This document discusses several theories related to the source and foundations of morality:
- Moral objectivism argues that morality is objective, unchanging, and universal, deriving from eternal spiritual truths. Moral relativism argues morality is subjective and culturally dependent.
- Divine command theory holds that God creates moral values through will alone. This is challenged as making morality arbitrary without an underlying rational basis.
- Religion has historically been seen as providing motivation for morality through belief in divine judgment, but modern views find believers are not necessarily more moral than non-believers.
Chapter 9. Can We Reason about MoralityChapter 8Can We Re.docxtiffanyd4
Chapter 9. Can We Reason about Morality?
Chapter 8
Can We Reason about Morality?
Copyright by Paul Herrick, 2020. For class use only. Not for distribution. This chapter: 34 pages of reading.
1. Come, Let Us Reason Together
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., once observed that if a man-made law conflicts with morality, it is unjust and should be repealed because morality, not man-made law, is our highest standard of behavior. Similarly, if a businessman could increase his profits by putting false labels on his products, he should not do so, even if he can get away with it, because it would be immoral. Morality takes precedence over deceptive business practices—no matter how profitable they might be. Morality also takes precedence over unexamined self-interest. A criminal may want to snatch a purse from an old lady walking with a cane, and perhaps he needs the money and could get away with it; however, he should not do so because it would be morally wrong.[endnoteRef:1] Surely these are eminently reasonable observations. [1: Martin Luther King Jr., “Letter from the Birmingham City Jail,” reprinted in James M. Washington, ed. A Testament of Hope. Essential Writings and Speeches of Martin Luther King Jr. (New York: Harper One, 1986), 289-302.]
These thoughts remind us that morality is the ultimate criterion of good and bad, right and wrong, that we ought to live by, all things considered. Morality is ultimate in the sense that the obligations it imposes on us take precedence over all nonmoral considerations, including laws passed by legislatures, the profit and loss calculations of businesses, social customs, instincts, and the irrational impulses of ego, desire, prejudice, unexamined self-interest, and cognitive bias.
One reason to agree with Dr. King, that morality is our highest standard, is that any human law, social custom, institution, business practice, desire, action—even traits acquired through the evolutionary process--can be evaluated and judged on a moral basis, using our faculty of critical thinking.
The principles or “laws” of morality have a number of important properties. First, they are prescriptive rather than descriptive. That is to say, they prescribe how we ought to act, they do not describe how we do in fact act. Put another way, moral principles are not empirical generalizations about the way people actually behave, and they are not statements about the way people have behaved in the past or will behave in the future. Rather, they are norms or standards that we ought to follow, whether or not we do in fact follow them and whether or not we want to follow them. If someday it should come about that most people hate each other, that descriptive fact would not make it moral to hate. Hatred would still be morally wrong. If someday it should happen that every government in the world practices genocide, that descriptive fact would not make genocide morally right—genocide would still be morally wrong. For (again) morality is.
2Ethical Questions in the Public SquareLearning Object.docxtamicawaysmith
2
Ethical Questions in the Public Square
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• Discuss the interdependent relationship between ethics and law.
• Describe different sides of the issue of prayer in public schools and apply ethi-
cal theory to the problem.
• Explain how ethics can help resolve conflicting values within a society.
• Describe how ethics can be understood in the context of a historical issue:
women’s suffrage.
• Apply ethical theory to a contemporary social issue: the regulation of
pornography.
Courtesy Everett Collection
CN
CO_LO
CO_TX
CO_BL
CT
CO_CRD
mos85880_02_c02.indd 41 10/28/13 1:15 PM
CHAPTER 2Introduction
Introduction
Now that we have discussed the basics of ethical theory, we can apply them to actual situations, and see what they have to say about moral issues in specific, concrete situations. This approach has two practical advantages. First, by seeing
how a specific ethical theory can be applied to an actual issue, we will see how the theory
can better help us understand what the real problems are. Ultimately, we may not solve
these problems in a way that will satisfy everyone, but we should have a much better
grasp of the problems themselves. This will help us focus our ability to think about these
questions more critically and eliminate some of the detours, side issues, and irrelevant
parts of the debate that may interfere with our understanding of the questions.
Second, by applying the various theories to actual moral problems, we will also come to
better understand the theories themselves. It is one thing to understand what a basic ethi-
cal position is, but it can be very helpful to see how that ethical position works in dealing
with difficult ethical questions.
In this chapter, we will look at questions that arise when individual rights are threatened
or violated, as well as instances when one person’s rights may infringe upon another per-
son’s rights. As examples, we will look specifically at school prayer and pornography. We
will also look at a historical debate over a woman’s right to vote. This historical discussion
should help us realize that some ethical questions can be resolved, and that talking, and
arguing, about them may lead to significant changes in people’s lives.
Each discussion will present a debate on a specific topic. For example, we will give an
argument for why prayer should be allowed in public schools, and then look at the coun-
terargument for why it should be restricted or prohibited. After presenting the debate, we
will show how these positions relate to the ethical theories in Chapter 1—in this case, act
utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism. On other occasions, we may apply the same theory
in two different ways, to demonstrate that a specific ethical theory may give quite differ-
ent results in some cases. This will help remind us that although ethics provides guidance
and insight into moral issues, v ...
13 Leadership EthicsDescriptionThis chapter is different from .docxdrennanmicah
13 Leadership Ethics
Description
This chapter is different from many of the other chapters in this book. Most of the other chapters focus on one unified leadership theory or approach (e.g., trait approach, path–goal theory, or transformational leadership), whereas this chapter is multifaceted and presents a broad set of ethical viewpoints. The chapter is intended not as an “ethical leadership theory,” but rather as a guide to some of the ethical issues that arise in leadership situations.
Probably since our cave-dwelling days, human beings have been concerned with the ethics of our leaders. Our history books are replete with descriptions of good kings and bad kings, great empires and evil empires, and strong presidents and weak presidents. But despite a wealth of biographical accounts of great leaders and their morals, very little research has been published on the theoretical foundations of leadership ethics. There have been many studies on business ethics in general since the early 1970s, but these studies have been only tangentially related to leadership ethics. Even in the literature of management, written primarily for practitioners, there are very few books on leadership ethics. This suggests that theoretical formulations in this area are still in their infancy.
One of the earliest writings that specifically focused on leadership ethics appeared as recently as 1996. It was a set of working papers generated from a small group of leadership scholars, brought together by the W. K. Kellogg Foundation. These scholars examined how leadership theory and practice could be used to build a more caring and just society. The ideas of the Kellogg group are now published in a volume titled Ethics, the Heart of Leadership (Ciulla, 1998).
Ethical Leadership
Interest in the nature of ethical leadership has continued to grow, particularly because of the many recent scandals in corporate America and the political realm. On the academic front, there has also been a strong interest in exploring the nature of ethical leadership (see Aronson, 2001; Ciulla, 2001, 2003; Johnson, 2011; Kanungo, 2001; Price, 2008; Trevino, Brown, & Hartman, 2003).
Ethics Defined
From the perspective of Western tradition, the development of ethical theory dates back to Plato (427–347 b.c.) and Aristotle (384–322 b.c.). The word ethics has its roots in the Greek word ethos, which translates to “customs,” “conduct,” or “character.” Ethics is concerned with the kinds of values and morals an individual or a society finds desirable or appropriate. Furthermore, ethics is concerned with the virtuousness of individuals and their motives. Ethical theory provides a system of rules or principles that guide us in making decisions about what is right or wrong and good or bad in a particular situation. It provides a basis for understanding what it means to be a morally decent human being.
In regard to leadership, ethics is concerned with what leaders do and who leaders are. It has to do with t.
Chapter 9. Can We Reason about MoralityChapter 8Can We Re.docxtiffanyd4
Chapter 9. Can We Reason about Morality?
Chapter 8
Can We Reason about Morality?
Copyright by Paul Herrick, 2020. For class use only. Not for distribution. This chapter: 34 pages of reading.
1. Come, Let Us Reason Together
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., once observed that if a man-made law conflicts with morality, it is unjust and should be repealed because morality, not man-made law, is our highest standard of behavior. Similarly, if a businessman could increase his profits by putting false labels on his products, he should not do so, even if he can get away with it, because it would be immoral. Morality takes precedence over deceptive business practices—no matter how profitable they might be. Morality also takes precedence over unexamined self-interest. A criminal may want to snatch a purse from an old lady walking with a cane, and perhaps he needs the money and could get away with it; however, he should not do so because it would be morally wrong.[endnoteRef:1] Surely these are eminently reasonable observations. [1: Martin Luther King Jr., “Letter from the Birmingham City Jail,” reprinted in James M. Washington, ed. A Testament of Hope. Essential Writings and Speeches of Martin Luther King Jr. (New York: Harper One, 1986), 289-302.]
These thoughts remind us that morality is the ultimate criterion of good and bad, right and wrong, that we ought to live by, all things considered. Morality is ultimate in the sense that the obligations it imposes on us take precedence over all nonmoral considerations, including laws passed by legislatures, the profit and loss calculations of businesses, social customs, instincts, and the irrational impulses of ego, desire, prejudice, unexamined self-interest, and cognitive bias.
One reason to agree with Dr. King, that morality is our highest standard, is that any human law, social custom, institution, business practice, desire, action—even traits acquired through the evolutionary process--can be evaluated and judged on a moral basis, using our faculty of critical thinking.
The principles or “laws” of morality have a number of important properties. First, they are prescriptive rather than descriptive. That is to say, they prescribe how we ought to act, they do not describe how we do in fact act. Put another way, moral principles are not empirical generalizations about the way people actually behave, and they are not statements about the way people have behaved in the past or will behave in the future. Rather, they are norms or standards that we ought to follow, whether or not we do in fact follow them and whether or not we want to follow them. If someday it should come about that most people hate each other, that descriptive fact would not make it moral to hate. Hatred would still be morally wrong. If someday it should happen that every government in the world practices genocide, that descriptive fact would not make genocide morally right—genocide would still be morally wrong. For (again) morality is.
2Ethical Questions in the Public SquareLearning Object.docxtamicawaysmith
2
Ethical Questions in the Public Square
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• Discuss the interdependent relationship between ethics and law.
• Describe different sides of the issue of prayer in public schools and apply ethi-
cal theory to the problem.
• Explain how ethics can help resolve conflicting values within a society.
• Describe how ethics can be understood in the context of a historical issue:
women’s suffrage.
• Apply ethical theory to a contemporary social issue: the regulation of
pornography.
Courtesy Everett Collection
CN
CO_LO
CO_TX
CO_BL
CT
CO_CRD
mos85880_02_c02.indd 41 10/28/13 1:15 PM
CHAPTER 2Introduction
Introduction
Now that we have discussed the basics of ethical theory, we can apply them to actual situations, and see what they have to say about moral issues in specific, concrete situations. This approach has two practical advantages. First, by seeing
how a specific ethical theory can be applied to an actual issue, we will see how the theory
can better help us understand what the real problems are. Ultimately, we may not solve
these problems in a way that will satisfy everyone, but we should have a much better
grasp of the problems themselves. This will help us focus our ability to think about these
questions more critically and eliminate some of the detours, side issues, and irrelevant
parts of the debate that may interfere with our understanding of the questions.
Second, by applying the various theories to actual moral problems, we will also come to
better understand the theories themselves. It is one thing to understand what a basic ethi-
cal position is, but it can be very helpful to see how that ethical position works in dealing
with difficult ethical questions.
