This document discusses etymology and pidgin and creole languages. It notes that pidgin and creole languages provide an opportunity to develop more sophisticated models of etymological research due to the complex mixing at the lexical level in these languages. The document then examines the multiple origins of lexical material in pidgin languages, using Tok Pisin as a case study. It provides examples of Tok Pisin words that have origins in both English and local languages, or in English, German and Malay. The document argues that a significant portion, perhaps 25%, of early Tok Pisin words have multiple etymologies due to the contact between multiple languages in the formation of pidgins.
The document discusses the history and development of the field of historical linguistics. It explains that historical linguistics studies how languages change over time and are related to one another. Traditional historical linguistics focused on documenting past language changes, while modern historical linguistics examines the social and cultural factors that influence language change. The history of the English language reflects the cultural and political influences of groups like the Romans, Vikings, and Normans that have shaped its vocabulary and grammar over many centuries.
This document provides an overview of the early study of language among ancient Greeks. It discusses how Greeks like Herodotus and Plato speculated about the origins, history, and structure of language. It describes the debate between Analogists, who saw language as natural and logical, and Anomalists, who pointed out its irregularities. While Greeks realized language changes over time, they never systematically studied this. Their grammatical observations were confined to Greek and stated philosophically rather than based on careful observation. This laid the foundations for later traditional views of language.
Latest Development On Phonetics And PhonologyDr. Cupid Lucid
Â
This document provides an overview of the history and development of phonology as an academic field of study. It discusses early work in phonetics before the 20th century, the concept of the phoneme, developments in North American phonology in the late 19th/early 20th century, and several influential theories and approaches that emerged throughout the 20th century including generative phonology, autosegmental phonology, and metrical phonology. The document aims to outline the major currents of theory that have shaped the discipline of phonology over time.
An Introduction to Historical Linguistics andTraditional Grammarsamatta111
Â
This document provides an overview of the field of historical linguistics and the development of linguistics as a scientific discipline. It discusses key topics including:
- Historical linguistics studies how languages change over time by examining two or more stages of a language's development.
- The study of linguistics began with early philosophers but the "birthday" is considered 1786 when Sir William Jones discovered similarities between Indo-European languages.
- In the late 19th century, the study of linguistics expanded with theories of evolution and language change, and the emergence of different schools including structuralism and mentalism.
- Modern linguistics analyzes all aspects of language as a complex communication system, using descriptive rather than
This document discusses lexical cohesion as a motivation for codeswitching in bilingual speech. It summarizes that lexical cohesion, or the establishment of links between words in different sentences, plays an important role in creating coherence in discourse. The document examines examples of codeswitching in small claims court cases, where speakers of different languages interact mediated by an interpreter. It finds that lexical repetition across utterances helps establish cohesive ties and distinguish different conversations, even when different languages are used.
Inquiry on the Philosophy of Language.pptxutcrash88
Â
It is a reasoned inquiry into the origins of language
Its nature of meaning
The usage and cognition of language
The relationship between language and reality
To clarify concepts with which language is described and analysed
To settle and resolve philosophical disputes originating from linguistic confusion
The document discusses the history and development of the field of historical linguistics. It explains that historical linguistics studies how languages change over time and are related to one another. Traditional historical linguistics focused on documenting past language changes, while modern historical linguistics examines the social and cultural factors that influence language change. The history of the English language reflects the cultural and political influences of groups like the Romans, Vikings, and Normans that have shaped its vocabulary and grammar over many centuries.
This document provides an overview of the early study of language among ancient Greeks. It discusses how Greeks like Herodotus and Plato speculated about the origins, history, and structure of language. It describes the debate between Analogists, who saw language as natural and logical, and Anomalists, who pointed out its irregularities. While Greeks realized language changes over time, they never systematically studied this. Their grammatical observations were confined to Greek and stated philosophically rather than based on careful observation. This laid the foundations for later traditional views of language.
Latest Development On Phonetics And PhonologyDr. Cupid Lucid
Â
This document provides an overview of the history and development of phonology as an academic field of study. It discusses early work in phonetics before the 20th century, the concept of the phoneme, developments in North American phonology in the late 19th/early 20th century, and several influential theories and approaches that emerged throughout the 20th century including generative phonology, autosegmental phonology, and metrical phonology. The document aims to outline the major currents of theory that have shaped the discipline of phonology over time.
An Introduction to Historical Linguistics andTraditional Grammarsamatta111
Â
This document provides an overview of the field of historical linguistics and the development of linguistics as a scientific discipline. It discusses key topics including:
- Historical linguistics studies how languages change over time by examining two or more stages of a language's development.
- The study of linguistics began with early philosophers but the "birthday" is considered 1786 when Sir William Jones discovered similarities between Indo-European languages.
- In the late 19th century, the study of linguistics expanded with theories of evolution and language change, and the emergence of different schools including structuralism and mentalism.
- Modern linguistics analyzes all aspects of language as a complex communication system, using descriptive rather than
This document discusses lexical cohesion as a motivation for codeswitching in bilingual speech. It summarizes that lexical cohesion, or the establishment of links between words in different sentences, plays an important role in creating coherence in discourse. The document examines examples of codeswitching in small claims court cases, where speakers of different languages interact mediated by an interpreter. It finds that lexical repetition across utterances helps establish cohesive ties and distinguish different conversations, even when different languages are used.
Inquiry on the Philosophy of Language.pptxutcrash88
Â
It is a reasoned inquiry into the origins of language
Its nature of meaning
The usage and cognition of language
The relationship between language and reality
To clarify concepts with which language is described and analysed
To settle and resolve philosophical disputes originating from linguistic confusion
Language and Thought The Sapir-Whorf HypothesisOne of the most .docxDIPESH30
Â
Language and Thought: The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
One of the most important and long-standing debates in studies of language and
behavior involves the relationship between language and thought processes. This
relationship is particularly important to the cross-cultural study of language
because each culture is associated with a given language as a vehicle for its expression.
How does culture influence language? And how does language influence
culture?
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, also referred to as linguistic relativity, suggests
that speakers of different languages think differently, and that they do so because
of the differences in their languages. Because different cultures typically have different
languages, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is especially important for understanding
cultural differences (and similarities) in thought and behavior as a function
of language.
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is important to verify, because if correct, it suggests
that people of different cultures think differently, just by the very nature,
structure, and function of their language. Their thought processes, their associations,
their ways of interpreting the worldâeven the same events we perceiveâ
may be different because they speak a different language and this language has
helped shape their thought patterns. This hypothesis also suggests that people who
speak more than one language may actually have different thought patterns when
speaking different languages.
Many studies have examined languageâcognition issues since Edward Sapir
and Benjamin Whorf first proposed their hypothesis in the 1950s. In one of the
earliest language studies, Carroll and Casagrande (1958) compared Navajo and
English speakers. They examined the relationship between the system of shape classification
in the Navajo language and the amount of attention children pay to
shape when classifying objects. Similar to the Japanese language described earlier
in this chapter, the Navajo language has the interesting grammatical feature that
certain verbs of handling (for example, âto pick up,â âto dropâ) require
special linguistic forms depending on what kind of object is being handled. A total
of 11 such linguistic forms describe different shapesâround spherical objects, round
thin objects, long flexible things, and so forth. Noting how much more complex this
linguistic feature is in Navajo than in English, Carroll and Casagrande (1958)
Culture, Language, and Communication 241
suggested that such linguistic features might play a role in influencing cognitive processes.
In their experiment, they compared Navajo- and English-dominant children to
see how often they used shape, form, or type of material to categorize objects. The
Navajo-dominant children were significantly more likely to categorize by shape than
were the English-dominant children. In the same study, Carroll and Casagrande
(1958) also reported that the performance of low-income African American Englishspeaking
children was similar ...
This document provides an overview of the history and development of phonology as an academic field of study. It discusses early work in phonetics from ancient India and Greece/Rome. The concept of the phoneme became important in the late 19th century as a way to represent pronunciation and as a foundational concept in phonological theory. The document then covers the emergence of phonology as a modern scientific field of study in Europe and North America in the late 19th/early 20th centuries, focusing on the contributions of scholars like Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield to the analysis of unwritten languages.
This document discusses the field of corpus linguistics and its relationship to other fields like cognitive linguistics and lexicography. It makes the following key points:
1. Corpus linguistics believes language should be studied through large collections of real-world texts rather than through intuition. It focuses on patterns between words and their meanings in context.
2. While corpus linguistics has influenced fields like lexicography, it is still developing its own theoretical foundations, especially regarding semantics.
3. Corpus linguistics differs from cognitive linguistics in that it sees meaning as arising from language use rather than internal mental representations. It studies what meaning expressions convey based on how language communities use them.
The document discusses language families and provides definitions and examples. It defines a language family as a group of languages descended from a common ancestral language. The largest language families are Indo-European and Sino-Tibetan. Membership in a language family is established through comparative linguistics. Within families, languages are further divided into branches, groups, and subgroups. Some families consist of dialect continua without clear borders between languages. Language isolates have no known living relatives, like Basque.
Code-switching refers to alternating between two or more languages or language varieties in conversation. It can occur between sentences or within sentences. Speakers may switch languages based on the social situation, to emphasize a particular word or point, or due to habitual experience growing up with more than one language. Bilingual speakers often switch between languages depending on factors like the topic of discussion, the social relationships involved, and the level of formality required.
The document discusses several key topics in linguistics:
1. Linguistics is the scientific study of language, examining its nature, structure, units, and modifications. It emerged in the 19th century to emphasize a newer approach focusing on spoken language compared to traditional philology.
2. Philology refers to the study of written records, establishing their authenticity and meaning. It involves reconstructing imperfect texts by comparing variants and interpreting information about history, culture, language and literature.
3. Linguistics can be divided into descriptive/synchronic versus historical/diachronic approaches, theoretical versus applied areas, and micro- versus macrolinguistics. Various specialized fields within macrolinguistics are
The document discusses the history and evolution of languages over time. It describes how Proto-Indo-European was identified as the common ancestor of many European and Indian languages based on similarities between their vocabularies and grammars. It also discusses methods of reconstructing earlier forms of words by comparing cognates across related languages and identifying common sound changes. As an example, it summarizes the major periods in the history of English from Old English to Modern English and some of the phonetic changes that occurred between each period like the loss of the letters ĂŸ and Ă°.
English has undergone significant changes over time. It began as Old English around AD 400 and has evolved into contemporary forms of English through various stages. Old English had extensive inflectional morphology that has since been lost. The Norman conquest in 1066 introduced French influences that transformed Old English into Middle English. A major phonological change known as the Great Vowel Shift occurred between Middle and Early Modern English. Contemporary English continues to change and spread globally through both internal language change processes and external social and cultural influences.
This document discusses the concept of diglossia as defined by Ferguson in 1959. Diglossia refers to a stable language situation where there is a primary dialect and a highly codified superposed variety that is used for written and formal spoken purposes. The superposed variety, or H, is learned through formal education. Some key features of diglossia are that H and L have different functions and prestige, H has a literary heritage, L is used between children and for instruction to servants, H has standardization through grammars and dictionaries, diglossia can persist for centuries, H and L have different grammars, lexicons, and phonological systems. Later scholars like Fishman studied overlapping concepts like bilingualism, trig
Second language acquisition and english language teachingOsnovna ĆĄola Pivka
Â
This document discusses theories of second language acquisition and their influence on English language teaching. It examines key theories that have attempted to influence SLA over time, from behaviourism to cognitive approaches. While early theories focused on linguistic and psycholinguistic factors, more recent theories emphasize the importance of social and sociolinguistic factors in language learning. The document also discusses factors that influence the amount and type of language input learners receive, and how this impacts the development and success of second language acquisition.
