6 1 1 60-90 1.5-2m 10 13 9 4
Style
B
2 3 4 0 4 2 12-20 500-1m 6 4 3 2
Client 3
Style
A
3 2 11 7 0 1 40- 80 1-3m 13 20 15 6
Style
B
4 2 3 1 1 2 12-30 1-1.5m 5 3 5 3
*SX = Seller X
*SY = Seller Y
Conversation analysis with respect to the qualitative aspects mentioned above led to different
results. As one constituent part of the conversations, addressing terms used by sellers varied
for clients with different dress styles while clients consistently used the term ‘sir’. Table 4
shows addressing terms sellers used for each client in the two different situations.
Table 4. Address terms used by the sellers in opposite conditions
Sellers’
names
Client 1 Client 2 Client 3
style A style B style A style B style A style B
Seller X Ms. Ø Ms. You (sin) (Sarkâr) Ø
Seller Y (sarkâr) (hâj khânom) Ms. (khâhar) Ms. Ø
Both sellers and clients used active voice except for one case when the seller X asked his
client clothed in style A: whether she was offended by sweet smell. Sellers’ speech styles
were also observed for analysis purposes. Sellers’ styles were determined by examining the
way they treated the clients and specific expressions they used reflecting one of the formal,
informal, respectful, or friendly styles. Distribution of speech styles used by sellers came out
to be considerably variable across different situations. Moreover, immediacy variables
observed by the researcher also varied during each experience. Immediacy variables and
speaking styles were closely related to each other because it was immediacy variables that
gave sellers speech characteristics of a particular style. Consequently, almost in all
9. International Journal of Linguistics
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experiences with clients dressed in style A, sellers had a friendly, respectful, and informal
style since, during conversation they smiled and looked at their clients using a friendly voice.
The use of some particular expressions by sellers when speaking also confirmed this point.
7. Discussion
As the data suggested, a stranger dressed in style A perceived to be more credible, likable and
dominant, whereas in style B she was treated differently. Quantitative data presented in Table
2 and 3 supported this point.
Findings presented in Table 2 also accounts for the discrepancy in sellers’ reaction towards
their clients in the two polar dress conditions. Although the difference between speaking
turns taken by sellers and clients in the two different conditions is not so high, number of
interrogative and imperative sentences used by sellers in the course of conversation with
clients dressed in style A were higher than those in the opposite situation. It can be said that
sellers in their experiences with those clothed in style A were much more willing to continue
buying and selling due to the first impression formed on the basis of appearance and
perceived the style A holders as more credible, likable, educated, or considered them as being
from higher economic and social level, and attributed them a higher social prestige.
As for the information presented in Table 3, it was indicated that types of responses given by
sellers in all experiences with clients dressed in style B were mostly telegraphic, while it was
sentence long for style A. That is, sentence-length responses possessed the highest number of
14 for style A and the lowest number of 0 for style B. Put it differently, the first encounter
between sellers and clients dressed in style B did not lead to a successful social interaction,
while it was quite the other way round when the clients dressed in style A. perhaps this was
because sellers made decisions about their economic level, social position and social
background differently solely upon clients’ clothing in the absence of other information. This
is in line with Thourlby’s (1978) statement that people make decisions about economic level,
level of sophistication, level of success, educational level, trustworthiness, social position,
economic background, social background, educational background, and moral character
solely upon clothing.
As shown in Table 3, total time of conversation between sellers and clients in the two
different conditions varied considerably. Total time of conversations in all experiences with
style A were higher than those in all experiences with style B. There was a time span as short
as 3 minutes that was by no means enough to keep the conversation going to have a
successful shopping experience. Similarly, times of addressing the sellers in the two polar
conditions of dressing implied that clients in style A were more dominant and sociable. That
is, when dressed in style A, clients were welcomed even without addressing the sellers,
whereas there was occasion when clients dressed in style B had to address the sellers even
more than three times. Additional findings in Table 3 for price ranges and number of items
suggested by sellers provided support for the previously discussed points since for style A the
announced values highly surpassed those for style B.
10. International Journal of Linguistics
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In line with the quantitative data of the study, qualitative aspects also advocated that to a
large extent clothing can make difference in one’s respondent’s reaction. Variation in address
terms used by the sellers in the two opposing dress conditions was remarkable. As shown in
Table 4, more than half of the address terms used by the sellers when addressing the clients in
style A was the term ‘Ms.’ What is apparent is that when addressing the sellers by title,
clients in style A were mutually addressed by title which could indicate equality in power and
similar social status (Yule, 2006). On the other hand, in half of the experiences with clients in
style B, there was asymmetric use of title; the clients addressed the sellers by title but
received zero address terms (Ø) in response. According to Wardhaugh (2006) this can be a
clear indicator of a power differential. Besides, as Aliakbari and Toni (2008) note, such
employment of address terms can show that sellers may deliberately avoid using any address
terms to show unwillingness or annoyance
Almost in all experiences with clients clothed in style A, there was an attempt towards
intimacy simply because sellers had a friendly, respectful, and informal speech style. Besides,
they smiled and looked at their clients using a friendly voice during conversation. However,
there was no sign of intimacy in experiences with style B due to sellers’ formal speaking style
and using a serious voice; they neither smiled nor looked at their clients.
8. Conclusion
Based on the findings of the present study, it can be concluded that participants (clients) of
the study received different reactions from their respondents (sellers) in the two different
conditions of dressing. Sellers judged their clients’ credibility, likability, interpersonal
attractiveness, dominance, and other personal traits differently based on their mode of dress;
accordingly, they were either cold or warm to them. That is, consistent with the findings of
the addressed research, results of the present study also indicate that in an Iranian context,
outward appearance or mode of dress can influence peoples’ reaction towards their
surroundings. As stated earlier, barring mode of dress manipulated during the study, other
factors such as time of shopping, subjects’ speaking style, gender, age, physical build, level
of attractiveness, education and even sellers’ ages and years of experience were kept
consistent. Thus, it can be claimed that it is the garment style as the only visible and
manipulated cue that accounts for differences in viewers’ reactions. Therefore, viewers
(sellers) made many decisions on the basis of garment style and perceived strangers dressed
in style A as higher-class members of the society. The in-context manipulation of this study
adds strength to its contribution to literature because it has been suggested that responses to
photo manipulation, slides, or questionnaires are not affected by variables present when
actual people interact in context.
The knowledge gained would increase insight into the important role of clothing and
appearance in daily activities and in impression formation providing the basis of one’s
success or failure in being socially accepted. Findings of the study have implications for both
L1and L2 communications. Since people in their daily activities interact mostly with persons
whom they don’t know, lack of knowledge about non-verbal clothing signals as the only
visible cues can impede communication and mutual understanding. Therefore results imply
11. International Journal of Linguistics
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2013, Vol. 5, No. 2
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that all language learners in general and L2 learners in particular need to take care of clothing
and its informative cues in order to form a positive impression in their interlocutors’ minds.
Admitting the importance of non-verbal communication, the obtained results signify that,
besides reinforcing students’ conversational (verbal) skills, L2 teachers need to raise their
consciousness to the miracle role of non-verbal communication in general and the role of
clothing in particular. In addition, findings of the present study have implications for research
regarding social-psychological aspects of appearance and dress in relation to variables of
interest. Yet, this study used a small number of 3 female subjects having shopping
experiences with just two sellers in two particular settings of a jeweler’s and a cosmetic store.
Accordingly, future research is warranted to precisely determine the effect of clothing using a
larger number of subjects including both males and females interacting with sellers in a series
of different settings. Further research may also include a cross-cultural examination of this
topic which may also be of interest for researchers.
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