In this chapter, we will look at questions that arise when individual rights are threatened
or violated, as well as instances when one person’s rights may infringe upon another per-
son’s rights. As examples, we will look specifically at school prayer and pornography. We
will also look at a historical debate over a woman’s right to vote. This historical discussion
should help us realize that some ethical questions can be resolved, and that talking, and
arguing, about them may lead to significant changes in people’s lives.
Each discussion will present a debate on a specific topic. For example, we will give an
argument for why prayer should be allowed in public schools, and then look at the coun-
terargument for why it should be restricted or prohibited. After presenting the debate, we
will show how these positions relate to the ethical theories in Chapter 1—in this case, act
utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism. On other occasions, we may apply the same theory
in two different ways, to demonstrate that a specific ethical theory may give quite differ-
ent results in some cases. This will help remind us that although ethics provides guidance
and insight into moral issues, v ...
13 Leadership EthicsDescriptionThis chapter is different from .docxdrennanmicah
13 Leadership Ethics
Description
This chapter is different from many of the other chapters in this book. Most of the other chapters focus on one unified leadership theory or approach (e.g., trait approach, path–goal theory, or transformational leadership), whereas this chapter is multifaceted and presents a broad set of ethical viewpoints. The chapter is intended not as an “ethical leadership theory,” but rather as a guide to some of the ethical issues that arise in leadership situations.
Probably since our cave-dwelling days, human beings have been concerned with the ethics of our leaders. Our history books are replete with descriptions of good kings and bad kings, great empires and evil empires, and strong presidents and weak presidents. But despite a wealth of biographical accounts of great leaders and their morals, very little research has been published on the theoretical foundations of leadership ethics. There have been many studies on business ethics in general since the early 1970s, but these studies have been only tangentially related to leadership ethics. Even in the literature of management, written primarily for practitioners, there are very few books on leadership ethics. This suggests that theoretical formulations in this area are still in their infancy.
One of the earliest writings that specifically focused on leadership ethics appeared as recently as 1996. It was a set of working papers generated from a small group of leadership scholars, brought together by the W. K. Kellogg Foundation. These scholars examined how leadership theory and practice could be used to build a more caring and just society. The ideas of the Kellogg group are now published in a volume titled Ethics, the Heart of Leadership (Ciulla, 1998).
Ethical Leadership
Interest in the nature of ethical leadership has continued to grow, particularly because of the many recent scandals in corporate America and the political realm. On the academic front, there has also been a strong interest in exploring the nature of ethical leadership (see Aronson, 2001; Ciulla, 2001, 2003; Johnson, 2011; Kanungo, 2001; Price, 2008; Trevino, Brown, & Hartman, 2003).
Ethics Defined
From the perspective of Western tradition, the development of ethical theory dates back to Plato (427–347 b.c.) and Aristotle (384–322 b.c.). The word ethics has its roots in the Greek word ethos, which translates to “customs,” “conduct,” or “character.” Ethics is concerned with the kinds of values and morals an individual or a society finds desirable or appropriate. Furthermore, ethics is concerned with the virtuousness of individuals and their motives. Ethical theory provides a system of rules or principles that guide us in making decisions about what is right or wrong and good or bad in a particular situation. It provides a basis for understanding what it means to be a morally decent human being.
In regard to leadership, ethics is concerned with what leaders do and who leaders are. It has to do with t.
Moral Relativism Essay
Ethical Relativism Essays
What Does Moral Relativism Means
Moral Relativism Defended Summary
Moral Relativism
Theories Of Moral Relativism
Ethical Relativism And Moral Relativism
ETHICAL (MORAL) RELATIVISM Essay
Moral Relativism Research Paper
Moral Relativism Essay
Moral Relativism, By James Rachels
The Pros And Cons Of Moral Relativism
Paul Boghossian Moral Relativism
Ethical Relativism Moral Or Immoral
Moral Relativism
Moral Relativism Reflection
Moral Relativism
Examples Of Moral Relativism
Exploring the Interplay of Rights Ethics and Duty Ethicssakibxvz
In this thought-provoking presentation, we embark on a journey through the intricate world of ethics, exploring the dynamic interplay between rights ethics and duty ethics. We delve into the core principles of each framework, unravel their distinctions, and uncover the areas where they converge. By recognizing individual rights and embracing collective responsibilities, we discover the power of a harmonious ethical landscape. This presentation encourages ethical discourse, emphasizes the importance of ethical education, and underscores the significance of a balanced approach to ethical decision-making. Join us as we navigate the complex moral challenges of our time, fostering a more just and responsible world. Let's embark on this enlightening journey together and carry the insights forward in our shared quest for a better world.
Based upon Scott B. Rae's Moral Choices. This is designed to be a simplified and accessible aid for Christians interested in exploring contemporary moral issues from a biblical perspective.
Now that we have discussed the basics of ethical theory, we can ap.docxcherishwinsland
Now that we have discussed the basics of ethical theory, we can apply them to actual situations, and see what they have to say about moralissues in specific, concrete situations. This approach has two practical advantages. First, by seeing how a specific ethical theory can be applied toan actual issue, we will see how the theory can better help us understand what the real problems are. Ultimately, we may not solve theseproblems in a way that will satisfy everyone, but we should have a much better grasp of the problems themselves. This will help us focus ourability to think about these questions more critically and eliminate some of the detours, side issues, and irrelevant parts of the debate that mayinterfere with our understanding of the questions.
Second, by applying the various theories to actual moral problems, we will also come to better understand the theories themselves. It is onething to understand what a basic ethical position is, but it can be very helpful to see how that ethical position works in dealing with difficultethical questions.
In this chapter, we will look at questions that arise when individual rights are threatened or violated, as well as instances when one person'srights may infringe upon another person's rights. As examples, we will look specifically at school prayer and pornography. We will also look at ahistorical debate over a woman's right to vote. This historical discussion should help us realize that some ethical questions can be resolved, andthat talking, and arguing, about them may lead to significant changes in people's lives.
Each discussion will present a debate on a specific topic. For example, we will give an argument for why prayer should be allowed in publicschools, and then look at the counterargument for why it should be restricted or prohibited. After presenting the debate, we will show howthese positions relate to the ethical theories in Chapter 1—in this case, act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism. On other occasions, we mayapply the same theory in two different ways, to demonstrate that a specific ethical theory may give quite different results in some cases. Thiswill help remind us that although ethics provides guidance and insight into moral issues, very rarely does it offer solutions that everyone willaccept. We will then look at some of the results of the debate and the theories involved, and some of the implications that may emerge fromthose results. After each specific issue is treated in this way, we will briefly discuss a different, but related, question that will make clear some ofthe larger issues involved.
A Brief Review of Ethical Theory
The ethical theories being applied in this chapter are discussed at greater length in Chapter 1, but as a quick reminder, here are thebasics of the three classical ethical theories:
Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism evaluates the morality of an act in terms of its consequences: Act utilitarianism emphasizes the act itself, and whetherwhat one chooses .
ExamplesNow that we have discussed the basics of ethical theory,.docxSANSKAR20
Examples
Now that we have discussed the basics of ethical theory, we can apply them to actual situations and see what they have to say about moral issues in specific, concrete situations. This approach has two practical advantages. First, by seeing how a specific ethical theory can be applied to an actual issue, we will see how the theory can better help us understand what the real problems are. Ultimately, we may not solve these problems in a way that will satisfy everyone, but we should have a much better grasp of the problems themselves. This will help us focus our ability to think about these questions more critically and eliminate some of the detours, side issues, and irrelevant parts of the debate that may interfere with our understanding of the questions.
Second, by applying the various theories to actual moral problems, we will also come to better understand the theories themselves. It is one thing to understand what a basic ethical position is, but it can be very helpful to see how that ethical position works in dealing with difficult ethical questions.
In this chapter, we will look at questions that arise when individual rights are threatened or violated, as well as instances when one person's rights may infringe upon another person's rights. As examples, we will look specifically at school prayer and pornography. We will also look at a historical debate over a woman's right to vote. This historical discussion should help us realize that some ethical questions can be resolved, and that talking, and arguing, about them may lead to significant changes in people's lives.
Each discussion will present a debate on a specific topic. For example, we will give an argument for why prayer should be allowed in public schools, and then look at the counterargument for why it should be restricted or prohibited. After presenting the debate, we will show how these positions relate to the ethical theories in Chapter 1—in this case, act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism. On other occasions, we may apply the same theory in two different ways, to demonstrate that a specific ethical theory may give quite different results in some cases. This will help remind us that although ethics provides guidance and insight into moral issues, very rarely does it offer solutions that everyone will accept. We will then look at some of the results of the debate and the theories involved, and some of the implications that may emerge from those results. After each specific issue is treated in this way, we will briefly discuss a different, but related, question that will make clear some of the larger issues involved.
A Brief Review of Ethical Theory
The ethical theories being applied in this ...
Ethical issues in biotechnology and related areas.
For soft copy of this document please feel free to contact us on info@biotechsupportbase.com or snjogdand@gmail.com
Exploring Online Consumer Behaviors
John A. Smith and Jane L. Doe
Liberty University
References
Janda, S. (2008). Does gender moderate the effect of online concerns on purchase likelihood? Journal of Internet Commerce, 7(3), 339-358. doi:10.1080/15332860802250401
Jeon, S., Crutsinger, C., & Kim, H. (2008). Exploring online auction behaviors and motivations. Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences, 100(2), 31-40. Retrieved by http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/docview/218160218
Koyuncu, C., & Lien, D. (2003). E-commerce and consumer's purchasing behaviour. Applied Economics, 35(6), 721. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA102272684&v=2.1&u=vic_liberty&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w
Kukar-Kinney,M.,Monroe, K.B.,Ridgway,N.M. (2008). The relationship between consumers’ tendencies to buy compulsively and their motivations to shop and buy on the internet. Journal of Retailing: Consumer Behavior and Retailing, 85(3), 298-307. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org. ezproxy.liberty.edu: 2048/10.1016/j.jretai.2009.05.002
Stibel, J. (2005). Mental models and online consumer behaviour. Behaviour & Information Technology, 24(2), 147-150. doi:10.1080/01449290512331321901
Vazquez,D., & Xu,X.(2009). Investigation linkages between online purchase behavior variables. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, 37(5), 408-419. doi:10.1108/09590550910954900
Abstract Comment by user: Double space between all lines of the manuscript. This includes the elimination of any extra spacing before or after the paragraph (APA Manual 5.03). The default setting in Microsoft Word is to add extra spacing after paragraphs. You can change this setting under the page layout tab in Microsoft Word.
Internet usage has skyrocketed in the past few decades, along with this increase comes the increase in internet shopping by consumers. This research examines the behaviors, motivations, and attitudes of this new form of consumer entity. Online consumer behavior has been studied for over 20 years and will undoubtedly be the source of many future researches as internet consumerism expands. This paper will examine the following research questions: (1) How do factors previously researched affect the online purchasing behavior of consumers and (2) what are the significant consumer behaviors both positive and negative that affect internet consumerism? By identifying these factors and variables, new strategies can be formulated and both consumer and supplier can gain knowledge and understanding of behaviors which exist. The purpose of this research paper is to integrate the varied research information together and draw coherent linkages to how consumer thoughts, attitudes and motivational behavior affect online buying, thus building a broader framework of analysis in which to build upon. Comment by user:
APA style uses one inch margins. Paragraphs should be indented five to seven spaces (about 1/2 inch ...