The article analyzes the emergence of grammar in a new sign language called ABSL used among a community of congenitally deaf children in Israel. The study finds that ABSL has developed distinct grammatical structures like subject-verb-object word order that are not influenced by surrounding spoken languages like Arabic and Hebrew. This supports the claim that universal grammar internal to the human mind, not external influences, drives the development of systematic structure in a new language.
Present article examines the psycholinguistic factors that affect ease of learning foreign language vocabulary acquisition. Demonstrate the orthographic and phonological patterns of vocabulary acquisition. by Egamberdieva Shakhzoda Damirovna, Egamberdieva Farida Oktamovna, Egamberdiev Khumoyun and Ergasheva Yulduz 2020. Psycholinguistic conditions in vocabulary acquisition. International Journal on Integrated Education. 2, 3 (Mar. 2020), 23-25. DOI:https://doi.org/10.31149/ijie.v2i3.251. https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJIE/article/view/251/244 https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJIE/article/view/251
Available online at www.sciencedirect.comLanguage Sciences 3.docxrock73
Â
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
Language Sciences 31 (2009) 213â238
www.elsevier.com/locate/langsci
How (not) to do phonological typology: the case of pitch-accent
Larry M. Hyman
Department of Linguistics, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-2650, USA
Abstract
In this paper I argue for a property-driven approach to phonological typology. Rather than seeking to classify or label
languages, the central goal of phonological typology is to determine how different languages systematize the phonetic sub-
stance available to all languages. The paper focuses on a very murky area in phonological typology, word-prosodic sys-
tems. While there is agreement that certain properties converge to characterize two prosodic prototypes, tone and
stress, the term ââpitch-accentâ is frequently adopted to refer to a defective tone system whose tone is obligatory, culmina-
tive, privative, metrical, and/or restricted in distribution. Drawing from a database of ca. 600 tone systems, I show that
none of these properties is found in all systems claimed to be accentual and that all five are amply attested in canonical
tone systems. Since all one can say is that alleged pitch-accent systems exhibit significant constraints on the distribution
of their tonal contrasts, they do not constitute a coherent prosodic ââtypeâ. Rather, alleged ââpitch-accentâ systems freely
pick-and-choose properties from the tone and stress prototypes, producing mixed, ambiguous, and sometimes analytically
indeterminate systems which appear to be ââintermediateâ. There thus is no pitch-accent prototype, nor can prosodic sys-
tems be treated as a continuum placed along a single linear dimension. The paper concludes that the goal of prosodic typol-
ogy should not be to classify languages, but rather the properties of their subsystems.
ïżœ 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Culminativity; Metrical structure pitch-accent; Privativity; Stress; Tonal density; Tone; Typology
1. Introduction
The goal of this paper is to argue for what I will term PROPERTY-DRIVEN TYPOLOGY, particularly as it applies
to phonology, which I will illustrate via some of the claims made about so-called pitch-accent languages.
Within the literature, there have been two ways of talking about typology (and by extension, phonological
typology). The first defines the goal of typology as the classification of languages according to their properties.
Thus, for HageÌge (1992, p. 7), typology strives to provide ââ. . .a principled way of classifying the languages of
the world by the most significant properties which distinguish one from another.â Vajda (2001) takes a similar
position with respect to phonological typology: ââ. . .it is possible to classify languages according to the
phonemes they contain. . . typology is the study of structural features across languages. Phonological typology
involves comparing languages according to the number or type of sounds they contain.â A second way of
0388-0 ...
This document discusses the complex relationship between language and dialect. It begins by defining key terms like language, dialect, accent, and register. It then examines different ways languages and dialects have been categorized, such as by mutual intelligibility, prestige, size, and through the family tree model of tracing linguistic descent. However, the document notes there is no clear distinction between language and dialect, as variations exist on a continuum. Factors like politics, history and social perceptions further complicate defining and delimiting languages versus dialects.
The document discusses the origins and evolution of human language. It presents several hypotheses for how language originated, such as imitative sounds, emotional expressions, and rhythmic grunts. While these proposed origins cannot be scientifically verified, language most likely evolved gradually with the human species through genetic and neurological changes that allowed for learning language. The development of language was enabled by the strengthening of vocal organs and the growing complexity of the brain. However, the exact process remains unclear as research continues in linguistics, biology, and neuroscience.
The document discusses the concept of "Conceptual Transfer" and its theoretical framework. It explores how language shapes thought and influences perceptions of the world. While early theorists debated whether language or thought came first in shaping one another, more recent theories have found that language acts as a filter for experiences and influences how people "think for speaking" in their native and learned languages. The concepts of "thinking for speaking" and the "Multiple Effects Principle" helped develop the idea that learning a new language involves learning new ways of conceptualizing the world according to that language.
MANAGEGIAL ECONOMICS AND ORGANIZATIONAL ARCHITECTURE 5Th Edition .docxBetseyCalderon89
Â
MANAGEGIAL ECONOMICS AND ORGANIZATIONAL ARCHITECTURE 5Th Edition
 "AUTHORS BRICKLEY ZIMMERMAN & SMITH"
QUESTION 1
1.The text makes it clear that the management innovations of the 1980s and 1990s:
were almost all instant successes.
waxed and waned in use and popularity.
were instantly mostly failures.
were creations of the press and were never implemented in business.
QUESTION 2
2. If transactions costs can be reduced in a market place, thenătotal producer and consumer surplus will:
increase.
stay the same.
decrease.
None of the above.
QUESTION 3
3. If a manager complies with all laws and regulations, then he can be confident that:
he is completely ethical.
he is fairly unethical.
he has begun to deal with ethical issues.
he will never run into ethical problems at work.
QUESTION 4
4. As a firm's market power inăpricing decreases, the price elasticity of its demand:
stays the same.
decreases.
is equal to one.
increases.
QUESTION 5
5. If a management innovation is going to be successful, it needs to address:
decisioin making assignment should rest with the CEO.
incentive and reward systems.
shareholders' concerns.
the rights of the Board of Directors
QUESTION 6
6. Ethics is about making good decisions. Sometimes it is hard to see what economics has to do with ethics until you remember that economics is often defined as the:
science of choice.
key branch of theology.
disciple with high moral standards.
area that understand nothing about ethics.
QUESTION 7
7. Martha Steward seems to have made a bad decisison concerning the use of insider information in selling ImClone stock. The resulting negative publicity on the issue caused value of her corporation, Martha Steward Living, to fall byăalmost half. This example is suposed to show.
insider trading can pay off in certtain circunstances.
ethics and wealth creation are not linked in any way.
Stock markets are fickle stewards of wealth.
Ethics and wealth creation are closaely linked.
QUESTION 8
8. Strategy refers to the general policies that managers adopt to:
costs.
the number of customers at the same price.
the rate of technological change.
the generation of profits.
QUESTION 9
9. Competitive markets ususally promote the efficient use of resources.ă This is because:
resource owners bear the wealth effects of their decision.
managers always have proper incentives to make decisisons.
consumers usually provide the lists of corporate mistakes.
markets usually make equitable choices first.
QUESTION 10
10. Finding a way to create and capture value is part of:
business strategy
cost control systems.
management control, but not general management.
allowing the market to run a company's future plans.
QUESTION 11
11. One of the problems with making all the decisions at the top of a business orgnization is costliness of:
specific information.
gener.
Manage Resourcesfor Practicum Change ProjectYou are now half-w.docxBetseyCalderon89
Â
This week's assignment is to evaluate resources and develop a budget for the Practicum Change Project. Students are to determine if necessary resources like salaries, supplies, equipment, technology, and education are available and then develop and present the budget for the project in the discussion area. References from nursing literature should support the response.
Make sure you put it in your own words and references for each pleas.docxBetseyCalderon89
Â
Make sure you put it in your own words and references for each please.
Benefit of Photosynthesis
1).
§
Describe two (2) ways that YOU benefit from the process of photosynthesis.
§
What happens when plants receive too much sun? Why?
§
How does the mapping of photosynthesis by NASA in space relate to climate change?
Respond in sentence/paragraph format with a MINIMUM of 5 sentences. Provide a reference!
Fermentation
2).
·
Fermentation and cellular respiration are BOTH used for energy-production in cells. As cellular beings, humans have the ability to perform both processes. Since energy production is markedly lower during fermentation, do you think it is a good idea for human cells to perform both processes? Why/why? EXPLAIN your response.
Respond in sentence/paragraph format with a MINIMUM of 5 sentences. Provide a reference!
3).
o
AUTOTROPHS & HETEROTROPHS
Autotrophs make their own food using energy they get directly from the environment, and carbon from inorganic sources such as CO
2
. By metabolic pathways of photosynthesis, plants and other autotrophs capture the energy of light and use it to build sugars from water and carbon dioxide. Heterotrophs get energy and carbon molecules from molecules that other organisms have already assembled.
Earth's early atmosphere held very little free oxygen, and chemoautotrophs were common. When the noncyclic pathway of photosynthesis evolved, oxygen released by photoautotrophs permanently changed the atmosphere, and it was a selective force that favored evolution of aerobic respiration. Photoautotrophs remove CO
2
from the atmosphere; the metabolic activity of most organisms puts it back. Human activities disrupt this cycle by adding extra CO
2
to the atmosphere. The resulting imbalance is contributing to global warming.
Can you do some additional research and find at least one specific heterotroph?
o
4).                  Â
THE EVOLUTION OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Life theoretically originated on Earth 3.4 to 4 billion years ago. The atmosphere was thin: composed of methane, carbon dioxide, and water vapor. Any gaseous oxygen had been used up in the combustion (or oxidation) of materials when the Earth was very hot.
The cooling water collected in pools, assimilating nutrients from the rocks. As water evaporated, the nutrients concentrated, forming a rich soup. The first organisms would have lived well off this food source, breaking down the complex molecules into water and carbon dioxide through respiration. Eventually, as life grew, the need arose to somehow re-synthesize complex compounds, both to eat and to use for structure and function. Some organisms learned how to use the Sun's energy to synthesize large molecules from small molecules. Other organisms learned to use other sources of reductive power. These organisms that have learned how to build the building blocks of life are called autotrophs, or self-feeders. Autotrophs are found in the bacterial and plant
Can you do some ad.
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Language and Thought The Sapir-Whorf HypothesisOne of the most .docxDIPESH30
Â
Language and Thought: The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
One of the most important and long-standing debates in studies of language and
behavior involves the relationship between language and thought processes. This
relationship is particularly important to the cross-cultural study of language
because each culture is associated with a given language as a vehicle for its expression.
How does culture influence language? And how does language influence
culture?
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, also referred to as linguistic relativity, suggests
that speakers of different languages think differently, and that they do so because
of the differences in their languages. Because different cultures typically have different
languages, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is especially important for understanding
cultural differences (and similarities) in thought and behavior as a function
of language.