External and Internal Analysis 8Extern.docxgitagrimston
External and Internal Analysis 8
External and Internal Environmental Analysis
STR/581
Professor Alfonso Rodriguez
July 30, 2014
Sheila Medina
Introduction
Coffee has become an integral part of the lives of numerous people. In 1971, Starbucks coffee opened its first coffee shop in the Pike Place Market in Seattle, Washington. Now, according to research “Starbucks Corporation is the leading retailer, roaster and brand of specialty coffee in the world, with more than 6,000 retail locations in North America, Latin America, Europe, the Middle East and the Pacific Rim” (www.investor.starbucks.com). Starbucks aims to be the consumer’s favorite coffee shop and to achieve this the company focused on customer satisfaction as well as company advancement. Therefore, it is important to act based on what is written in Starbucks mission, value and vision statement, “To inspire and nurture the human spirit-one person, one cup, and one neighborhood at a time” (www.starbucks.com).
A review of Starbucks financial reports has identified an increase in revenue over the past few years. However, this increase in revenue doesn’t account for the increase in profits. The profit increase is not as high as it could be due to external factors such as other coffee shops and the increase in amount of competition. This report aims to identify the different internal and external environment factors attributing to the changes in Starbucks external environment by utilizing several different analyses.
SWOT Analysis
Strengths
Starbucks possesses several main strengths including their high visibility being located in high traffic areas, quality of service and products and their established brand loyalty. Starbucks remains an established leader being the number one known coffee house in the world while possessing a competent workforce, providing quality service, and continuing financial soundness. They also are known for their strong internal and external relationships with their suppliers.
Weakness
Weaknesses that Starbucks must address include: Product affordability and pricing, coffee beans price is the major influence over the firms profits, maintaining the positive public opinion of their products, avoiding any negative publicity, and remaining connected to their customers. Starbucks must also consider the fact they have expanded domestically and internationally resulting in saturation of the markets. They are also a non-smoking facility alienating some customers from purchasing coffee or other products from their store.
Opportunities
Opportunities include the ability for Starbucks to enter into different and new markets,
partnership opportunities with businesses, growing acceptance and customer satisfaction, and increase different product offerings. Starbucks must strive to continue expanding their products and food service to remain competitive and reach other consumers. Another option would be for Starbucks to allow consumers to order t ...
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Exploring the Interplay of Rights Ethics and Duty Ethicssakibxvz
In this thought-provoking presentation, we embark on a journey through the intricate world of ethics, exploring the dynamic interplay between rights ethics and duty ethics. We delve into the core principles of each framework, unravel their distinctions, and uncover the areas where they converge. By recognizing individual rights and embracing collective responsibilities, we discover the power of a harmonious ethical landscape. This presentation encourages ethical discourse, emphasizes the importance of ethical education, and underscores the significance of a balanced approach to ethical decision-making. Join us as we navigate the complex moral challenges of our time, fostering a more just and responsible world. Let's embark on this enlightening journey together and carry the insights forward in our shared quest for a better world.
Based upon Scott B. Rae's Moral Choices. This is designed to be a simplified and accessible aid for Christians interested in exploring contemporary moral issues from a biblical perspective.
Now that we have discussed the basics of ethical theory, we can ap.docxcherishwinsland
Now that we have discussed the basics of ethical theory, we can apply them to actual situations, and see what they have to say about moralissues in specific, concrete situations. This approach has two practical advantages. First, by seeing how a specific ethical theory can be applied toan actual issue, we will see how the theory can better help us understand what the real problems are. Ultimately, we may not solve theseproblems in a way that will satisfy everyone, but we should have a much better grasp of the problems themselves. This will help us focus ourability to think about these questions more critically and eliminate some of the detours, side issues, and irrelevant parts of the debate that mayinterfere with our understanding of the questions.
Second, by applying the various theories to actual moral problems, we will also come to better understand the theories themselves. It is onething to understand what a basic ethical position is, but it can be very helpful to see how that ethical position works in dealing with difficultethical questions.
In this chapter, we will look at questions that arise when individual rights are threatened or violated, as well as instances when one person'srights may infringe upon another person's rights. As examples, we will look specifically at school prayer and pornography. We will also look at ahistorical debate over a woman's right to vote. This historical discussion should help us realize that some ethical questions can be resolved, andthat talking, and arguing, about them may lead to significant changes in people's lives.
Each discussion will present a debate on a specific topic. For example, we will give an argument for why prayer should be allowed in publicschools, and then look at the counterargument for why it should be restricted or prohibited. After presenting the debate, we will show howthese positions relate to the ethical theories in Chapter 1—in this case, act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism. On other occasions, we mayapply the same theory in two different ways, to demonstrate that a specific ethical theory may give quite different results in some cases. Thiswill help remind us that although ethics provides guidance and insight into moral issues, very rarely does it offer solutions that everyone willaccept. We will then look at some of the results of the debate and the theories involved, and some of the implications that may emerge fromthose results. After each specific issue is treated in this way, we will briefly discuss a different, but related, question that will make clear some ofthe larger issues involved.
A Brief Review of Ethical Theory
The ethical theories being applied in this chapter are discussed at greater length in Chapter 1, but as a quick reminder, here are thebasics of the three classical ethical theories:
Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism evaluates the morality of an act in terms of its consequences: Act utilitarianism emphasizes the act itself, and whetherwhat one chooses .
ExamplesNow that we have discussed the basics of ethical theory,.docxSANSKAR20
Examples
Now that we have discussed the basics of ethical theory, we can apply them to actual situations and see what they have to say about moral issues in specific, concrete situations. This approach has two practical advantages. First, by seeing how a specific ethical theory can be applied to an actual issue, we will see how the theory can better help us understand what the real problems are. Ultimately, we may not solve these problems in a way that will satisfy everyone, but we should have a much better grasp of the problems themselves. This will help us focus our ability to think about these questions more critically and eliminate some of the detours, side issues, and irrelevant parts of the debate that may interfere with our understanding of the questions.
Second, by applying the various theories to actual moral problems, we will also come to better understand the theories themselves. It is one thing to understand what a basic ethical position is, but it can be very helpful to see how that ethical position works in dealing with difficult ethical questions.
In this chapter, we will look at questions that arise when individual rights are threatened or violated, as well as instances when one person's rights may infringe upon another person's rights. As examples, we will look specifically at school prayer and pornography. We will also look at a historical debate over a woman's right to vote. This historical discussion should help us realize that some ethical questions can be resolved, and that talking, and arguing, about them may lead to significant changes in people's lives.
Each discussion will present a debate on a specific topic. For example, we will give an argument for why prayer should be allowed in public schools, and then look at the counterargument for why it should be restricted or prohibited. After presenting the debate, we will show how these positions relate to the ethical theories in Chapter 1—in this case, act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism. On other occasions, we may apply the same theory in two different ways, to demonstrate that a specific ethical theory may give quite different results in some cases. This will help remind us that although ethics provides guidance and insight into moral issues, very rarely does it offer solutions that everyone will accept. We will then look at some of the results of the debate and the theories involved, and some of the implications that may emerge from those results. After each specific issue is treated in this way, we will briefly discuss a different, but related, question that will make clear some of the larger issues involved.
A Brief Review of Ethical Theory
The ethical theories being applied in this ...
Ethical issues in biotechnology and related areas.
For soft copy of this document please feel free to contact us on info@biotechsupportbase.com or snjogdand@gmail.com
Exploring Online Consumer Behaviors
John A. Smith and Jane L. Doe
Liberty University
References
Janda, S. (2008). Does gender moderate the effect of online concerns on purchase likelihood? Journal of Internet Commerce, 7(3), 339-358. doi:10.1080/15332860802250401
Jeon, S., Crutsinger, C., & Kim, H. (2008). Exploring online auction behaviors and motivations. Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences, 100(2), 31-40. Retrieved by http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/docview/218160218
Koyuncu, C., & Lien, D. (2003). E-commerce and consumer's purchasing behaviour. Applied Economics, 35(6), 721. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA102272684&v=2.1&u=vic_liberty&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w
Kukar-Kinney,M.,Monroe, K.B.,Ridgway,N.M. (2008). The relationship between consumers’ tendencies to buy compulsively and their motivations to shop and buy on the internet. Journal of Retailing: Consumer Behavior and Retailing, 85(3), 298-307. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org. ezproxy.liberty.edu: 2048/10.1016/j.jretai.2009.05.002
Stibel, J. (2005). Mental models and online consumer behaviour. Behaviour & Information Technology, 24(2), 147-150. doi:10.1080/01449290512331321901
Vazquez,D., & Xu,X.(2009). Investigation linkages between online purchase behavior variables. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, 37(5), 408-419. doi:10.1108/09590550910954900
Abstract Comment by user: Double space between all lines of the manuscript. This includes the elimination of any extra spacing before or after the paragraph (APA Manual 5.03). The default setting in Microsoft Word is to add extra spacing after paragraphs. You can change this setting under the page layout tab in Microsoft Word.
Internet usage has skyrocketed in the past few decades, along with this increase comes the increase in internet shopping by consumers. This research examines the behaviors, motivations, and attitudes of this new form of consumer entity. Online consumer behavior has been studied for over 20 years and will undoubtedly be the source of many future researches as internet consumerism expands. This paper will examine the following research questions: (1) How do factors previously researched affect the online purchasing behavior of consumers and (2) what are the significant consumer behaviors both positive and negative that affect internet consumerism? By identifying these factors and variables, new strategies can be formulated and both consumer and supplier can gain knowledge and understanding of behaviors which exist. The purpose of this research paper is to integrate the varied research information together and draw coherent linkages to how consumer thoughts, attitudes and motivational behavior affect online buying, thus building a broader framework of analysis in which to build upon. Comment by user:
APA style uses one inch margins. Paragraphs should be indented five to seven spaces (about 1/2 inch ...
External and Internal Analysis 8Extern.docxgitagrimston
External and Internal Analysis 8
External and Internal Environmental Analysis
STR/581
Professor Alfonso Rodriguez
July 30, 2014
Sheila Medina
Introduction
Coffee has become an integral part of the lives of numerous people. In 1971, Starbucks coffee opened its first coffee shop in the Pike Place Market in Seattle, Washington. Now, according to research “Starbucks Corporation is the leading retailer, roaster and brand of specialty coffee in the world, with more than 6,000 retail locations in North America, Latin America, Europe, the Middle East and the Pacific Rim” (www.investor.starbucks.com). Starbucks aims to be the consumer’s favorite coffee shop and to achieve this the company focused on customer satisfaction as well as company advancement. Therefore, it is important to act based on what is written in Starbucks mission, value and vision statement, “To inspire and nurture the human spirit-one person, one cup, and one neighborhood at a time” (www.starbucks.com).
A review of Starbucks financial reports has identified an increase in revenue over the past few years. However, this increase in revenue doesn’t account for the increase in profits. The profit increase is not as high as it could be due to external factors such as other coffee shops and the increase in amount of competition. This report aims to identify the different internal and external environment factors attributing to the changes in Starbucks external environment by utilizing several different analyses.
SWOT Analysis
Strengths
Starbucks possesses several main strengths including their high visibility being located in high traffic areas, quality of service and products and their established brand loyalty. Starbucks remains an established leader being the number one known coffee house in the world while possessing a competent workforce, providing quality service, and continuing financial soundness. They also are known for their strong internal and external relationships with their suppliers.