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is important to verify, because if correct, it suggests
that people of different cultures think differently, just by the very nature,
structure, and function of their language. Their thought processes, their associations,
their ways of interpreting the worldâeven the same events we perceiveâ
may be different because they speak a different language and this language has
helped shape their thought patterns. This hypothesis also suggests that people who
speak more than one language may actually have different thought patterns when
speaking different languages.
Many studies have examined languageâcognition issues since Edward Sapir
and Benjamin Whorf first proposed their hypothesis in the 1950s. In one of the
earliest language studies, Carroll and Casagrande (1958) compared Navajo and
English speakers. They examined the relationship between the system of shape classification
in the Navajo language and the amount of attention children pay to
shape when classifying objects. Similar to the Japanese language described earlier
in this chapter, the Navajo language has the interesting grammatical feature that
certain verbs of handling (for example, âto pick up,â âto dropâ) require
special linguistic forms depending on what kind of object is being handled. A total
of 11 such linguistic forms describe different shapesâround spherical objects, round
thin objects, long flexible things, and so forth. Noting how much more complex this
linguistic feature is in Navajo than in English, Carroll and Casagrande (1958)
Culture, Language, and Communication 241
suggested that such linguistic features might play a role in influencing cognitive processes.
In their experiment, they compared Navajo- and English-dominant children to
see how often they used shape, form, or type of material to categorize objects. The
Navajo-dominant children were significantly more likely to categorize by shape than
were the English-dominant children. In the same study, Carroll and Casagrande
(1958) also reported that the performance of low-income African American Englishspeaking
children was similar ...
This document provides an overview of the history and development of phonology as an academic field of study. It discusses early work in phonetics from ancient India and Greece/Rome. The concept of the phoneme became important in the late 19th century as a way to represent pronunciation and as a foundational concept in phonological theory. The document then covers the emergence of phonology as a modern scientific field of study in Europe and North America in the late 19th/early 20th centuries, focusing on the contributions of scholars like Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield to the analysis of unwritten languages.
This document discusses the field of corpus linguistics and its relationship to other fields like cognitive linguistics and lexicography. It makes the following key points:
1. Corpus linguistics believes language should be studied through large collections of real-world texts rather than through intuition. It focuses on patterns between words and their meanings in context.
2. While corpus linguistics has influenced fields like lexicography, it is still developing its own theoretical foundations, especially regarding semantics.
3. Corpus linguistics differs from cognitive linguistics in that it sees meaning as arising from language use rather than internal mental representations. It studies what meaning expressions convey based on how language communities use them.
The document discusses language families and provides definitions and examples. It defines a language family as a group of languages descended from a common ancestral language. The largest language families are Indo-European and Sino-Tibetan. Membership in a language family is established through comparative linguistics. Within families, languages are further divided into branches, groups, and subgroups. Some families consist of dialect continua without clear borders between languages. Language isolates have no known living relatives, like Basque.
Code-switching refers to alternating between two or more languages or language varieties in conversation. It can occur between sentences or within sentences. Speakers may switch languages based on the social situation, to emphasize a particular word or point, or due to habitual experience growing up with more than one language. Bilingual speakers often switch between languages depending on factors like the topic of discussion, the social relationships involved, and the level of formality required.
The document discusses several key topics in linguistics:
1. Linguistics is the scientific study of language, examining its nature, structure, units, and modifications. It emerged in the 19th century to emphasize a newer approach focusing on spoken language compared to traditional philology.
2. Philology refers to the study of written records, establishing their authenticity and meaning. It involves reconstructing imperfect texts by comparing variants and interpreting information about history, culture, language and literature.
3. Linguistics can be divided into descriptive/synchronic versus historical/diachronic approaches, theoretical versus applied areas, and micro- versus macrolinguistics. Various specialized fields within macrolinguistics are
The document discusses the history and evolution of languages over time. It describes how Proto-Indo-European was identified as the common ancestor of many European and Indian languages based on similarities between their vocabularies and grammars. It also discusses methods of reconstructing earlier forms of words by comparing cognates across related languages and identifying common sound changes. As an example, it summarizes the major periods in the history of English from Old English to Modern English and some of the phonetic changes that occurred between each period like the loss of the letters ĂŸ and Ă°.
English has undergone significant changes over time. It began as Old English around AD 400 and has evolved into contemporary forms of English through various stages. Old English had extensive inflectional morphology that has since been lost. The Norman conquest in 1066 introduced French influences that transformed Old English into Middle English. A major phonological change known as the Great Vowel Shift occurred between Middle and Early Modern English. Contemporary English continues to change and spread globally through both internal language change processes and external social and cultural influences.
This document discusses the concept of diglossia as defined by Ferguson in 1959. Diglossia refers to a stable language situation where there is a primary dialect and a highly codified superposed variety that is used for written and formal spoken purposes. The superposed variety, or H, is learned through formal education. Some key features of diglossia are that H and L have different functions and prestige, H has a literary heritage, L is used between children and for instruction to servants, H has standardization through grammars and dictionaries, diglossia can persist for centuries, H and L have different grammars, lexicons, and phonological systems. Later scholars like Fishman studied overlapping concepts like bilingualism, trig
Second language acquisition and english language teachingOsnovna ĆĄola Pivka
Â
This document discusses theories of second language acquisition and their influence on English language teaching. It examines key theories that have attempted to influence SLA over time, from behaviourism to cognitive approaches. While early theories focused on linguistic and psycholinguistic factors, more recent theories emphasize the importance of social and sociolinguistic factors in language learning. The document also discusses factors that influence the amount and type of language input learners receive, and how this impacts the development and success of second language acquisition.
The article analyzes the emergence of grammar in a new sign language called ABSL used among a community of congenitally deaf children in Israel. The study finds that ABSL has developed distinct grammatical structures like subject-verb-object word order that are not influenced by surrounding spoken languages like Arabic and Hebrew. This supports the claim that universal grammar internal to the human mind, not external influences, drives the development of systematic structure in a new language.
Present article examines the psycholinguistic factors that affect ease of learning foreign language vocabulary acquisition. Demonstrate the orthographic and phonological patterns of vocabulary acquisition. by Egamberdieva Shakhzoda Damirovna, Egamberdieva Farida Oktamovna, Egamberdiev Khumoyun and Ergasheva Yulduz 2020. Psycholinguistic conditions in vocabulary acquisition. International Journal on Integrated Education. 2, 3 (Mar. 2020), 23-25. DOI:https://doi.org/10.31149/ijie.v2i3.251. https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJIE/article/view/251/244 https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJIE/article/view/251
Available online at www.sciencedirect.comLanguage Sciences 3.docxrock73
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Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
Language Sciences 31 (2009) 213â238
www.elsevier.com/locate/langsci
How (not) to do phonological typology: the case of pitch-accent
Larry M. Hyman
Department of Linguistics, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-2650, USA
Abstract
In this paper I argue for a property-driven approach to phonological typology. Rather than seeking to classify or label
languages, the central goal of phonological typology is to determine how different languages systematize the phonetic sub-
stance available to all languages. The paper focuses on a very murky area in phonological typology, word-prosodic sys-
tems. While there is agreement that certain properties converge to characterize two prosodic prototypes, tone and
stress, the term ââpitch-accentâ is frequently adopted to refer to a defective tone system whose tone is obligatory, culmina-
tive, privative, metrical, and/or restricted in distribution. Drawing from a database of ca. 600 tone systems, I show that
none of these properties is found in all systems claimed to be accentual and that all five are amply attested in canonical
tone systems. Since all one can say is that alleged pitch-accent systems exhibit significant constraints on the distribution
of their tonal contrasts, they do not constitute a coherent prosodic ââtypeâ. Rather, alleged ââpitch-accentâ systems freely
pick-and-choose properties from the tone and stress prototypes, producing mixed, ambiguous, and sometimes analytically
indeterminate systems which appear to be ââintermediateâ. There thus is no pitch-accent prototype, nor can prosodic sys-
tems be treated as a continuum placed along a single linear dimension. The paper concludes that the goal of prosodic typol-
ogy should not be to classify languages, but rather the properties of their subsystems.
ïżœ 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Culminativity; Metrical structure pitch-accent; Privativity; Stress; Tonal density; Tone; Typology
1. Introduction
The goal of this paper is to argue for what I will term PROPERTY-DRIVEN TYPOLOGY, particularly as it applies
to phonology, which I will illustrate via some of the claims made about so-called pitch-accent languages.
Within the literature, there have been two ways of talking about typology (and by extension, phonological
typology). The first defines the goal of typology as the classification of languages according to their properties.
Thus, for HageÌge (1992, p. 7), typology strives to provide ââ. . .a principled way of classifying the languages of
the world by the most significant properties which distinguish one from another.â Vajda (2001) takes a similar
position with respect to phonological typology: ââ. . .it is possible to classify languages according to the
phonemes they contain. . . typology is the study of structural features across languages. Phonological typology
involves comparing languages according to the number or type of sounds they contain.â A second way of
0388-0 ...
This document discusses the complex relationship between language and dialect. It begins by defining key terms like language, dialect, accent, and register. It then examines different ways languages and dialects have been categorized, such as by mutual intelligibility, prestige, size, and through the family tree model of tracing linguistic descent. However, the document notes there is no clear distinction between language and dialect, as variations exist on a continuum. Factors like politics, history and social perceptions further complicate defining and delimiting languages versus dialects.
The document discusses the origins and evolution of human language. It presents several hypotheses for how language originated, such as imitative sounds, emotional expressions, and rhythmic grunts. While these proposed origins cannot be scientifically verified, language most likely evolved gradually with the human species through genetic and neurological changes that allowed for learning language. The development of language was enabled by the strengthening of vocal organs and the growing complexity of the brain. However, the exact process remains unclear as research continues in linguistics, biology, and neuroscience.
The document discusses the concept of "Conceptual Transfer" and its theoretical framework. It explores how language shapes thought and influences perceptions of the world. While early theorists debated whether language or thought came first in shaping one another, more recent theories have found that language acts as a filter for experiences and influences how people "think for speaking" in their native and learned languages. The concepts of "thinking for speaking" and the "Multiple Effects Principle" helped develop the idea that learning a new language involves learning new ways of conceptualizing the world according to that language.
Similar to ETYMOLOGY AND PIDGIN AND CREOLE LANGUAGES By PETER MUHLH (19)
MANAGEGIAL ECONOMICS AND ORGANIZATIONAL ARCHITECTURE 5Th Edition .docxBetseyCalderon89
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MANAGEGIAL ECONOMICS AND ORGANIZATIONAL ARCHITECTURE 5Th Edition
 "AUTHORS BRICKLEY ZIMMERMAN & SMITH"
QUESTION 1
1.The text makes it clear that the management innovations of the 1980s and 1990s:
were almost all instant successes.
waxed and waned in use and popularity.
were instantly mostly failures.
were creations of the press and were never implemented in business.
QUESTION 2
2. If transactions costs can be reduced in a market place, thenătotal producer and consumer surplus will:
increase.
stay the same.
decrease.
None of the above.
QUESTION 3
3. If a manager complies with all laws and regulations, then he can be confident that:
he is completely ethical.
he is fairly unethical.
he has begun to deal with ethical issues.
he will never run into ethical problems at work.
QUESTION 4
4. As a firm's market power inăpricing decreases, the price elasticity of its demand:
stays the same.
decreases.
is equal to one.
increases.
QUESTION 5
5. If a management innovation is going to be successful, it needs to address:
decisioin making assignment should rest with the CEO.
incentive and reward systems.
shareholders' concerns.
the rights of the Board of Directors
QUESTION 6
6. Ethics is about making good decisions. Sometimes it is hard to see what economics has to do with ethics until you remember that economics is often defined as the:
science of choice.
key branch of theology.
disciple with high moral standards.
area that understand nothing about ethics.
QUESTION 7
7. Martha Steward seems to have made a bad decisison concerning the use of insider information in selling ImClone stock. The resulting negative publicity on the issue caused value of her corporation, Martha Steward Living, to fall byăalmost half. This example is suposed to show.
insider trading can pay off in certtain circunstances.
ethics and wealth creation are not linked in any way.
Stock markets are fickle stewards of wealth.
Ethics and wealth creation are closaely linked.
QUESTION 8
8. Strategy refers to the general policies that managers adopt to:
costs.
the number of customers at the same price.
the rate of technological change.
the generation of profits.
QUESTION 9
9. Competitive markets ususally promote the efficient use of resources.ă This is because:
resource owners bear the wealth effects of their decision.
managers always have proper incentives to make decisisons.
consumers usually provide the lists of corporate mistakes.
markets usually make equitable choices first.
QUESTION 10
10. Finding a way to create and capture value is part of:
business strategy
cost control systems.
management control, but not general management.
allowing the market to run a company's future plans.
QUESTION 11
11. One of the problems with making all the decisions at the top of a business orgnization is costliness of:
specific information.
gener.
Manage Resourcesfor Practicum Change ProjectYou are now half-w.docxBetseyCalderon89
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This week's assignment is to evaluate resources and develop a budget for the Practicum Change Project. Students are to determine if necessary resources like salaries, supplies, equipment, technology, and education are available and then develop and present the budget for the project in the discussion area. References from nursing literature should support the response.
Make sure you put it in your own words and references for each pleas.docxBetseyCalderon89
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Make sure you put it in your own words and references for each please.
Benefit of Photosynthesis
1).
§
Describe two (2) ways that YOU benefit from the process of photosynthesis.
§
What happens when plants receive too much sun? Why?
§
How does the mapping of photosynthesis by NASA in space relate to climate change?
Respond in sentence/paragraph format with a MINIMUM of 5 sentences. Provide a reference!
Fermentation
2).
·
Fermentation and cellular respiration are BOTH used for energy-production in cells. As cellular beings, humans have the ability to perform both processes. Since energy production is markedly lower during fermentation, do you think it is a good idea for human cells to perform both processes? Why/why? EXPLAIN your response.
Respond in sentence/paragraph format with a MINIMUM of 5 sentences. Provide a reference!
3).
o
AUTOTROPHS & HETEROTROPHS
Autotrophs make their own food using energy they get directly from the environment, and carbon from inorganic sources such as CO
2
. By metabolic pathways of photosynthesis, plants and other autotrophs capture the energy of light and use it to build sugars from water and carbon dioxide. Heterotrophs get energy and carbon molecules from molecules that other organisms have already assembled.
Earth's early atmosphere held very little free oxygen, and chemoautotrophs were common. When the noncyclic pathway of photosynthesis evolved, oxygen released by photoautotrophs permanently changed the atmosphere, and it was a selective force that favored evolution of aerobic respiration. Photoautotrophs remove CO
2
from the atmosphere; the metabolic activity of most organisms puts it back. Human activities disrupt this cycle by adding extra CO
2
to the atmosphere. The resulting imbalance is contributing to global warming.
Can you do some additional research and find at least one specific heterotroph?
o
4).                  Â
THE EVOLUTION OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Life theoretically originated on Earth 3.4 to 4 billion years ago. The atmosphere was thin: composed of methane, carbon dioxide, and water vapor. Any gaseous oxygen had been used up in the combustion (or oxidation) of materials when the Earth was very hot.
The cooling water collected in pools, assimilating nutrients from the rocks. As water evaporated, the nutrients concentrated, forming a rich soup. The first organisms would have lived well off this food source, breaking down the complex molecules into water and carbon dioxide through respiration. Eventually, as life grew, the need arose to somehow re-synthesize complex compounds, both to eat and to use for structure and function. Some organisms learned how to use the Sun's energy to synthesize large molecules from small molecules. Other organisms learned to use other sources of reductive power. These organisms that have learned how to build the building blocks of life are called autotrophs, or self-feeders. Autotrophs are found in the bacterial and plant
Can you do some ad.
Make sure you take your time and provide complete answers. Two or th.docxBetseyCalderon89
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The document describes an internal audit conducted by Phil Ramone of ABC company's acquisition of a new machine. Phil discovered the actual cost was lower than proposed but criticized the plant controller, angering the board. The CAE later found reasonable explanations for cost differences and that the controller properly managed the project. Phil should have gathered more information before making criticisms.
make sure is 100 original not copythis first questionDiscuss .docxBetseyCalderon89
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make sure is 100% original not copy
this first question
Discuss the configuration and activation of auditing for files, users or other system objects to help technical personnel recognize, diagnose, deter and/or work to prevent attempts to compromise or break into a computer network.
this second question
Complete the main portion of this assignment as outlined below.
Briefly describe how the following tools are used:
Event viewer
Authority delegation
Update services
Describe 1 scenario in which each tool would be used.
.
make two paragraphs on diffences and similiarties religous belifs .docxBetseyCalderon89
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make two paragraphs on diffences and similiarties : religous belifs on egypt and the mayans Â
Paragraph(s) should include a topic sentence, explanation of similarities, explanations of any differences, and a concluding sentence. âą Give specific points to support any generalizations that you make. For example, a statement such as, âBoth civilizations relied on oral tradition,â needs elaboration with supporting details. To strengthen your paragraph, give specific examples and elaborations for each culture. If you were discussing the culture of ancient Greece, you might elaborate on how Homerâs Iliad and Odyssey represents the oral traditions of ancient Greece.
100% original work
.
Make a list of your own personality traits and then address the foll.docxBetseyCalderon89
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Make a list of your own personality traits and then address the following questions:
How much, if at all, has your personality changed from the time you were in elementary school?
What specific people and/or events most shaped your personality over the last fifteen years of your life?
In terms of personality, which parent are you most likeâyour mother or your fatherâand in what ways?
After you consider these questions, discuss how, if at all, your answers may help to shed light on the ânatureâ versus ânurtureâÂ
Please also respond to my classmate's responses for 3-4 sentences. Here are my classmate's responses:
1. Since my elementary school career, I have drastically changed as a result of being exposed to more anxiety-provoking tasks. My personality has thereby been affected in a number of ways due to the aforementioned prospect. I have since become more organized and artistic due to my increasing creativity--since I have efficacy in visual arts. I have also become more mature, since I am always paying attention to my surroundings and what other people are thinking of me. However many benefits have come around, there are as many negative factors that have affected my personality. As described above, I am always affected by my social anxiety as well as always wanting to be in isolation as a result.Â
          The people who have shaped my personality the most over the span of fifteen years are my parents. I have never acquainted myself with others during my schooling career, in which I would always join friend groups since I would be able to blend within the mix. My mother has allowed me to become more diligent over the span of a few years thereby allowing me to become more vulnerable as well as being independent. My mother also got me in the habit of practicing mindfulness and meditation--since she is a Zen psychologist. This in effect has also improved my mental health. As for my father, he would always follow up with my mother on such activities since he had also experienced loneliness in his working environment. While both myself and my father were going through such rigorous training, we were able to improve upon ourselves as well as monitoring each other during the process.
          While I have many similarities to that of my father, my personality type closely resembles that of my mother. This is so since we both have similar mindsets and ideologies, her art also closely resembles that of my own. All the more, she developed in a similar form and fashion to that of my upbringing in which she also had anxiety in abundance while eventually being able to overcome such factors--a process that I have endured myself.Â
          I believe that my anxiety is deeply rooted in the essence of who I am as a human being which has been given to me by both my mother and father. Both experienced separate levels of trepidation, one had social anxiety while the other was agoraphobic for a time. Another factor rela.
Make a list of your own personality traits and then address the .docxBetseyCalderon89
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Make a list of your own personality traits and then address the following questions:
How much, if at all, has your personality changed from the time you were in elementary school?
What specific people and/or events most shaped your personality over the last fifteen years of your life?
In terms of personality, which parent are you most likeâyour mother or your fatherâand in what ways?
After you consider these questions, discuss how, if at all, your answers may help to shed light on the ânatureâ versus ânurtureâÂ
repond. no1
                   Since my elementary school career, I have drastically changed as a result of being exposed to more anxiety-provoking tasks. My personality has thereby been affected in a number of ways due to the aforementioned prospect. I have since become more organized and artistic due to my increasing creativity--since I have efficacy in visual arts. I have also become more mature, since I am always paying attention to my surroundings and what other people are thinking of me. However many benefits have come around, there are as many negative factors that have affected my personality. As described above, I am always affected by my social anxiety as well as always wanting to be in isolation as a result.Â
                  The people who have shaped my personality the most over the span of fifteen years are my parents. I have never acquainted myself with others during my schooling career, in which I would always join friend groups since I would be able to blend within the mix. My mother has allowed me to become more diligent over the span of a few years thereby allowing me to become more vulnerable as well as being independent. My mother also got me in the habit of practicing mindfulness and meditation--since she is a Zen psychologist. This in effect has also improved my mental health. As for my father, he would always follow up with my mother on such activities since he had also experienced loneliness in his working environment. While both myself and my father were going through such rigorous training, we were able to improve upon ourselves as well as monitoring each other during the process.
                  While I have many similarities to that of my father, my personality type closely resembles that of my mother. This is so since we both have similar mindsets and ideologies, her art also closely resembles that of my own. All the more, she developed in a similar form and fashion to that of my upbringing in which she also had anxiety in abundance while eventually being able to overcome such factors--a process that I have endured myself.Â
                  I believe that my anxiety is deeply rooted in the essence of who I am as a human being which has been given to me by both my mother and father. Both experienced separate levels of trepidation, one had social anxiety while the other was agoraphobic for a time. Another factor relates to my emotional intelligence, which was inherently given to me by my mo.
Make a list of people you consider to be your close friend. For each.docxBetseyCalderon89
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Make a list of people you consider to be your close friend. For each, identify ways that they are culturally similar to and different from you. Then form groups of four to six students and answer the following questions. Select a recorder for your discussion so you can share your answers with the rest of the class.
- Do people generally have more friends who are culturally similar or different from themselves?
- What are some of the benefits of forming intercultural friendship?
- In what ways are intercultural friendships different or similar to friendship with people from the same cultures?
- What are some reasons people might have for not forming intercultural friendship?
.
Make sure questions and references are included! Determine how s.docxBetseyCalderon89
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Make sure questions and references are included!
Determine how scareware has become a serious threat and why you believe end users often fall victim to this form of hoax.
From the e-Activity, discuss the different famous malware threats, the specifics of each threat, how they worked, why they were or werenât successful, and how they were eventually defeated. Compare and contrast the two selected malware threats and explain which you believe was the stronger threat and why.