Weakness
Weaknesses that Starbucks must address include: Product affordability and pricing, coffee beans price is the major influence over the firms profits, maintaining the positive public opinion of their products, avoiding any negative publicity, and remaining connected to their customers. Starbucks must also consider the fact they have expanded domestically and internationally resulting in saturation of the markets. They are also a non-smoking facility alienating some customers from purchasing coffee or other products from their store.
Opportunities
Opportunities include the ability for Starbucks to enter into different and new markets,
partnership opportunities with businesses, growing acceptance and customer satisfaction, and increase different product offerings. Starbucks must strive to continue expanding their products and food service to remain competitive and reach other consumers. Another option would be for Starbucks to allow consumers to order t ...
Exploring Music Concert Paper Guidelines Instructions.docxgitagrimston
Exploring Music
Concert Paper Guidelines
Instructions
1) Choose. Pick a classical music concert from the list provided on Blackboard. Sign up and buy tickets.
2) Research. Using reputable sources, learn about the composers and music featured at the concert. I
recommend searching Google for program notes from major orchestras.
3) Write. Write a typed, double-spaced, 2 -3 page research paper, including properly formatted citations
using APA, MLA, or Chicago style. This must be done before you attend the concert.
4) Cite. Cite your sources using in-text citations. Include a works cited list with full citations using MLA,
APA, or Chicago. If you don’t know how to do this, read this.
5) Submit. Turn in your research paper under the “concerts” tab in Blackboard 2 days before the concert
date. It will be checked for plagiarism.
6) Go. Plan ahead. Dress appropriately. Get to your concert on time. If you’re late, you might not get in.
7) Listen. Use active listening during the concert. (See “at the concert” below.)
8) Smile. Take a selfie or have someone take a picture of you that clearly shows that you were at the
concert. In the lobby during intermission is a good time for this! Save your ticket and program.
9) Interview. Talk to someone at the concert. Ask them why they came and what they thought.
10) Write. Add a “part two” to your research paper. This second part should be a typed, double-spaced, 2-3
page reaction paper to your concert. Talk about what you thought, show off your active listening skills,
and include the results of your interview.
11) Add. Add your concert picture to the last page of your paper. If you don’t have this, I can’t accept the
paper for credit. Staple your ticket to your paper.
12) Submit. Turn in a hard copy of your complete paper (research part AND reaction part with picture and
ticket) in class on or before the due dates indicated.
At The Concert: Active Listening
Choose one piece from your concert to analyze. Identify the meter, texture, and two other musical elements.
Reflect on the music. What emotions do you get from that piece? Does it spark anything in your imagination?
Does it remind you of anything? What is it about the music that creates those feelings and ideas?
Interview a fellow attendee after the show or during intermission. Ask why they came and what they thought.
WARNING
DO NOT OVER-USE DIRECT QUOTATIONS. If your paper has more than 50 words that are directly quoted, I will
return the paper to you, ungraded. Quotes can be useful, but you have to know when and how to use them!
Blend your quotes within your narrative. Paraphrase when appropriate. Read this.
DO NOT PLAGIARIZE. All sources, even if they are only alluded to or paraphrased, must be cited.
http://guides.temple.edu/c.php?g=77953&p=528593
http://www.temple.edu/writingctr/support-for-writers/documents/BecominganEffectiveWriterinCollege.pdf
http://www.bibme. ...
Expo 12 Discussion QuestionsThink about the cooperative learni.docxgitagrimston
Expo 12 Discussion Questions
Think about the cooperative learning lesson plan you have developed for studying Crystal Growing and the Rock Cycle. What problems do you envision occurring? Select the most problematic issue and elaborate on it on the discussion board.
Module 5 Activity
Consider the lab you have just completed, Experiment 12, and the processes you went through. Now, assume this experiment were to be conducted in your classroom in groups of four. Create an age appropriate lesson plan in which you conduct this experiment using cooperative learning, while still maintaining the integrity of the 5E Model. Submit your lesson plan as a word document.
Hands-On Labs SM-1 Lab Manual
91
EXPERIMENT 12:
Crystal Growing and the Rock Cycle
Note: Part One of this lab should be performed at least 10 days before your report due date.
Read the entire experiment and organize time, materials, and work space before beginning.
Remember to review the safety sections and wear goggles when appropriate.
Objectives: To grow synthetic crystals from a supersaturated solution by evaporation,
To measure the interfacial angles of minerals,
To make sugar “glass,”
To understand the role of evaporation in mineral growth, and
To determine the dissolution point of certain crystals.
Materials: Student Provides: Pan, small
Spoon or blunt knife
Cup saucer
Stovetop burner
Refrigerator
50 g sugar
From LabPaq: Tweezers
Protractor
Ruler
Magnifying hand lens
Digital scale
100-mL Beaker
3 Petri dishes, large
Thermometer
Set of 18 numbered minerals
Igneous rock sample #19
Sedimentary rock sample #36
Metamorphic rock sample #47
Epsom salt: Magnesium Sulfate Heptahydrate,
MgSO4 · 7H2O
Alum: Aluminum Potassium Sulfate Dodecahydrate,
KAI(SO4) 2 · 12 H2O
Discussion and Review: The textbook definition of a mineral is “a homogeneous,
naturally occurring, solid substance with a definable chemical composition and an
internal structure characterized by an orderly arrangement of atoms in a crystalline
structure” (from Earth; Portrait of a Planet; Stephen Marshak (Norton, 2005).
A crystal grown in a lab is not a true mineral since it did not form by geologic processes.
However, crystals grown in a lab are virtually identical to true minerals in many other
Hands-On Labs SM-1 Lab Manual
92
aspects: they are solid, inorganic, homogeneous, and have a definite chemical
composition and an ordered structure.
By growing crystals in a laboratory setting you will be able to investigate the different
properties that define a mineral. In addition, growing synthetic minerals can offer insight
into the factors that affect the crystal growing process in a true geologic setting. By
“watching” your crystals grow, you’ll be able to better understand how crystal faces
develop in rocks and what influences them, plus you won’t ...
ExplanationMaster Honey is a franchise-style company that sel.docxgitagrimston
Explanation:
Master Honey is a franchise-style company that sells a variety of products derived from raw honey harvested from both local and international bee-farms, called apiaries. Our company was established in 1988 by its founder, Sergio Saladrigas, back when honey was a booming industry, and its business was conducted based on quality rather than quantity. With this philosophy in mind, Master Honey has created a culture of good quality work with competitive pricing. Since its creation, Master Honey has had a successful expansion throughout most of Central and South-Florida in the form of two different types of establishments for retail selling that have made the brand differentiate itself from the competition:
For rather big retail space, Master Honey developed a trademarked concept for a retail-store called “Honey Caves”. Usually placed in malls and around touristic areas, Honey Caves are stores of 1,000-1,500 squared feet that offer the whole catalog of Mater Honey’s products. The product catalog includes:
Products
Types
Large size
Medium size
Small size
Artisanal honey:
Local Honey:
Tupelo
9$
5$
3$
Orange blossom
8$
4$
2$
Red Pepper
7$
4$
2$
Golden Berry
7$
4$
2$
Wildflower
6$
3$
2$
International Honey:
Blue Gum
11$
6$
4$
Beech Wood
10$
5$
3$
Acai
12$
8$
5$
Acacia
12$
8$
5$
Manuka
11$
6$
4$
Honey Blends for:
Tea, Chees or BBQ
12$
8$
5$
Soaps for:
Face (anti-acne)
-
10$
6$
Body
9$
5$
-
Hands
-
9$
5$
Lotions:
Face (anti-age)
-
15$
10$
Body
-
10$
7$
Other Products:
Shampoo
15$
11$
7$
Conditioner
15$
11$
7$
The honey caves have a specific and trademarked design that makes customers feel “like a bee in a hive”. The temperature is set at a low 72 degrees Fahrenheit with low light, and with a constant and subtle bee sound. In addition, the shelves are designed to look like a hive, with a series of hexagonally shaped boxes that designed to be piled together. This gives the shop managers freedom to change the setting of the store with ease and freedom of choice. Furthermore, the stores offer samples from all of our different products so the customers can see, feel, smell and taste the quality that differentiates our product. Also, every single one of our franchised Honey Caves has a large table in the middle of the store in a hexagonal shape displaying many large and artisanal-looking bottles that carry all of the honey types that we offer (that way, if a certain type of honey is not in store, it can still be shipped). The first bottle on each line contains a pump from which the customer can serve previously measured quantities in a small sample cup, and taste the differences in flavor and texture among all honeys from different flowers. The same technique is used with our soaps by providing 3 to 7 sinks for our customers to try the soaps, and realize its unique smell and smoothness. This type of store look like:
For the smaller stores, of about 600-800 squared feet, Master Honey has created another trademarked store des ...
Explain where industry profits are maximized in the figure below.docxgitagrimston
Explain where industry profits are maximized in the figure below:
Problem 13. What real-world evidence would lead you to believe that firms were acting as Cournot oligopolists? Stackelberg oligopolists? Bertrand oligopolists?
...
Exploratory EssayResearch - 1The ability to Wallow in complex.docxgitagrimston
Exploratory Essay/Research - 1
The ability to Wallow in complexity
On a separate paper:
1. Write your Exploratory question.
Your Introduction
Your goal in the Introduction is to hook your reader’s interest in your chosen problem. Often the best way to do so is to show why you yourself became interested in it.
Write about any or all of the following:
· Why do you think you have chosen this particular subject? What interested you?
· Personal connection?
· Specific experiences?
· What do you think are the origins of your feelings?
· What are your first responses/answers to the question?
· Why do you think you feel the way you do now?
· Can you imagine yourself ever changing your mind? Why?
· Can you list (or imagine) different or alternative answers to this question? List some of them.
· How do you feel about these?
· Why?
· At this point, what is the most perplexing, confusing, or puzzling thing about this question?
...
Exploring MusicExtra Credit #2 Due November 6 in classIn G.docxgitagrimston
Exploring Music
Extra Credit #2
Due November 6 in class
In Germany, the 19th century was known as the “Age of Song”. For romantic composers, fusing literature with music represented artistic perfection. The Lied (pronounced “leet”) blended German poetry with piano collaboration. Lieder represent an intimate genre of music utilizing a solo singer partnered with piano. In most cases, the piano acts as more than mere accompaniment as it is able to musically enhance the text, depict moods and atmospheres, and in some cases represent a character in the poem.
For this assignment you will choose any threeLieder and write a 2-3 page paper (double spaced, 12 point font with 1 inch margins) based on the following guidelines to include in your paper:
1. Read the translation of the poetry and establish your own interpretation. Are there any words or phrases that lend themselves to musical depiction? If you were the composer how might you musically depict words or phrases or the mood/ atmosphere of the piece using only one singer and a piano?
2. Listen to the Lied and follow along with the translation. How does you analysis from Question 1 differ or parallel the composer’s interpretation?
3. Pay particular attention to the relationship between the voice, text, and piano keeping in mind the piano offers more than just harmonic support. Provide examples of how the piano enhances the text, creates a mood or atmosphere, or depicts a character from the poem.
4. Does the musical and vocal setting suit the poetry? Explain.
5. Is the setting strophic or through-composed? How does this affect the Lied?
Below are YouTube links to each Lied. Translations of the text are available in the Extra Credit no. 2 folder; print them out for your convenience if you wish.