Consider the need for education in protecting against all types of malware. Determine whether or not you believe security departments are properly educating employees on common threats.
Determine whether or not you believe bit torrent sharing networks are a breeding ground for Trojan proliferation and if so, suggest what can be done to mitigate the risks. Justify your response.
Describe the technical and security considerations that should be taken in account when migrating a Web-based e-Commerce application from development to the production environment. Explain the significance and type of testing that would be performed in this scenario.
From the e-Activity, select one of the retail payment systems laws and describe their application into Web-based security. Determine the challenges this presents to U.S. companies in an international context.
.
Major Paper #2--The Personal Narrative EssayA narrative is simpl.docxBetseyCalderon89
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Major Paper #2--The Personal Narrative Essay
A narrative is simply a story. A personal narrative is a true story, focusing largely on the writerâs own life.
For Essay #2, the Personal Narrative, you will be writing a short essay (at least 3-4 pages in length) about a significant event in your own life. This event need not --and probably should not--be inherently, overly dramatic. Sometimes the most influential moments in our lives are smaller moments, events that we may not recognize as influential until years after the experience. In the personal narrative essay, you will want to tell the story as accurately as you canâsearch your deep memoryâand tell the story from your own perspective. You will also want to exercise your selectivity as a writer, choosing to summarize background information/exposition, and really dramatize important scenes for the reader.Â
During the course of this unit, you will want to read the examples of the Personal Narrative in Chapter 2. You will want to start brainstorming ideas for your own personal narrative, and--by the end of Unit 5--you will want to have selected a significant event that you wish to focus on in this essay.
INSTRUCTIONS:
Elements of Story: Plot, Character, Setting, Dialogue The following four terms (plot, character, setting, and dialogue) are the four major elements of story. In other words, these are all essentials for your personal narrative.
1.) PLOT: A plot is a pattern of events or actions that lead to a change in a character or situation. In the case of this assignment, the plot of your essay should be limited to a key event or series of events that actually occurred in your real life, and resulted in some sort of change in your character, your relationships with others, your worldview, or your situation. Plot also always includes some kind of tension or conflict. This conflict may be external, between two people (for instance, a fist-fight with your brother, or a disagreement with your mother). In contrast, the conflict may be purely internal (for instance, a conflict between what you desire and your sense of morality). By the end of your essay, we should have some sense that the conflict has been dealt with somehow, if not entirely resolved.
2.) CHARACTER: A character is any person depicted on the page. We often think of characters in terms of fiction, characters âmade-upâ or âinventedâ by the author to further the story or illustrate a point. Even in fiction, however, characters are often based on real-life people. In your narrative essay, you yourself will become a characterâeven though you must remain true to the facts of your life, personality, etc.âjust because you will be reproducing yourself on the page. As a readers, weâll want to get a sense of who you are as a character on the page in the course of your essay. By the end of the essay, we will also want to know why/how your experience was significant. How did it change you?
To take it even further, beyond the scope of .
Major earthquakes and volcano eruptions occurred long before there w.docxBetseyCalderon89
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Major earthquakes and volcano eruptions occurred long before there were humans on Earth. However, there have been many in recorded history that significantly impacted human civilization. Choose one significant, important earthquake or volcano and report on it. Be sure to cover how it affected the Earth, the damages and death tolls, the economic impact, and any permanent consequences.
Your paper should meet the following requirements:
Be 3-4 pages in length NOT INCLUDING REF OR TITLE PAGE
Cite 1-2 outside sources
APA FORMAT.
.
Major Paper #1-The Point of View Essay Deadline October 29, 2.docxBetseyCalderon89
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Major Paper #1-The Point of View Essay
Deadline: October 29, 2015 at 11:59 pm
Purpose:Â Â
This paper assignment has several purposes. As the first major paper for this class, the Point of View Essay is designed to re-engage you with the fundamentals of all good writing, including using lush sensory details to show the reader a particular place (rather than tell them about it), basic organization, clear focus, etc. However, this unit does not function as a mere review. The Point of View Essay will also introduce you to the concept of "thinking and seeing rhetorically, and analyzing writing rhetorically"--using the Writer's Toolbox described in this unit to improve your writing and critical reading skills. Finally, the Point of View Essay allows you to reflect on this process.
The Assignment:
1. Pleasant/Unpleasant Description of the Place:
  Choose a place you can observe for an extended period of time (at least 20-30 minutes). Use all of your senses (sight, hearing, touch, smell, even taste if possible) to experience the place, and record all of the sensations that you experience. As you record your data, you may wish to note which details naturally seem more positive, negative, or neutral, in terms of tone. (For instance, a stinky and overflowing trash barrel swarming with flies in a nearby alley might seem more inherently negative than a little white bunny rabbit hopping playfully across the lawn.) Then, you will use this information to help your write descriptions of the place: one positive, one negative. Both descriptions should be factually true (same real time and real place), but you will want one description to be positive in terms of tone and the other to be negative. In addition to including the information and sensory details you've collected as the basis for these descriptions, you will also use the Writer's Toolbox to create your two contrasting impressions for this assignment. (The Writer's Toolbox is explained in the Lecture Notes section of this unit.) As you revise and refine your descriptions, please be sure you are "showing" your readers your place (really putting the readers "there" in the moment and in this scene), rather than simply "telling" them about it. You will also want to try to eliminate unnecessary linking verbs as much as you can, incorporating verbs that show "action" whenever possible.
2. Rhetorical Analysis:Â Â
Looking back at your descriptions, analyze how you created these two very different impressions of the place (one positive, one negative) without changing any of the facts. How did you make your place seem so positive in one paragraph and yet so negative in the other paragraph, without changing the facts? Discuss how you incorporated each of the tools from the Writer's Toolbox, and cite examples of this from each of your descriptions. (This analysis should be at least 400-500 words in length.)
3. Reflection:Â Â
In one to two paragraphs, cnsider at least one of the following questions.
Maintenance and TroubleshootingDescribe the maintenance procedures.docxBetseyCalderon89
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Maintenance and Troubleshooting
Describe the maintenance procedures planned for the proposed network, including a schedule of maintenance activities and the steps required for each activity.
Identify the network operations that will be monitored, the information that will be gathered, and the meaning of the information as it relates to potential system problems.
List at least 3 potential network problem scenarios, and identify the troubleshooting procedure that will be used if this scenario occurs.
.
Maintaining the Loyalty of StakeholdersTo maintain political, gove.docxBetseyCalderon89
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Maintaining the Loyalty of Stakeholders
To maintain political, governmental, staff, and patient loyalty, the healthcare organization must provide a sense of organizational stability and view of the legislative landscape. In Chapters 14 and 15 we have researched and investigated the need to align both public opinion with staff trust. The political landscape is the basis for healthcare policy, guidance, state, local, and community support (both fiscal and legal) engaging in political trade-offs to stabilize the healthcare industry (such as in the cost, pharmaceuticals, insurance premiums, and organizational ROI in the healthcare industry). Healthcare organizations must provide the necessary guidance and advocacy for stakeholders in the setting of both state and federal legislature as a voice of reason, authority, and integrity. Provide information on the following:
Research a policy associated with the Affordable Care Act in your home state or another state that may affect healthcare reform and/or the way health care is provided in the chosen state.
Describe the policy and who wrote and/or promoted the policy legislature (provide statistical data).
What are the trade-offs offered to bring balance to the healthcare stakeholders?
What role have public perception and disinterestedness played in the valuation of healthcare performance?
Describe how process innovation, risk taking, health policy analysis, and governance âsense-makingâ provide balance for stakeholders.
Your paper
Must be 4 double-spaced pages in length (not including title and reference pages) and formatted according to APA style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center.
Must include a separate title page with the following:
Title of paper
Studentâs name
Course name and number
Instructorâs name
Date submitted
Must use at least four scholarly sources in addition to the course text.
Must document all sources in APA style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center.
Must include a separate reference page that is formatted according to APA style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center.
Carefully review theÂ
Grading Rubric
 for the criteria that will be used to evaluate your assignment.
.
Macro Paper Assignment - The Eurozone Crisis - DueOct 22, 2015.docxBetseyCalderon89
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Macro Paper Assignment - The Eurozone Crisis - Due
Oct 22, 2015 1:00 PM
Principles of Macroeconomics Section 602 Fall Semester 2015
Macro Paper Assignment - The Eurozone Crisis
Due Oct 22, 2015 1:00 PM
Starts Aug 19, 2015 12:59 PMEnds Oct 22, 2015 1:00 PM
The EURO (âŹ), was introduced as the official currency of the European
                        Union (EU) on January 1, 1999 and launched as âlegalâ tender January 1, 2002.
                        To date, it is the official currency of 18 member states (aka EUROZONE)
                        and pegged to other currencies used by over 210 million people worldwide.
Title:Â Â
â
What is the Eurozone Crisis?
          â
What measures have been used/suggested to resolve the crisis?
    â
What are the effects of the measures implemented?
Paper Requirements:
ĂŒ
Minimum of
Four
pages (top to bottom), double spaced, neatly typed.
ĂŒ
Attach an additional page for bibliography/work cited.
ĂŒ
Bibliography references should be
four or more
.
ĂŒ
Include introduction and conclusion;
NO Wikipedia
please!
ĂŒ
Submit via the
Dropbox
functionality on icollege.
ĂŒ
Submit a
hardcopy
in class on designated date.
.
Macromolecules are constructed as a result of covalent forced; howev.docxBetseyCalderon89
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Macromolecules are constructed as a result of covalent forced; however, they cannot contribute to the functions of a living cell...!!!
Macromolecules are constructed as a result of covalent forced; however, they cannot contribute to the functions of a living cell without non-covalent forces.Â
Using a macromolecule such as a protein as an example, explain the statement above.
.
M7A1 Resolving ConflictIf viewing this through the Assignment too.docxBetseyCalderon89
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M7A1: Resolving Conflict
If viewing this through the Assignment tool, click the title above to go to the Submissions area.
Resolving Conflict
The Orbe and Harris (2015) textbook identifies the Ten Commandments for Racial and Ethnic Harmony of the Bahaâi faith (
p
. 265). The Martin and Nakayama (2014) textbook provides tips on building intercultural skills (
p
. 251-252). Based on the reading, Module 7 web links, or other resources, develop your own list of recommendations for preventing or resolving conflict between people of different cultures, races, ethnicities, sexual orientations,Â
etc
. Once you have made your recommendations, discuss how one might apply your recommendations.
Your essay is to be written using Microsoft Word or Open Office (freeware found atÂ
Apache OpenOffice
).
Submit your paper using the assignment dropbox.
Paper requirements:
250â300 wordsÂ
Double-spacedÂ
APA
 writing conventions
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These slides walk through the story of 1 Samuel. Samuel is the last judge of Israel. The people reject God and want a king. Saul is anointed as the first king, but he is not a good king. David, the shepherd boy is anointed and Saul is envious of him. David shows honor while Saul continues to self destruct.