1. Robert Schumann, “Die alten, bösen Lieder” from Dichterliebe
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sGx1zyOPZfM
2. Ludwig van Beethoven, “Der Kuß,” opus 128
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NTgcwny1PnU
3. Franz Schubert, “Ganymed”
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DMLiVQMDLEs
4. Robert Schumann, “Ich grolle nicht” from Dichterliebe
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XDbESDdZmfY
5. Franz Schubert, “Nähe des Geliebten”
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t47lxQCvJ5k
6. Clara Schumann, “Liebst du um Schönheit”
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kvHPxGfONYY
7. Franz Schubert, “Der Lindenbaum” from Wintereise
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zC7gEVSgf9k
8. Franz Schubert, “Rastlose Liebe”
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XOBNOB9Oxyc
Type the Boolean operator (AND, OR, or NOT) that best fits in the search statement to satisfy the search criterion stated.
Question 1 (1 point)
Question 1 options:
Find information on pollution in the Chesapeake Bay. "Chesapeake Bay"
pollut*
Question 2 (1 point)
Question 2 options:
Find information on the effect of plastics recycling on the environment. (recycle
reuse)
plastics
environment
Question 3 (1 point)
Question 3 options:
Find information on obedience tr ...
Explain why Franz Boas did not accept Morgan’s view about evol.docxgitagrimston
Explain why Franz Boas did not accept Morgan’s view about evolution ?
What sciences contributed to anthropology ?
How have teens used fashion and music to communicate their identity ?
What styles and attitudes today might seem rebellious to parents ?
What contributions did Pavlov, skinner and Chomsky bring to the comprehension of how language is attained ?
How does language indicate a society's values and priorities?
How has language evolved in some north American communities?
Why is language seen as a significant part of a people’s culture ?
Do advertisers give a false impression of their products ? it this legitimate communication ? why or why not
How can an environmental factors, such as living in a large city or a small rural town, influence individual and cultural evolution
Compare the approaches taken by anthropologist and psychologists in the study of human development ?
What are the various components of all rites of passage ?
How have coming of age rite of passage changed along with modern society
Some rites are experienced alone and some are experienced in groups. explain, with example, why this is the case
How is the body adornment connected to rites of passages
How do films and television programs portray sexual relationship between teens and adults ?
What rites of passage surrounding death have you experienced ?how did you feel about them ?
How do social scientists help people face the haunting prospect of death and the sadness of the loss of a loved one
...
Explanations 6.1 Qualities of Explanations Questions 0 of 3 com.docxgitagrimston
Explanations / 6.1 Qualities of Explanations Questions: 0 of 3 complete (0%) | 0 of 2 correct (0%)
Qualities of Explanations
An explanation is a statement that provides a reason for why or how something became the way it is. Arguments present a conclusion that's presumably new to you and then support this conclusion with evidence that you're likely to believe. Explanations work the other way around: they start with a conclusion that you likely believe (e.g., the sky is blue) and then offer an explanation for why that is so (e.g., because God is a UNC fan).
We will be looking specifically at causal explanations—that is, explanations in which you suggest that a particular physical or behavioral phenomenon is the result of another event.
Situation
Explanation
Traffic on a Saturday
There must be a football game today.
Most explanations start as theories. It can be challenging to fight the human impulse to pick the first theory that comes to mind and stop there, but what are the odds that the first thing you conceive of is in fact the best possible explanation?
Situation
Explanation
Traffic on a Saturday
Perhaps there's a concert today?
Maybe an art festival?
Or possibly an accident up ahead?
With a little imagination, you can come up with a seemingly unlimited number of theories, but at some point you've likely exhausted all the plausible explanations.
Situation
Explanation
Traffic on a Saturday
Perhaps a new IKEA has been built without my hearing anything about it, and all these people are headed to the grand opening.
As with all critical thinking, you'll need some judgment here. Discard the implausible theories (at least initially) and give fair consideration to all the reasonable ones:
· State your theory clearly (make a hypothesis).
· Consider possible alternatives.
· Look at the evidence.
· Evaluate the theory.
Sometimes the facts make the explanation quite clear:
I can see a train moving through an intersection several hundred yards ahead. That explains why traffic isn't moving.
Other times, you'll need to employ inductive reasoning to establish the most likely cause:
I can't see the tracks from here, but I drive through here every Saturday morning and usually a train was responsible for traffic being stalled. So it's probably a train.
We are presented with many such explanations on a daily basis.
Why is this webpage not loading?Why are sales down for last quarter?Why is my spouse not speaking to me?
As you consider potential explanations, keep the following standards in mind.
Consistency
First, is it internally consistent or does it contradict itself?
Second, is it externally consistent? Could this explanation effectively and fully account for whatever it's supposed to explain?
A good theory should be compatible with what we already know about how the world works. This is a problem with many paranormal theories—they go against accepted scientific fact. If the theory contradicts established knowledge, the burden of proof is on the new t ...
Experts Presentation
Student
PSY 496
Instructor
Overview of professionals
Maria Theresa Redaniel, Ph.D.
Suicide prevention specialist who’s main focus is finding ways to prevent suicide cases within local communities.
She is looking to branch out from the community sector to further her expertise on a federal and state vocation.
Received her master’s from the University of Nebraska in Community Development.
Michael Bauer, M.D., Ph.D.
Mental health profession with interest in suicide risk assessments, homicide and product liability especially in relation to psychotropic drugs.
He has extensive background in the field and wishes to further his resume by succeeding as a mentor to upcoming peers in the field.
Graduated top of his class from the University of Illinois 1965.
Suicide and prevention
Effective protective care is essential to suicide prevention.
If you are in crisis, call 1-800-273-TALK (8255) National Suicide Prevention Lifeline
Suicide is the 10th leading cause of death in the united states (AFSP, 2014). And the third leading cause among youth and young adults (Wharff, Ross, & Lambert, 2014)
Research shows 90% of those who have died by suicide had a potentially treatable mental illness (AFSP, 2014).
Prevention starts with awareness and education.
Risk Factors may include mental disorder, previous attempts, family history, serious medical condition or pain. These factors combined with environmental stimuli increase chances of suicide and suicide attempts (Carlborg, Winnerback, Jonsson, Jokinen & Nordstrom, (2010).
Research
Maria’s focus has been in the community prevention. The barriers of suicide documentation in the Philippines has encouraged her research in using psychological autopsy’s to evaluate a course of intervention (AFSP, 2014). Psychological autopsies have been used to present evidence of mental disorders present in those who died from suicide based on a collection of interviews and reports to dictate what they may have thought (Hjelmeland, Dieserud, Dyregrov, Knizek & Leenaars, 2012).
Michael has focused his research in the use of pharmacology in suicide prevention. Giving participants a prescribed amount of lithium has shown great strides in lowering future suicide attempts and depressive behaviors (ASFP, 2014).
Comparison
Maria has strong views in behavior aspect of study. She has culminated research of behaviors related to mental disorders and compared them to suicide reports made from informant interviews and medical documents. She uses such information to hopefully reduce the suicide rates in the community by early diagnosis and treatment prevention.
Michael uses his successful career in clinical psychology to establish the benefits of treating mental disorders to prevent suicides and suicidal behaviors. He focuses his research to provide evidence of pharmacology on disorders. His goal it to use such evidence to reduce thoughts of suicide and attempts.
References
American Foun ...
Explain whether Okonkwo was remaining truthful to himself by killi.docxgitagrimston
Explain whether Okonkwo was remaining truthful to himself by killing himself
Please make sure that you answer this question with 4 pages in length, it has to be MLA format, double space.
LDR/531 – WEEK 2
*
WDWLLW?DISC AssessmentLeadershipPersonality
*
ObjectivesTheories of Leadership Compare and contrast leadership theories.Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of established leadership styles.
*
Leadership is:
Are leader’s born or made?
Leader traits – the trait approach is the oldest leadership perspective and was dominant for several decades. The perspective is that some personality characteristics – many of which a person need not be born with but can strive to acquire distinguish effective leaders from other people.
Drive, which refers to a set of characteristics that reflect a high level of effort. It includes high need for achievement, constant striving for improvement, ambition, energy, tenacity (persistence in the face of obstacles), and initiative.
Leadership motivation – great leaders not only have drive, they want to lead.
Integrity is the correspondence between actions and words. Honesty and credibility are especially important.
Self-confidence is important because the leadership role is challenging, and setbacks are inevitable.
Knowledge of the business, industry, company, and technical matters.
The most important personal skill, according to the text, the ability to perceive the needs and goals of others and to adjust one’s personal leadership approaches accordingly.
B. Leader Behaviors
1. Leadership behaviors – the behavioral approach attempts to identify what good leaders do. Three general categories of leadership behavior are: (Figure 12.2)
a. Task performance behaviors are the leader’s efforts to insure that the work unit or organization reaches its goals.
i. This dimension is sometimes referred to as:
concern for production
directive leadership
initiating structure or closeness of supervision.
ii. It includes a focus on:
work speed
quality and accuracy
quantity of output
following the rules.
b. Group maintenance behaviors is where leaders take action to ensure the satisfaction of group members, develop and maintain harmonious work relationships, and preserve the social stability of the group.
i. This dimension is sometimes referred to as:
(1) concern for people
(2) supportive leadership
(3) consideration.
ii. Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) theory highlights the importance of leader behaviors not just toward the group as a whole but also toward individuals
The ability to influence a group toward the achievement of a vision or set of goals.
OR
The process of influencing others to understand and agree what needs to be done and how to do it, and the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared objectives
*
Types of leadershipLeadership involves influencing others (who influences? What type of influence?)to collaborate and agree (purpose of influence?) ...
Explain How these Aspects Work Together to Perform the Primary Fun.docxgitagrimston
Explain How these Aspects Work Together to Perform the Primary Function of HRM
Total: 5.00
Distinguished - Thoroughly and methodically explains how each of the aspects work together to perform the primary function of HRM. The explanation is professional and provides detailed examples that clearly demonstrate that new learning has occurred.
Proficient - Explains how each of the aspects work together to perform the primary function of HRM. The explanation is well constructed and provides several examples that demonstrate that new learning has occurred; however, a few minor details are missing.
Basic - Briefly explains how each of the aspects work together to perform the primary function of HRM. The explanation is somewhat complete, but provides few examples that demonstrate that new learning has occurred. Several key details are missing.
Below Expectations - Attempts to explain how each of the aspects work together to perform the primary function of HRM, but the explanation is too underdeveloped to be considered complete and does not demonstrate that new learning has occurred.
Non-Performance - The assignment is either nonexistent or fails to explain how these aspects work together to perform the primary function of HRM.
Are Any Aspects More Important than the Others? Why or Why Not?
Total: 4.00
Distinguished - Comprehensively explains whether or not any aspects are more important than others, including a detailed reasoning as to why. The explanation is professional and provides detailed examples that clearly demonstrate that new learning has occurred.
Proficient - Explains whether or not any aspects are more important than others, including reasoning as to why. The explanation well-written and provides a few examples that demonstrate that new learning has occurred. One or more minor details may be missing.
Basic - Briefly explains whether or not any aspects are more important than others, including a short reasoning as to why. The explanation is slightly underdeveloped and somewhat demonstrates that new learning has occurred. Several key details may be missing.
Below Expectations - Attempts to explain whether or not any aspects are more important than others, but the explanation is too underdeveloped to be considered complete and does not demonstrate that new learning has occurred.
Non-Performance - The assignment is either nonexistent or fails to determine whether or not and aspects are more important than others.
Optimizing the HRM Role for Shaping Organizational and Employee Behavior
Total: 4.00
Distinguished - Provides a comprehensive and thorough discussion addressing how the HRM role can be optimized for shaping organizational and employee behavior. The discussion is thought-provoking, creative, and utilizes vocabulary and concepts from the text.
Proficient - Provides a discussion addressing how the HRM role can be optimized for shaping organizational and employee behavior. The discussion is mostly complete and attempts to utilize voca ...
Explain the 3 elements of every negotiation. Why is WinWin used m.docxgitagrimston
Explain the 3 elements of every negotiation. Why is Win/Win used more than Win/Lose in life? When is the efficiency of a negotiation determined? Give an example of in the world today of a good and a bad negotiator
Lockeport Medical Center
Mission and Vision
As the regional leader in advanced medical care, we take our responsibilities seriously. Our vision and core values help guide us as we work to help and heal each patient in our care. We provide the community quality health care services through the compassionate hands of well-trained staff, in a technologically advanced, cost-effective manner.
Our Mission: To improve the health of the people of the state and surrounding region.
· Serve people as a not-for-profit health system governed by a voluntary community board.
· Ensure sustainability through stewardship of the community's assets.
· Provide quality services in a compassionate and cost-effective manner.
· Collaborate in order to improve access across the entire continuum of care.
· Promote wellness and health to benefit the community.
2020 Vision
A regional diversified health system providing superior care and service to patients and their families through a full continuum of integrated services, education, and research.
Major Strategies: "DEEDS"
Develop people
Excel in patient quality and safety
Enhance operational and financial performance
Develop the health system
Strengthen key relationships
Our MERIT Values
Five core values: Mercy, Excellence, Respect, Integrity and Trust/Teamwork. These values form the foundation for our culture at Lockeport Medical Center.
Mercy
We work to create a caring and compassionate environment responsive to the emotional, spiritual, and physical needs of all persons.
Excellence
We strive to meet or exceed patient/customer needs and expectations and work as a team to improve every aspect of care and service in our organization.
Respect
We value the innate dignity of all persons, respect their uniqueness and diversity, and enable the development of each one's full potential.
Integrity
We are consistently open, honest, and ethical, as the ideal means to protect overall safety and ensure confidentiality and privacy.
Trust/Teamwork
We say what we mean and do what we say. There is open and honest communication with patients and among staff. We recognize everyone’s contributions for the benefit of the patient. We strive to enhance the health of the communities we serve, and work in cooperation with other organizations to protect our vulnerable populations throughout the region.
Job Description
Position Title: Surgery Schedule Coordinator
Department: Operating Room
FLSA Status: Non-Exempt
Position Summary
Uses clinical and management processes to plan, organize, staff, direct, and evaluate patient care services; uses available resources to meet MD/customer needs. The surgery schedule coordinator uses knowledge of interactive management and humanistic values in creating an environment ...
Exploration 8 – Shifting and Stretching Rational Functions .docxgitagrimston
Exploration 8 – Shifting and Stretching Rational Functions
1. Sketch the graph of each function.
3( )f x
x
3
( ) 1
2
f x
x
Domain: Range: Domain: Range:
vertical horizontal vertical horizontal
asymptote: asymptote: asymptote: asymptote:
x-intercept: y-intercept: x-intercept: y-intercept:
How do you find the domain and vertical asymptote of a rational function?
How did you find the range and horizontal asymptote of THIS rational function?
How do you find the x-intercept of a function?
How do you find the y-intercept of a function?
Graphing
3
( ) 1
2
f x
x
is relatively easy.
Re-write the function rule as a single fraction by
subtracting the 1. Then find each of the following
for the newly written function.
Domain: Range: x-intercept: y-intercept:
vertical horizontal
asymptote: asymptote:
How do you find the equation of the horizontal asymptote for THIS type of function?
WebAssign Problem:
Graph the function,
2 4
( )
1
x
f x
x
, by shifting and stretching the function, 1( )f x
x
.
The horizontal shift is ______________________ because ________________________________.
The vertical shift is ______________________ because ___________________________________.
To find the stretch, you must re-write the function,
2 4
( )
1
x
f x
x
, in 1( )f x
x
form, by setting the
two rules equal and solving for c. Then sketch the graph below.
For the group submission:
Graph the function,
2 2
( )
1
x
f x
x
, by shifting and stretching the function, 1( )f x
x
.
Horizontal Shift:
Vertical Shift:
Stretch:
vertical horizontal x-intercept: y-intercept:
asymptote: asymptote:
Domain: Range:
Group Submission for Investigation #8
Write group member names legibly here:
Graph the function,
2 2
( )
1
x
f x
x
, by shifting and stretching the function, 1( )f x
x
.
Horizontal Shift:
Vertical Shift:
Stretch:
vertical horizontal x-intercept: y-intercept:
asymptote: asymptote:
Domain: Range:
...
Exploring Innovation in Action Power to the People – Lifeline Ene.docxgitagrimston
Exploring Innovation in Action: Power to the People – Lifeline Energy
Trevor Baylis was quite a swimmer in his youth, representing Britain at the age of 15. So it wasn’t entirely surprising that he ended up working for a swimming pool firm in Surrey before setting up his own company. He continued his swimming passion – working as a part-time TV stuntman doing underwater feats – but also followed an interest in inventing things. One of the projects he began work on in 1991 was to have widespread impact despite – or rather because of – being a ‘low-tech’ solution to a massive problem.
Having seen a documentary about AIDS in Africa he began to see the underlying need for something which could help communication. Much of the AIDS problem lies in the lack of awareness and knowledge across often isolated rural communities – people don’t know about causes or prevention of this devastating disease. And this reflects a deeper problem – of communication. Experts estimate that less than 20% of the world’s population have access to a telephone, while even fewer have a regular supply of electricity, much less television or Internet access. Very low literacy levels exclude most people from reading newspapers and other print media.
Radio is an obvious solution to the problem – but how can radio work when the receivers need power and in many places mains electricity is simply non-existent. An alternative is battery power – but batteries are equally problematic – even if they were of good quality and freely available via village stores people couldn’t afford to buy them regularly. In countries where $1 a day is the standard wage, batteries can cost from a day’s to a week’s salary. The HIV/AIDS pandemic also means that household incomes are under increased pressure as earners become too ill to work while greater expenditure goes towards healthcare, leaving nothing for batteries.
What was needed was a radio which ran on some different source of electricity. In thinking about the problem Baylis remembered the old-fashioned telephones of pre-war days which had wind-up handles to generate power. He began experimenting, linking together odd items such as a hand brace, an electric motor and a small radio. He found that the brace turning the motor would act as a generator that would supply sufficient electricity to power the radio. By adding a clockwork mechanism he found that a spring could be wound up – and as it unwound the radio would play. This first working prototype ran for 14 minutes on a two minute wind. Trevor had invented a clockwork (wind-up) radio! As a potential solution to the communication problem the idea had real merit. The trouble was that, like thousands of entrepreneurs before him, Trevor couldn’t convince others of this. He spent nearly four years approaching major radio manufacturers like Philips and Marconi but to no avail. But luck often plays a significant part in the innovation story – and this was no exception. The idea came to the attenti ...
Experiment 8 - Resistance and Ohm’s Law 8.1 Introduction .docxgitagrimston
Experiment 8 - Resistance and Ohm’s Law
8.1 Introduction
In previous experiments, we have investigated electric charges largely under stationary conditions. These
studies were useful in order to illustrate concepts such as the electric potential and the electric field, and
forms the foundation needed to further our understanding of electricity and electrical circuits. In contrast
to electrostatics (charges confined to be stationary), the field of electricity deals with the flow (induced
movement) of electrical charges. Due to its many uses, most individuals knowingly or unknowingly have
a daily reliance on electricity. It is especially essential, in: (1) the distribution of energy, and (2) the
processing of information. To enable this, electricity must be handled in circuits, a closed loop of
conducting wire connecting power plant with individual homes, and businesses. To appreciate this
phenomena, it is useful to investigate various aspects of simple circuits and the various laws that may
govern them.
8.2 Objective
1. To verify Ohm’s Law
2. To use Ohm’s law to determine the resistance of a light source.
8.3 Theory
Our initial investigations will be guided by Ohm’s law, which postulates that the relationship between
current flow I, potential difference V, and resistance R for certain materials will observe the following
mathematical relationship, given a constant temperature constraint:
…………. 1RV = I
These materials are called Ohmic conductors, equation 1 implies that the ratio of voltage to current for
these materials is constant. Manufactured resistors can be considered as such, but other components such
as semiconductor diodes, filaments, and LEDs are non ohmic. In this experiment, we will verify Ohm’s
law by assessing whether it holds for a set resistance (typical color coded resistor). Further, we will apply
this to ascertain the resistance of a light source.
8.4 Apparatus
Variable DC voltage source, color coded resistor, (2) multimeters, connecting wires, light source
8.5 Procedure
Part A Verifying Ohm’s Law
1. You will be given a particular colour coded resistor from the set; use this and the other apparatus
items to set up the circuit as shown in figure 1 below.
Figure 1
2. Adjust DC voltage source so that a relatively small voltage reading is seen across the resistor R.
Record this voltage reading, and the electrical current reading ...
Experimental Essay The DialecticThe purpose of this paper is to.docxgitagrimston
Experimental Essay: The Dialectic
The purpose of this paper is to experiment with a style of essay that you’ve probably never written before: The Dialectic. We’ll be testing Foucault’s idea about polemics in order to push ourselves to consider and explore multiple conflicting perspectives in a single paper.
The basic premise is that you will write a series of thesis, antithesis arguments - point and counterpoint paragraphs. You will first argue a side of a discussion and then take up the opposing side, eloquently crafting a rigorous response to your own ideas.
Your essay should explore the concepts we will be discussing in class, so if you’ve been doing the homework, you already have some arguments to work from. If you would like something more specific to work from, the Justice discussions and comments that your peers will be posting on course studio are a good start. In addition to this, you should also read through your notes from our class discussion about the predictions from the Constitutional Convention 1787. Can we make an argument that the poor indirectly sell their votes to the rich? Does the wealthiest class of America really dictate society? Do the poor impose upon the freedom and the property of the rich through voting? In what ways can private interests manipulate public opinions and widely held beliefs? Who is influencing whom? Who is responsible for the actions and behaviors of masses and of individuals?
This dialectic should not look like the typical childhood debate: “YES. NO. YES. NO.” You should not simply state a side and then write the inverse. Instead, you should invent the most compelling defense for both sides. Where students misstep here is in the unfortunate habit of writing weak counterpoints - something “stupid” that’s easy to rip apart. Right? We’ve all done this in essays that require counterpoints. Why that doesn’t work for this essay is that it would essentially mean that HALF of your essay is intentionally “stupid”... This doesn’t make for a good college paper. Instead, you must argue both sides so well that the reader cannot tell which is actually your own position.
To build this paper over the next two weeks, you should be exploring as many points (and counterpoints) as you can imagine in your homework assignments. In your final essay, I would like you to try to compile what you believe to be your best ideas.