ETYMOLOGY AND PIDGIN AND CREOLE LANGUAGES By PETER MUHLH
1. ETYMOLOGY AND PIDGIN AND
CREOLE LANGUAGES
By PETER MUHLHAUSLER
1. INTRODUCTION
In a linguistic framework of description where synchronic
investi-
gation is regarded as methodologically prior to diachronic
investi-
gation (i.e. the prevailing paradigm derived from Saussure and
Chomsky), there is little room for etymological studies. The
decline
of such studies has been recently discussed by Malkiel (1975:
101-
120) and proposals were put forward by him to restore
etymologi-
cal research to a position nearer to the core of linguistics. With
the
renewed emphasis, in the most recent past, on developmental
and
historical aspects of language (e.g. Bailey, 1980) there is hope
that a
reassessment of this neglected sub-field of linguistics is
imminent. It
is likely that pidgin and creole languages, where mixing at the
lexical level is particularly intricate, will provide the point of
depar-
ture for more sophisticated models of etymological research.
The main arguments against an etymological approach to
2. language include :
(i) that most researchers are misled by the âetymological
fallacyâ,
i.e. the belief that the meaning of words can be determined by
investigating their origin;
(ii) that it hinges on chance discoveries, flashes of imagination
and
accident;
(iii) that it is a time-consuming process yielding few insights
rele-
vant to other areas of linguistics.
I feel that the only criticism that stands up to closer inspection
is
that etymologizing remains a very time-consuming business. All
other weaknesses can be mended and I d o not see why a well
developed theory of etymology could not provide vital
information
to researchers in many areas of language change. There will no
100 TRANSACTIONS OF THE PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY
1982
doubt need to be some rethinking, in particular in the
development
of methods which are sensitive to the fact that many languages
undergo processes of linguistic change other than those which
can
be accommodated within a family-tree model of linguistic
relation-
ships. One group of such languages are pidgins and Creoles.
3. Wood
claims for them that
The methods of classical etymology . . . are not directly
applicable to
non-conventional languages such as Creoles . . .
(R. Wood, 1972 quoted from Edwards, 1974 : 5 )
Other languages which may provide similar challenges to
tradition-
al methods of etymologizing are discussed by Hockett (1950).
It remains to be seen whether pidgins, Creoles and other non-
traditional languages require qualitatively different new
approaches
to etymologizing or whether they are merely characterized by a
greater concentration of problems well known to those who
have
worked on more traditional languages.
As the terms pidgin and creole are used in many different senses
it would seem advisable briefly to define them for this paper:
By a p i d g i n one understands functionally and structurally
re-
duced languages, with no native speakers, used to communicate
across linguistic boundaries. Pidgins typically begin as drasti-
cally impoverished languages (called jargons) but can become
highly elaborate over a long period of time. For a pidgin to
stabilize and develop at least three languages must be involved.
Creoles are pidgins which have acquired a community of native
speakers. They typically develop among children whose parents
do not share the same vernacular and therefore have to com-
municate in a pidgin. In the course of creolization pidgins are
made functionally and structurally comparable to other full
languages.
4. Although most of my examples have been taken from Tok Pisin
(Pidgin English of Papua New Guinea), the problems I shall
address myself to are not language-specific. I have chosen to
limit
my discussion to the following points:
(i) multiple origin of lexical material
(ii) discontinuous developments
P. MUHLHAUSLER - ETYMOLOGY AND PIDGIN
LANGUAGES 101
(iii) the âetymological fallacyâ fallacy
(iv) lexical creativity
(v) practical etymologizing for Tok Pisin.
2. MULTIPLE ORIGIN OF LEXICAL MATERIAL
As pointed out by a number of writers (e.g. Whinnom, 1971),
pidgin
languages result from contact between three or more languages.
The linguistic outcome, it is widely believed, is a pidgin which
has
the lexicon of one language (the âlexifierâ language spoken by
the
socially dominant group) and the grammatical structure of one
or
more other languages. (These are assumed to be substratum
languages in earlier, universal grammar in more recent
accounts.)
The alleged lexical purity of various pidgins and Creoles can be
seen from the following figures based on Hall (1966), Bollke
(1980),
5. Laycock (1970) and Mihalic (1971):
Seychellois: French 97%, other 3%
Papiamento: Spanish 80%, other 20%
Tok Pisin: English 79%, Tolai 11 %, other New Guinea
languages 6%, German 3%, Malay 1%
Note that these figures refer to lexical types not tokens.
These figures are rather surprising given that, in the case of Tok
Pisin for instance, speakers of many languages were in contact
in
its formative years and that, in early culture contact, the social
dominance of the English-speaking Europeans was a very shaky
one. Equally surprising is the absence of figures on shared
lexical
items. My investigations into the origin of the Tok Pisin Iexicon
seem to indicate that the extent of shared lexical items is quite
significant, probably as high as 25% in the formative years of
the
language. Let us consider an actual example: two recent diction-
aries, Steinbauer (1969) and Mihalic (1971), give the origin of
bel
âbelly, stomach, seat of emotionsâ as (E) = English. A look at
Tok
Pisinâs most important substratum language, Tolai, reveals the
existence of a lexical item bala meaning âstomach, seat of
emotionsâ
in this language. There would seem to be good reasons for as-
suming that be1 and its variant bele were selected by members
of
102 TRANSACTIONS OF THE PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY
6. 1982
both groups involved in the initial contact situation because it
could be identified across both languages.â Similar observations
have been made for other languages. Thus, Le Page (1974 : 49)
remarks in connection with the origin of West African Pidgin
Eng-
lish :
Contact situations are bound to involve a good deal of
exploration by
both speaker and hearer, which will inevitably result in some
lucky and
many fruitless sallies. The lucky ones are likely to be
immediately rein-
forced by the participants, each eager to snatch at means of
communi-
cation; the unlucky ones are unlikely to be often repeated.
Coincidence
of form with some similarity of meaning between items from
two codes
will mean that such items will have a high probability of
survival in the
emergent pidgin code. A lexical example would be English dirty
and Twi
doti jointly giving rise to some pidgin fore-runner of Jamaican
creole
dati.
Such cases could be, and in fact have been, shrugged off as
margin-
al phenomena. However, my research into Tok Pisin appears to
point in a different direction, although linguists working on this
language have been slow to admit it. That a number of Tok
Pisin
items can be related to both English and local languages was
7. first
pointed out by Nevermann (1929: 253-4):
Some Pidgin words which at first glance appear to be Engli sh
have,
however, only a chance similarity to it. Thus, the Tolai word
kiapâ âchiefâ
has nothing to d o with âcaptainâ but is native. Pusi âcatâ also
seems not to
be connected with English âpussyâ but is probably Samoan. The
word for
âwomenâ, mari or meri, which is usually derived from the name
âMaryâ,
popular among sailors, seems to me to be connected rather with
the
Tolai word mari âto loveâ or mari âpretty, beautifulâ, if it is not
to be
derived from married.
(authorâs translation)
This quotation clearly illustrates the reluctance of linguists at
the
time to acknowledge the possibility that a lexical item may be
the
result of conflation, and their consequent insistence on single
âtrueâ
etymologies. The possibility of conflation was acknowledged
later,
however, by Bateson (1944: 138), who argued as follows:
In a few cases, a single word may combine both English and
native
roots. The word liklik, meaning âsmallâ, for example, is such a
hybrid
between the English little and ikilik, the word for âsmallâ in the
8. language
of Rabaul.
P. MUHLHAUSLER - ETYMOLOGY AND PIDGIN
LANGUAGES 103
Apart from meri âwomenâ and liklik âsmallâ a number of other
lexical bases are strong candidates for this t y p e of lexical
confla-
tion :
Tolai
atip âthatched roofâ
bala âbelly, bowelsâ
bulit âsapâ
rokrok âfrogâ
yat emphasizer
noko âmidrib of sagoâ
mom0 âto drinkâ
English
on top
belly
blood
croak croak
Yet
nock, node
more more
T o k Pisin
9. antap âon top, roofâ
be1 âbelly, seat of emotionsâ
blut, bulut, bulit âblood,
sap, glueâ
rokrok âfrogâ
yet emphasizer, âyetâ
nok âmidrib of sago or
mom0 âlotsâ (mostly used
featherâ
in connection with drink),
excessive drinking
An example involving a New Guinea mainland language and
Eng-
lish is nansei, an exclamation used to attract the attention of
members of the other sex, âeffeminate manâ, which appears to
be
related to both Yakamul nansei âsweetheartâ and English nancy.
Roughly analogous combinations of form and meaning can also
be pointed out in cases such as:
Tokai English T o k Pisin
lok âto push throughâ lock
tak âto takeâ take tekimwe âto take awayâ
tun âto cook, bakeâ turn, done tanim âto stir foodâ
dur âdirtyâ dirty doti âdirtyâ
kap âto carry, takeâ carry karim âto carry, takeâ
lokim âto lock with a keyâ
Unfortunately, data about the use of Tok Pisin by the indigen-
ous population is very scarce and one can only speculate about
10. the
possible extent of lexical conflation. More than two sources
appear
to have been involved in some instances. A particularly
intriguing
case of lexical conflation is that of sanga âpliers, hand of
crayfish,
forked post, slingshotâ which appears to be related to German
Zange âpliersâ, Malay tiang âforked branchâ and Australian
English
104 TRANSACTIONS OF THE PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY
1982
shanghai âslingshotâ. The meaning shared is that of a
bifurcation
and there appear to be good reasons to assume a triple
etymology
in this case. The last example suggests the importance of two
other
languages in the formation of Tok Pisin: German, the official
language and language of the majority of expatriate households
and missions between 1884 and 1914, and Malay which, in a
pidginized form, was the plantation language and lingua franca
of
the New Guinea mainland (Kaiser Wilhelmsland) before 1900.
The number of lexical items which can be derived equally well
from German or English is quite large, and it can be assumed
that
many of them are the result of conflation, in particular since the
phonological structure of stabilized Tok Pisin provides for the
neu-
tralization of a number of differences in the pronunciation of
11. German and English, such as the treatment of word-final stops.
Consider the following:
Tok
Pisin
ais
anka
as
bet
gaten
hama
mas
rip
sadel
Related
German word
Eis
Anker
Arsch
Bett
Garten
Hammer
Mast
Riff
Sattel
Related
English word
ice
anchor
arse
bed
12. garden
hammer
mast
reef
saddle
Gloss
âiceâ
âanchorâ
âarse, reason,
originâ
âbed, shelfâ
âgardenâ
âhammerâ
âmast, flagpoleâ
âreefâ
âsaddleâ
Numerous additional examples have been pointed out in Stein-
bauerâs dictionary (1969), amounting to more than seventy
items of
shared German and English origin. This is a very significant
number considering that, at the time when both German and
Eng-
lish were available as superstratum languages, the lexicon of
Tok
Pisin comprised between 500 and 1,OOO items, depending on
the
regional origin and degree of acculturation of individual
speakers.
Multiple etymologies involving Malay include the possible re-
inforcement of lexical items which were already established in
13. P. M ~ L H A U S L E R - ETYMOLOGY AND PIDGIN
LANGUAGES 105
German and/or English, including kapok âkapok treeâ, nanas
âpine-
appleâ and mango âmangoâ. As both Malay and the Melanesian
languages of New Guinea are members of the same language
family, many instances of cognation can be indicated. Whether
or
not borrowing and mixing has been involved remains unclear.
One
can only appeal to extralinguistic evidence here.3 A Malay
origin
or at least a partial Malay origin has been claimed for a large
number of Tok Pisin lexical items in a paper by Roosman
(1975).