This paper cannot be a summary - you should not simply have a series of points restating and summarizing the arguments that you’ve pulled from the various texts. Instead, you should use what you think is interesting from the text as a way to launch into a discussion of your own brilliant ideas.
Format: double-spaced, times new roman typeface, 12-point font, with 1 inchmargins.
The paper must be 1000 - 1400 words in length.
Peer Review Draft Due : May 27
Final Draft Due : May 29 via email by 11:54pm
REFLECTION PIECE: You will also be writing a 300 word reflection on your writing. In this piece you sho ...
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Honest Reviews of Tim Han LMA Course Program.pptxtimhan337
Personal development courses are widely available today, with each one promising life-changing outcomes. Tim Han’s Life Mastery Achievers (LMA) Course has drawn a lot of interest. In addition to offering my frank assessment of Success Insider’s LMA Course, this piece examines the course’s effects via a variety of Tim Han LMA course reviews and Success Insider comments.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
Ethical Principles and Business DecisionsLearning Object.docx
1. Ethical Principles and Business
Decisions
Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
• Describe moral objectivism, moral relativism,
and divine command theory.
• Explain the theories of psychological egoism
and psychological altruism, and the relation
between gender
and morality.
• Explain how virtue theory, duty theory, and
utilitarianism provide standards of morality.
• Describe the relation between morality and
government in social contract theory, human-
rights theory,
and the four principles of governmental coercion.
Comstock
1
fie66722_01_c01_001-026.indd 1 3/2/12 9:40 AM
CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 Introduction
Chapter Outline
2. 1.1 Introduction
1.2 Where Moral Values Come From
Moral Objectivism and Moral Relativism
Religion and Morality
1.3 Ethics and Psychology
Egoism and Altruism
Gender and Morality
1.4 Moral Standards
Virtues
Duties
Utilitarianism
1.5 Morality and Government
The Social Contract
Human Rights
Principles of Governmental Coercion
1.6 Conclusion
1.1 Introduction
Some jobs have higher moral reputations than
others, and national surveys are routinely con-
ducted to reveal public attitudes about various
professions. One poll asked people to rate
the
honesty and ethical standards of people in
different fields (Jones, 2010). The results of
the survey
3. were as follows (the numbers indicated the percentage
of those surveyed who ranked the respec-
tive vocations very high in terms of honesty and
ethical standards):
Nurses: 81%
Military officers: 73%
Druggists, pharmacists: 71%
Grade school teachers: 67%
Medical doctors: 66%
Police officers: 57%
Clergy: 53%
Day care providers: 47%
Judges: 47%
Auto mechanics: 28%
Nursing home operators: 26%
Bankers: 23%
TV reporters: 23%
Newspaper reporters: 22%
Local officeholders: 20%
Lawyers: 17%
4. Business executives: 15%
Stateofficeholders: 12%
Advertising practitioners: 11%
Members of Congress: 9%
Lobbyists: 7%
Car salespeople: 7%
2
fie66722_01_c01_001-026.indd 2 3/2/12 9:40 AM
CHAPTER 1Section 1.2 Where Moral Values Come From
There is a clear pattern here. The highest ranking
professions involve helping people, and nurses,
who are at the very top, are clear examples. Among
the lowest ranking occupations are those
associatedwith the business world: bankers, business
executives, advertisers, and, at the very
bottom, car salespeople.
What is it that makes us have such low
opinions of the moral integrity of the
business world? Part
of it may be that, in contrast with nurses,
businesses have the reputation of caring only
for them-
5. selves and not for others. Part of it may also be
that the competitive nature of business pushes
even the most decent of people to put profits
above responsibility to the public. The concept
of
business ethics is by no means new; in fact,
someof the earliest written documents in
human
civilization wrestle with theseissues. The
Mesopotamian Codeof Hammurabi, from almost
4,000
years ago, had this to say about the
responsibility of building contractors:
If a builder builda house for someone, even
though he has not yet completed
it; if then the walls seemtoppling, the builder
must make the walls solid from his
own means.
. . .
If a shipbuilder builda boat for someone, and do
not make it tight, if during
that same year that boat is sent awayand suffers injury,
the shipbuilder shall
take the boat apartand put it together tight at his
own expense. (trans. 1915 by
L. W. King, sections 233 and 235; see
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/
hamcode.asp#text)
This entire book is devoted to understanding the
ethical challenges that businesses face and
what
6. can be done to meet those challenges. In this
chapter, we will explore several basicand time-
tested principles of morality. Some of history’s
greatest minds have reflected on the nature of
morality and devised theories of where morality
comes from and how moral principles should
guide our conduct. Many of theseprinciples have
direct application to ethical issues within
busi-
ness, and we will explore that connection.
1.2 Where Moral Values Come From
A good definition of ethics is that it is an
organized analysis of values relating to human
conduct,
with respect to their rightness and wrongness. Ethics
is not the same as etiquette, which merely
involves customarycodes of polite behavior, such as
how we greetpeople and how we seat guests
at a table. The issuein ethics is not what is
polite, but what is obligatory. Ethics is
closely related
to morality, and although someethicists make subtle
distinctions between the two, they are more
oftenused interchangeably, as will be done throughout
this book.
One of the most basicethical issues involves an
understanding of where our moral values
come
from. Consider the moral mandates that we should
not kill, steal, or lie. Are theseuniversal and
unchanging truths that are somehow embedded in
the fabric of the universe, or are they change-
able guidelinesthat we humans have created ourselves to
7. suit our needs of the moment? The
question of where our moral values come
from ofteninvolves two issues: The first is a
debate
between objectivism and relativism, and the second
concerns the relation between morality and
religion. We will look at each of these.
3
fie66722_01_c01_001-026.indd 3 3/2/12 9:40 AM
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/hamcode.asp#text
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/hamcode.asp#text
CHAPTER 1Section 1.2 Where Moral Values Come From
Moral Objectivism and Moral Relativism
Some years ago, the Lockheed Corporation was
caught offering a quarter of a billion
dollars in
bribes overseas. A major U.S. defense contractor,
Lockheed fell on economic hard times. The U.S.
government commissioned the company to design a
hybrid aircraft, but after one crashed, the
government canceled orders. Because of this and
othermishaps, Lockheed believed that the solu-
tion to its financial woes was to expand its aircraft
sales into foreign countries. To get military
aircraft contracts with foreign governments, it made
a series of payoffs to middlemen who
had
political influence in West Germany, Japan, Saudi
Arabia, and several othercountries. The com-
8. pany was eventually caught and punished with a
heavy fine, and its chairman and president were
forced to resign. A consequence of this event
was the creation of the U.S. Foreign Corrupt Prac-
tices Act, which includes an anti-bribery provision
that involves stiff fines and prison terms for
offenders. The message of the law was that, when in
Rome, you should not do as the Romans
do.
There are overarching standards of ethical conduct
that business are expected to follow, regard-
less of where they are in the world and what
the local business practices are there.
When Lockheed engaged in systematic bribery,
did it violate a universal standard of
morality that
is binding on all human societies, or did it
just violate a standard of morality that is
merely our
personal preference in the United States? On
the one side of this question is the theory of
moral
objectivism, which has threekey components:
1. Morality is objective: Moral standards are not
created by human beings or human societ-
ies. According to many objectivists, they exist in
a higher spirit realm that is completely
apartfrom the physical world around us.
2. Moral standards are unchanging: Moral standards
are eternal and do not change
throughout time or from location to location. No
matter where you are in the world or at
9. what pointin history, the same principles apply.
3. Moral standards are universal: There is a
uniform set of moral standards that is the
same for all people, regardless of human differences
like race, gender, wealth, and social
standing.
The classic champion of this view is the ancient
Greek philosopher Plato(424 BCE–347 BCE),
who
argued that moral truths exist in a higher
level of reality that is spiritual in nature.
According to
Plato, the universe as a whole is two-tiered.
There is the lower physical level that
consists of
rocks, trees, human bodies, and every other
material object that we see around us. All of
this is
constantlychanging, either decaying or morphing into
somethingelse. Within this level of the
universe, nothing is permanent.
On the otherhand, Platoargued, thereis a higher
level of the universe, which is nonphysical
and is the home of eternal truths. He called
this the realm of the forms, which are
perfect pat-
terns or blueprints for all things. Mathematical
principles are good examples. They are completely
unchanging and in no way dependent for their
existence on the changing physical world. Even if
the entire physical universe were destroyed, and
10. another emerged, the principles of mathematics
would remain the same, unchanged.
According to Plato, moral principles are just
like mathematical principles in that respect, and
they
also exist in the higher realm of the forms.
Just as the principle that 1 + 1 = 2
exists perma-
nently in this realm, so too do moral
principles of goodness, justice, charity, and many
others. The
greatest appeal of Plato’s theory is that it
gives us a sense of moral stability.
When someone is
murdered, we oftenbelieve that an absolute and
unchanging moral principle has been violated
4
fie66722_01_c01_001-026.indd 4 3/2/12 9:40 AM
CHAPTER 1Section 1.2 Where Moral Values Come From
that goes well beyond the shifting preferences of
our
particular human community.
On the otherside of this dispute is the theory of
moral
relativism, which has threecontrasting key
features:
1. Morality is not objective: Moral standards are
11. purely human inventions, created by either
individual people or human societies.
2. Moral standards are not unchanging: Moral
standards change throughout time and from
society to society.
3. Moral standards are not universal: Moral
standards do not necessarily apply universally
to all people, and their application depends
on human preference.
Defenders of moral relativism are typically
skeptical
about the existence of any higher realm of
absolute
truth, such as Plato’s realm of the forms.
Although
notions of eternal moral truths are appealing,
the fact
is, says the moral relativist, we do not have any
direct
experience that such higher realms exist.
What we
know for sure is the physical world around
us, which
contains societies of human beings that are ever-
changing. The moral values that we see throughout
thesesocieties are ones that are created by human
preference and change throughout history and
with
geographical location. Simply put, morality is a
human
creation, not an eternal truth.
12. Between moral objectivism and moral relativism,
which is right? Some philosophical
questions are
not likely to be answered any time soon, and
this is one of them. However, we can take
inspira-
tion from both sidesof the debate. With the Lockheed
bribery incident, the position of the U.S.
government was that thereis a standard of
integrity in business that applies worldwide,
not just
within U.S. borders. This is a concession to
moral objectivism. On the otherhand, some
business
practices are culturally dependent. In Japan, new
businesses typically have an opening ceremony
in which a Shinto priest blesses the
company building. U.S. companies operating in
Japan often
follow this practice, and this is a concession to
moral relativism.
Religion and Morality
An organization called the Center for Christian
Business Ethics Today offers a Christian
approach to
ethical issues in business. According to the
organization, God is the ultimate source of
moral val-
ues: “God’s standards as set forth in God’s Word,
the Bible, transcend while incorporating both
the
law and ethics” (Center for Christian Business Ethics
Today, n.d.). This view is by no means
unique,
13. and is in fact part of a long history of efforts
to ground morality in someaspect of
religion. Accord-
ing to the classic view of religious ethics, true
morality does not emerge from human thought
processes or human society alone. It begins
with God establishing moral truths, instilling
moral
Associated Press/Jim Mone
Many hospitals have password protected
medication cabinets to prevent drug theft.
But is stealing always wrong? Would your
answer change if you knew the person
stealing the drug needed it for her cancer
treatment? What if she were stealing it for
her child?