Laycockâs unpublished remarks on the prefinal and final
versions
of this paper form the basis of this discussion.
In a number of cases, the meaning of cognate forms is very
different in Malay and Tok Pisin. Examples are: Malay hormat
âhonourâ, which Roosman claims to be one of the sources of
Tok
Pisin amamas âto rejoiceâ; Tok Pisin kalang âearringâ, which is
said
to be related to Malay kalang âcircleâ. Laycock points out that a
more likely source for amamas is a New Ireland language and
that
kalang in the meaning of âearringâ is found in Tolai and related
New Ireland languages.
Even more problematic are cases of conflation of lexical items
originating from different Melanesian languages. What goes for
Malay goes even more for the closely related Melanesian
14. languages
spoken in the areas where Tok Pisin came into being. As
pointed
out by Mosel(l979 : 25): âdue to the lack of sufficient data from
all
languages which were probably involved in the development of
the
Tok Pisin lexicon, we can only show the possible source
[email protected]
and exclude others, but we cannot definitely state that any Tok
Pisin word is exclusively borrowed from a specific Patpatar -
Tolai
languageâ. Thus, the mere fact that a word can be traced back to
Tolai is no guarantee that it has actually borrowed from T01ai.~
A
few examples include :
Indigenous
Tok Pisin Gloss Languages Gloss
atap roof, thatch Tolai : etep kunai grass
buai betelnut Tolai : buai betelnut
Mioko : atip thatch
Label : buai
Lamassa : buai
106 TRANSACTIONS OF THE PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY
1982
Pala : buei
Mioko : bue
Molot : bua
15. bulitâ sap, glue Tolai : bulit sap of certain
trees, glue,
blood
Mioko : bulit
Molot : bulit
The presence of lexical items with multiple etymologies thus
poses a number of problems. They are related to the fact that
pidgins are the result of, or accompanying, the gradual
accultura-
tion of a group of speakers. To be more precise :
There are significant cultural and linguistic differences between
the
groups in contact which are only partially bridged in the initial
phases.
Pidgins at the beginning of their life are rather crude makeshift
tongues.
Many writers (e.g. Silverstein 1972) have remarked on the
differences in
grammar and lexicon to be found within a group of pidgin users.
Multi-
ple etymologies can reflect this cultural and linguistic gap. It
cannot be
assumed that speakers and hearers share a lexical item in the
same way
that native speakers in a well-defined speech community do.
Thus, with
a number of words, it is impossible to determine what is the
central and
what the derived âmetaphoricalâ meaning unless reference is
made to the
speaker. Tok Pisin salat is related to both German Snlat
âlettuceâ and
Melanesian salat âstinging nettleâ. For a German missionary, to
16. use this
word to mean âstinging nettleâ would be a metaphor. For a
Papua New
Guinean the situation would be exactly the reverse.
Schuchardt (1889) makes some relevant remarks on this point:
he
reports that the indigenes of the Duke-of-York Islands have the
words kinkenau âto stealâ and tillewat âto tie upâ and believe
that
they are of English origin. English speakers, on the other hand,
regard the item tobi âto wash from English soap as of Duke-of-
York origin.
So far, we have looked at lexical encounters in the context of
pidgin formation. However, similar chance encounters continue
throughout the development of a pidgin, giving rise to numerous
examples of folk-etymologies. An interesting example involves
the
reinterpretation of a number of English morphemes as Tok Pisin
as
âorigin, foundationâ (from English arse):
P. MUHLHAUSLER - ETYMOLOGY AND PIDGIN
LANGUAGES 107
English Tok Pisin Gloss
archbishop as-bishop âauthoritative bishopâ
Ash Wednesday as-trinde âimportant Wednesdayâ
yesterday as-tete âorigin of todayâ
3. DISCONTINUOUS DEVELOPMENIS IN PIDGINS AND
CREOLES
17. When finding the same or a very similar lexical form at an
earlier
and a later stage of a language, linguists working on normal
languages are inclined to assume that :
(i) there has been continuity of transmission;
(ii) therefore the earlier form can be regarded as the etymology
of
the later form (unless of course still earlier forms can be
documented).
Thus, for the English item bee one justified in postulating.
[bi :] [bi :]
âbeeâ âbeeâ percentage of d using the item speech community
1885 time axis 1975
However, such a conclusion could be quite wrong for a pidgin.
For
the corresponding item and corresponding time span in Tok
Pisin,
for instance, we get:
[bi :]
[binen]
1885 1910 1950 1975
This can be interpreted as follows: between 1885 and 1910 a
declin-
ing number of Tok Pisin users either knew or used the item bi
âbeeâ.
However, talking about bees and beekeeping was a rather
marginal
18. domain of the language. By 1910 the original item and the
group of
108 TRANSACTIONS OF THE PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY
1982
users had almost disappeared. A different group (probably
islanders
employed in German households) again had the need to talk
about
bees. The borrowed the item binen from German. Again, by
1950
this group had disappeared without passing on binen to the next
generation. After 1950 a new generation again borrowed bi from
English.
Thus, the word for âbeeâ, along with many other forms referr ing
to concepts marginal to the contact culture, was borrowed at
differ-
ent points in the development of the language only to be subse-
quently lost again. This situation is typical of pidgin languages
which are transmitted between adults and hence lack the
linguistic
continuity of languages learnt by children from their parents or
peergroup (cf. Hockett, 1950). We are thus dealing with a
continu-
ous turnover and recycling of much of the lexicon of a pidgin.
Simply tracing a particular item to the earliest available source
will
fail to do justice to the nature of such a language.
Discontinuity thus appears to be one area where pidgins differ
qualitatively from other languages. It should be noted, however,
that Creoles are no more or less continuous than other
19. languages.
4. THE âETYMOLOGICAL FALLACYâ FALLACY
Lyons (1977 : 244) has characterized the âetymological fallacyâ
as
follows:
the common belief that the meaning of words can be determined
by investigating their origins.
This view contrasts with the widely accepted one that âthe
etymol-
ogy of a lexeme is, in principle, synchronically irrelevantâ
(ibid.).
There are a number of reasons why this is not necessarily so in
a
pidgin such as Tok Pisin. A first counterargument is that l ike
many
other pidgins and Creoles, Tok Pisin has been in contact with its
original superstratum lexifier language for most of its devel -
opment.6 This contact has been reinforced in the more recent
past
by the introduction of English schooling to a large number of
Papua New Guineans. As a result we are faced with a
continuous
restructuring of semantic and phonological information to bring
Tok Pisin lexical items closer to their putative or genuine
etymo-
P. MUHLHAUSLER - ETYMOLOGY AND PIDGIN
LANGUAGES 109
20. logical source. Compare the developments in the semantic area
for
the following items:
Early stabilized Expanded rural
Tok Pisin Tok Pisin
harim harim
smelim
banis banis
banis
peles ples
Sande Sande
wik
peim peim
baiim
Urban
Tok Pisin
hirim
smelim
pilim
listenim
banis
fenis
ples
viles
Sande
wik
holide
peim
baiim
21. spentim
Gloss
to hear
to smell
to feel
to listen to
bandage
fence
place
village
Sunday
week
holiday
to Pay
to buy
to spend
These examples illustrate the operation of language-external
rather than language-internal pressures affecting the narrowing
and
specialization of meaning. In at least three cases, banis, peles
and
peim, it does not seem legitimate to trace the urban form back
directly to early stabilized Tok Pisin. Whereas present-day ples
and
uiles are clearly related to English place and uillage, it would
seem
absurd to trace back uiles to early stabilized Tok Pisin peles, in
spite of the fact that this item is a syncretis m of these two
English
words. I am not even sure whether present day ples can be
traced
back to earlier peles because the semantic narrowing
experienced
by this item appears to be due to renewed contact with English.
22. Discontinuity of transmission is one of the factors accelerating
such restructuring. Rather than learning the stable meanings of
established Tok Pisin items from members of the older
generation,
they rely heavily on the meanings of related English words
learnt at
school.
English etymologies are relevant in yet another area, that of
items with pejorative meaning. The following statement is
perfectly
110 TRANSACTIONS OF THE PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY
1982
reasonable when applied to the stable Tok Pisin spoken in
remote
rural areas:
Why then, I wonder, do speakers of English describe Pidgin as
being full
of insulting words, though they must be aware of the fact that
these
words which bear formal resemblance to insulting words in
English,
have perfectly harmless meanings in Pidgin?
(Wurm, 1967 : 9)
Educated urban Papua New Guineas are now found either to
avoid items which resemble English expletives such as bagarap
âruinedâ or bulsitim âto deceiveâ, or to use them in the full
awareness
of the connotations they have in Tok Pisinâs lexifer language:
23. Shifts of meaning occasionally take place under the influence of
English,
especially in response to ridicule or disapproval such as that
expressed
by speakers of English toward Neo-Melanesian words or
meanings
which diverge from those of English.
(Hall, 1956)
The number of lexical items thus affected is significant, some
important examples being:
Interpretation in Interpretation in
Lexical item rural T o k Pisin urban T o k Pisin
rabis poor, destitute rubbish, worthless
baksait back backside
pisop to depart quickly to piss off
sarap to be silent, quiet to shut up
In these and similar instances, the continued presence of the
lexifier
language promotes a special type of interlingual word-taboo (cf.
Haas, 1964).
Finally, we can observe, in the history of Tok Pisin, a gradual
change from independent word-formation types to borrowed
ones.
Thus, a âraincoatâ in classical Tok Pisin is kot ren, whereas in
many
present-day varieties it is renkot. My feeling is that only the
latter
item should be assigned an English etymology. It should not be
related directly to earlier kot ren, nor should this item, for
reasons
to be outlined, be directly related to English raincoat.
24. One may conclude that the presence of a lexifier language not
only causes post-creole continua at the syntactic level but also
affects continuous lexical restructuring.
P. MUHLHAUSLER - ETYMOLOGY AND PIDGIN
LANGUAGES 11 1
5. THE TREATMENT OF LEXICAL CREATIVITY
AND LEXICALLY COMPLEX ITEMS
In direct opposition to the dependency relationship of pidgins
on
outside lexifier languages is lexical creativity encountered in
some,
but by no means all, pidgins and creoles.â There is considerable
uncertainty as to whether words derived from, or composed of,
lexical bases related to English words should be regarded as of
English origin. Thus, do klinpaia âfire which cleans =
purgatoryâ or
susoksman âshoe and socks man = white collar workerâ qualify
as
items of English origin or not? The common practice in the past
has been to give an affrrmative answer. However, this may just
be
one of the many manifestations of the view that pidgins d o not
have a life of their own but are parasitic upon either a
substratum
or superstratum language.
Thus we find in Mihalicâs dictionary (1972) entries such as:
sakim (E. sack him) to sack s.th., to bag, to put in a bag
pulsen (E. pull chain) a zipper, a hookless fastener
25. pairap (E. fire up) to explode
Similarly Steinbauer (1969) opts for an English origin of
druiwuru
âlow tide, ebbâ and dripman âpilgrim, wandererâ. This practice
is
widespread in lexicographical studies of other pidgins and
creoles.
Thus, Bollie (1980 : 71) includes among the 96.7% words of
French
origin in Seychelles âcreole neologisms formed out of French
lexical
materialâ (authorâs translation). This practice raises a number of
problems, however, including the following:
(i) it blurs the distinction between clearly borrowed lexical
items
such as renkot âraincoatâ, calques from English such as manki
spana âmonkey wrenchâ, and internal word formation as mani -
fested in manki masta âindigenous man in European domestic
employmentâ;
(ii) it ignores the possibility that compounds may have been
bor-
rowed not directly from English but via other languages. An
example is lukbuk (E. look book?) which is all likelihood was
borrowed from Tolai lukbuk âto readâ;
112 TRANSACTIONS OF THE PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY
1982
(iii) it does not deal adequately with calques from local
languages
and other instances of lexical conflation, such as the ones men-
26. tioned in section 2.
The most important objection, however, is that the
independence
and vigorous creativity of a language such as Tok Pisin is
simply
ignored. Consequently, in my revision of Mihalicâs dictionary I
have opted for giving an English origin of a complex word only
where direct borrowing is likely, thereby acknowledging the im-
portant role of independent developments in this language.
Such structured, complex lexical items can then be arranged in
the order of their chronological and geographical appearance. If
the distinction between borrowed and language-internal material
is
maintained, such questions as the development of lexical
creativity,
the role of language universals in the derivational lexicon and
con-
straints on borrowing derivational morphology can be meaning-
fully asked. Some of these questions are discussed in
Muhlhausler
(forthcoming).
It can easily be seen that etymologizing for a language such as
Tok Pisin raises, and in some cases provides the answers to, a
number of theoretical questions of historical linguistics. Lack of
time prevents me from going into more detail here. Instead, I
will
devote the remainder of this paper to a number of down-to-earth
practical problems of etymologizing for pidgins and Creoles.
6. PRACTICAL ETYMOLOGIZING FOR TOK PISIN
Some of the problems facing those engaged in etymologizing
for a
27. pidgin, creole or other colonial language have been discussed
by
Dillard (1 970), though researchers working on more ânormalâ
languages will no doubt have had similar experiences. My rather
anecdotal remarks in this section are a response to my discovery
that a large number of etymologies given in available
dictionaries
of Tok Pisin remain highly unsatisfactory. Some of the probable
causes of this state of affairs will be illustrated now.
6.1 Diachronic Purism
The term âdiachronic purismâ was coined by Valkhoff (1966 : 5)
in
his discussion of theories as to the origin of Afrikaans of the
type
P. MUHLHAUSLER - ETYMOLOGY AND PIDGIN
LANGUAGES 113
that ignored linguistic influences other than Dutch and Dutch
dia-
lects. Whereas in the case of Afrikaans diachronic purism
involves
the elimination of non-white influence, in the case of Tok Pisin
it is
found mainly in connection with taboo origins. It refers to con-
scious or unconscious attempts on the part of missionary
lexicogra-
phers to find an innocuous source for Tok Pisin words derived
from English four-letter words or, failing this, simply to
classify
such words as of unknown origin.
A good example of diachronic purism in etymologizing is the
28. derivation of bagarap âto be ruined, tiredâ from English
âbankruptâ,
as is done in the Worterbuch mit Redewendungen (around
1935), or
from a non-existant âbeggared upâ, as is done by Schebesta and
Meiser (1949, who comment on their etymology: âIn English to
beggar is transitive but here the effect is takenâ. The correct
deri-
vation from English âto bugger upâ does not appear before
Mihalic
(1957). Similar purified etymologies are found for other lexical
items. Compare:
English
Lexicalitem Gloss etymon W M R S M M 7 1 ST69
? kan âfemale cunt -
genitalsâ
E kok âmale cock cock - -
genitalsâ
sit âashes, shit ? not E E
faecesâ listed
- -
( W M R = Worterbuch mit Redewendungen,
SM = Schebesta & Meiser, 1945,
M 7 1 = Mihalic, 1971,
ST69 = Steinbauer, 1969)
Such etymologizing can have side effects, in particular when
used
as the basis of a quasi-etymological writing system. Thus, in
29. devis-
ing a standard spelling system for Tok Pisin the Alexishafen au-
thors of the Worterbuch mit Redewendungen suggest that it
should
closely follow English pronunciation. However, whilst they
spell
114 TRANSACTIONS OF THE PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY
1982
Tok Pisin [han] âhandâ as hand they do not restore the final con-
sonant in [kan] âfemale genitalsâ as its English origin was not
ac-
knowledged.
6.2 The âifit doesnât sound English it must be Tolaiâprinciple
There is a very pronounced tendency in all dictionaries of Tok
Pisin to date to trace back most Oceanic, and often most non-
English sounding, lexical material to Tolai, its main substratum
language. This practice has its roots in the neglect of the
complex
socio-historical factors underlying the development of Tok
Pisin.
Until it had been demonstrated that close links existed between
Samoa and New Guinea (Muhlhausler, 1978), for instance, most
words of Samoan origin were given a Tolai etymology.
As pointed out by Mosel (1979 : 23 ff.) a number of lexical
items
commonly listed as of Tolai or Gazelle origin cannot possibly
come
from this source. Two important types of words are:
(i) words which contain the sound [s] which is not found in
Tolai
30. or the Duke-of-York language. This excludes the items b a l m
âbirdâ and melisa âbarracudaâ listed in Mihalic (1971) and
mosong âfluff and susu âbreastsâ, for which Tolai has been
given
as the source by other lexicographers.
(ii) words containing no prenasalization before voiced stops.
Thus,
neither rabun âridge of houseâ nor abus âanimalâ can be of Ga-
zelle origin (as assumed by Mihalic, 1971); the latter item ad-
ditionally contains the sound [s].
The last-mentioned item is not only a phonetologically unlikely
transfer from Tolai; there simply is no Tolai item which could
be
regarded as a possible cognate of abus.
The solution to this, and possibly quite a few other unsolved
etymological problems in Tok Pisin, lies in the reliance on
chance
discoveries, flashes of imagination and so forth, helped along
by
recent developments in natural phonology and semantics. My
pro-
posed source for abus is English animals. The transition from
ani-
mals to abus can be accounted for by a number of highly natural
processes:
(i) I becomes u because of their close accoustic similarity. This
yields animus;
P. MWLHAUSLER - ETYMOLOGY AND PIDGIN
31. LANGUAGES 115
(ii) the least prominent syllable is lost, to yield amus;â
(iii) the more highly marked nasal is replaced with a
homorganic
I have to confess that this possibility only occurred to me when
my
then 21-month-old daughter began to refer to animals as abus.
Another item of alleged Tolai origin is pui ânakedâ. Again, no
plausible cognate has been found. The solution to this problem
was
suggested to me by Dr. John ZGraggen, a Swiss missionary
linguist. His proposal was German pfui âexclamation of disgustâ
uttered by German missionaries when faced with local nudity.
stop, yielding abus.
6.3 Ethnocentricity
Nothing is more difficult for linguists than avoiding the
projection
of linguistic and metalinguistic knowledge from their own
culture
to foreign languages, in particular exotic ones, under
investigation.
This tendency is particularly strong when the foreign language
is
known by a name such as Pidgin English or Creole French.
Thus, next to cases where English words are treated as of Tolai
origin one finds examples of attempts to trace exotic words to
familiar English ones. For instance, instead of recognizing Tolai
pekapeke âto defecateâ as the most likely source, Aufinger
(1949 : 118) proposes the following explanation:
32. The word âbekbekâ for defecation is probably derived from the
habit of
the natives along the beach to ease themselves along the water-
line, thus
forming a line of many backs, expressed by the reduplication
âbekbeVg
Mihalic (1973) derives kanaka âindigeneâ, a word widely known
in
the pidgins of the Pacific from English cane hacker instead of
Ocea-
nic kanaka âman, boyâ. It is true that a number of indigenes
were
employed in the sugar industry, but it must be noted that the
word
existed long before the sugar industry and is used in areas
where
neither is sugar grown nor did local men go to work on sugar
plantations.
Finally, the origin of mumut âlarge bushratâ, from Duke-of-York
mumut, is given as English marmot in a number of dictionaries.
One may feel inclined to laugh at such explanations, but it may
be better to remember what was said about lexical encounters
earlier in this paper. In language contact situations such as are
116 TRANSACTIONS OF THE PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY
1982
characteristic of the formation period of pidgins, many of the
par-
ticipants do not know which words belong to which language. In
the beginning, many words, and I am prepared to go so far as to
33. say the majority, belong to more than one of the languages in
contact. As a pidgin develops, changing social patterns, in
particu-
lar the growing dominance of the expatriate colonizers, can
obliter-
ate the original syncretisms and bring about a closer association
with what Western linguists have come to call the âlexifier
languageâ.
7. CONCLUSIONS
The principal problem of etymologizing for pidgins and Creoles
would seem to be the result of (i) their greatly accelerated
linguistic
development and (ii) the operation of catastrophic rather than
continuous forces. This means that whereas many of the lexical
developments of these languages are perfectly comparable to
devel-
opments in ordinary languages and at best quantitatively
different,
there remain some areas where pidgins and Creoles may differ
more
radically and where traditional methods of etymologizing may
not
apply. Instead, more refined methods, taking into account
different
types of transmission, will have to be developed.
In summarizing the findings of my paper I would like to pro-
pose :
(i) While it is possible to trace the etymologies of lexical items
in
pidgins and Creoles, there are some special problems with these
languages. In order to overcome them, close attention has to
be paid to the socio-historical context in which they develop.
34. (ii) It appears that, at some point of development, a large
propor-
tion of pidgin and creole lexical items can be assigned jointly
to more than one source language. The traditional notion of
âlexifier languageâ stands in need of revision.
(iii) Etymologies can change as a result of discontinuities in
trans-
mission and prolonged contact with lexically related
languages.
(iv) Borrowing tends to conceal its traces. Cognates can result
from either shared history or chance encounters.
P. MWLHAUSLER - ETYMOLOGY AND PIDGIN
LANGUAGES 117
Etymologizing for pidgins and Creoles has only just begun. It is
hoped that more pidginists and creolists will turn to
etymological
questions and that their research can give a renewed impetus to
a
branch of linguistics which has been neglected for too long.
Linacre College
Oxford
NOTES
1. Similar lexical items are also found in the other languages of
the Duke-of-York
New Britain and New Ireland area, thus further reinforcing the
choice of be1 rather
35. than equally possible pidgin words such as tummy or tumtum.
2. I have on record the following variants: kiap, kapen, kiapen,
kiapi, kapten.
[P.M.]
3. The most pertinent questions being: Was such a lexical item
likely to have
been used in the plantation context? and Does it refer to an
object introduced by
Malay bird-of-paradise hunters in the area?
4. The problem is similar to that of identifying Germanicisms in
Dutch.
5. There is also a German etymology (Blut = blood) for this
item.
6. Even in times of German control over New Guinea, a
significant number of
English speakers remained in the colony and may have
continued to serve as a
lexical model.
7. For reasons unknown, the lexical creativity of Tok Pisin is
greater even than
that of many Creoles. A full account is given by Muhlhiiusler
(1979).
8. This process is also found in other polysyllabic words used
by my daughter,
such as elan for elephant and pekan for pelican.
9. Note that in some secret varieties of Tok Pisin the
replacement for pekpek âto
defecateâ is si âto go to the seashoreâ.
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