5
fie66722_01_c01_001-026.indd 5 3/2/12 9:40 AM
CHAPTER 1Section 1.2 Where Moral Values Come From
convictions within human nature, and reinforcing
those moral truths through scripture.
Religious
believers who follow God’s path will be motivated to
follow God’s established moral truths,
per-
haps more so than non-believers who view ethics as a
purely human invention. This classic view of
religious ethics raises two questions:
14. 1. Is God the creator of moral values?
2. Do religious believers have better access to
moral truth than non-believers?
Regardingthe first question—whether God creates moral
values—a position called divine command
theory answers yes: Moral standards are created by
God’s will. God in essence creates them from
nothing, not even basing them on any prior standard of
reason or logic. God pronounces them into
existence through a pure act of will. There are
two challenges that divine-command theory
faces:
1. It presumes in the first place that God exists,
and that is an assumption that non-believers
would reject from the start.Many religious
believers themselves would hold that belief in
God is a matter of personal faith, not
absolute proof, and so we must be cautious
about
the kinds of activities that we ascribe to God,
such as creating absolute moral truths.
2. The moral standards that God willfully creates
would be arbitrary if they were made
purely from scratch, without relying on any prior
standard of reason. What would pre-
vent God from willfully creating a random set of
moral values, which might include prin-
ciples like “lying is OK” or “stealing is OK”?
God could also willfully change his mind about
which moral principles he commands. Maybe he
15. could mandate that stealing is wrong on
Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, but that stealing is
OK during the rest of the week.
Many ethicists throughout history—even ones who
were devout religious believers—have rejected
divine command theory for this reason. To avoid
arbitrariness, it seems that morality would
need to
be grounded in somestable rational standard, such as
with Plato’s view of absolute moral truths. That is,
God
would merely endorse these absolute moral
truths
sincethey seemrationally compelling to him; and he
does not literally create them from nothing. If moral-
ity, then, is really grounded in preexisting truths,
then
we humans can discover them on our own, and do
not
need to depend on God for our moral knowledge.
Again, the second question raised by the classic
view
of religious ethics is whether believers have
better
access to moral truth than non-believers. The answer
to this throughout much of history was yes:
Religion is
an essential motivation for moral conduct. To
behave
properly, people need to believe that a divine
being is
16. watching them and will punish them in the afterlife
for
immoral conduct. The French moral philosopher
Vol-
taire (1694–1778) famously stated that “if God did
not
exist, it would be necessary to invent him,”
precisely
because moral behavior depends so much on
belief
in divine judgment (quoted in Gay 1988, pg.
265). In
more recent times, this position has fallen out of
favor,
and thereis wider acceptance of the view that
believ-
ers are not necessarily more moral than non-
believers.
Copyright Bettmann/Corbis/AP Images/Anonymous
Voltaire (1694–1778), the French philoso-
pher who famously stated that “if God
did not exist, it would be necessary to
invent him.”
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CHAPTER 1Section 1.3 Ethics and Psychology
One reason for this change in attitude is that
our society as a whole has become much
17. more
secularized than Voltaire’s was, and, from our experience,
non-believers do not appear to be par-
ticularly bad citizens. Also, it appears that
believers fall into the same moral traps as
everyone else.
The upshot is that both components of classic
religious ethics are difficult to establish: It is
not
clear that God creates moral values, assuming that
God exists, and it is not clear that believers
have a special advantage in following moral rules.
It is undeniable that, for many believers,
religion
is an important source of moral inspiration,
and that fact should not be minimized.
Undoubtedly,
this is true for the members of the Center for
Christian Business Ethics Today. At the same
time,
though, thereare plenty of nonreligious motivations
to do the right thing, such as a fear of
going
to jail, a desire to be accepted by one’s
family and friends, or a sense of
personal integrity. In the
business world thereare additional motivations to be
moral, such as the desire to avoid
lawsuits,
costly fines, or tarnishing the company name.
1.3 Ethics and Psychology
An important set of ethical issues involves our
psychological makeup as human beings. There
is
18. no doubt that our personal expectations, desires,
and thought processes have an impact on what
motivates us to behave morally. In this section,
we will look at two issues of moral
psychology;
one focuses on our psychological inclination to be
selfish, and the otheron how gender shapes
our moral outlook.
Egoism and Altruism
When the U.S. Gulf Coast was pummeledby
Hurricane Katrina, the home-improvement company
Lowe’s donated millions of dollars and coordinated
busloads of volunteers to help with the
cleanup.
Working alongside the nonprofit organization Habitat
for Humanity, they helped rebuild homes
for
people across the Gulf Coast region. Since
the time of Katrina, Lowe’s has continued the
practice
of partneringwith charitable organizations to help rebuild
disaster-stricken areas. Why do they do
this? Is it purely from a sense of goodwill
towards those in need, or do they expect
to get some
benefit out of it, such as free publicity? We can
ask this same kind of question about our conduct
as individuals: Are we capable of acting solely
for the benefit of others, or do we always
act in ways
that ultimately benefit ourselves? There are two
competing theories that address this question:
19. • Psychological egoism: Human conduct is
selfishly motivated and we cannot perform
actions from any othermotive.
• Psychological altruism: Human beings are at
least occasionally capable of acting selflessly.
Both of thesetheories are “psychological” in the
sense that they are making claims about
what
motivates human behavior.
Psychological egoism maintains that all of our actions,
without exception, are motivated by some
selfish drive. Even when I am doing
something, like donating to charity, that appears
to be purely
for the benefit of someone else, thereare hidden
selfish motives at work within me and I
am only
acting to benefit myself. Maybe through my
charitable action I secretly hope that I will
receive a
Citizen of the Year award. Maybe I desire to
hear the recipient of my charity thank me
with gush-
ing words of appreciation so that I can feel
good about myself. The English philosopher
Thomas
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20. CHAPTER 1Section 1.3 Ethics and Psychology
Hobbes (1588–1679) argued that
all acts of charity could be reduced
to our private desire to exercise
control over other people’s lives.
For Hobbes, I am the one who
decides whether a poor person
will have enough food to eat today,
and I am on a private power trip if
I help that person out (1650/1811
Human Nature). A psychological
egoist would look at Lowe’s with
similar suspicion: Their public acts
of charity are greatpublic-relations
tools that associate their name and
products with social responsibility.
Through pressreleases and adver-
tisements, Lowe’s spreads the news
of its charitable work far and wide.
The rival theory of psychological
altruism concedes that much of
our human conduct is indeed motivated by selfish
desire. But, according to the altruist, thereis
more going on with us psychologically than just
that. We have the capacity to break free of
the grip
that selfishness has on us and at least occasionally
act purely for the betterment of otherpeople.
Perhaps we have an instinct of human kindness
that exhibits itselfwhen we see people who
are
truly in need. Our hearts go out to them and
21. we want to help, regardless of whether thereis
any
benefit to ourselves. Maybe someof that is behind
Lowe’s charitable programs. Its corporate offi-
cers and managers are personally moved by
tragedies such as Katrina and recognize that Lowe’s
has unique resources to help. The public relations
benefit it gains from those acts is
secondary,
and the spark that ignites its charitable response is
genuine concern.
Like the dispute between objectivism and relativism,
this debate between psychological egoism
and altruism will not be resolved any time soon.
But even if psychological egoists are correct
that all of our actions are selfishly motivated,
the fact remains that human beings do
perform
acts of charity, and, morally speaking, it is good
for us to do so. What matters is that
Lowe’s
engages in charitable projects, regardless of whether
their main motivation is to bolster their
corporate image.
Gender and Morality
A recent study suggested that businesses led by
women place a higher value on social
responsibil-
ity than do those led by men. According to
the director of the study, “women are taking
the lead in
showing that profit and social responsibility can go
22. hand-in-hand” (Llanza, 2011). Women tend to
look for a balance between profits and non-
economic goals such as environmental sustainability,
charity, and community involvement. Do businessmen
and businesswomenreally have differing
attitudes about the role of ethics within their
companies?
Underlying this question is the issueof whether
men and women generally speaking have differ-
ent ways of thinking about morality. The long
standing assumption about morality has been
that
Associated Press/Shane Bevel
Do companies like Lowe’s, which donated supplies such as this
shipment of water to Hurricane Katrina victims, act charitably
out of a sense of goodwill towards those in need, or do they
expect to get some other benefit out of it?
8
fie66722_01_c01_001-026.indd 8 3/2/12 9:40 AM
CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Moral Standards
thereis only one way of thinking about it,
regardless of gender. There are moral rules
that guide
our conduct; we all need to learnthose rules and
follow them in our behavior. It is much
like any
othertask that we perform: If I am playing a
23. sport, performing on a musical instrument,
or operat-
ing a circular saw, thereare clear rules for how I
should proceed. If I do not follow those
rules, then
I will not be good at the task. So too with
morality: We all need to understand the rules of
ethics
and follow them in order to be morally good
people.
However, in recent years, this one-size-fits-all
assumption about morality has been called
into
question based on a reexamination of the
different psychological tendencies of men and
women.
Consider the types of college majors that attract
men and women, respectively. Some are very
male
dominated, such as mathematics, physics, and
engineering. Others are dominated by women,
such
as psychology, social work, nursing, and
education. This suggests that men have a thought
process
that emphasizes rules and are thus attracted to those
disciplines that emphasize them. Women,
by contrast, place greater value
on nurturing and caring for others
and are thus attracted to those dis-
ciplines. It may well be that these
gender issues are operating on our
conceptions of morality: For men,
morality mainly involves following
rules, and for women, it mainly
24. involves caring for others.
A recent theory called care ethics
advances this view, maintaining
that women see morality as the
need to care for people who are
in situations of vulnerability and
dependency. They are not suggest-
ing that we should leave the task
of caring and nurturing to women,
while letting men adhere to their
rule-following inclinations. Rather,
the task of moral care falls upon all
of us, although we should expect
women to place greater emphasis
on this than men.
Within the business world, it may well be that
women are more predisposed to integrate social
concern with profit-driven business goals, as the
study mentioned before suggests. But again,
this
does not mean that socially responsible conduct
should be left to women. Rather, men may
just
need to try harder at integrating ethical values
into business planning.
1.4 Moral Standards
So far we have looked at where morality comes
from and how it is shaped by human
psychology.
Although thesetheories are important for telling us
about the nature of morality, they do not
nec-
25. essarily tell us how we should behave, and what
the moral standards are that we should follow.
Associated Press/Manuel Balce Ceneta
In this 2009 photo, first lady Michelle Obama stands at the
Capital Area Food Bank with Jill Biden (left) and Vicki Escarra
(right). Escarra was the chief marketing officer of Delta Air
Lines
before becoming the CEO of Feeding America, “the nation’s
leading domestic hunger-relief charity” (Feeding America,
n.d.).
Within the business world, are women are more predisposed
to integrate social concern with profit-driven business goals?
9
fie66722_01_c01_001-026.indd 9 3/2/12 9:40 AM
CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Moral Standards
We turn next to that issueand explore threeapproaches
to moral standards: virtue theory, duty
theory, and utilitarianism.
Virtues
One of the strangest business stories in recent
years is that of Bernard Madoff, who
scammed
investors out of $65 billion in a Ponzi
scheme. He started out as a small-time
investment manager,
26. but, courting wealthy investors from around the globe,
he eventually built his roster of clients up
to 4,800. Offering a steady return of about
10% per year, he covered thesepayouts with money
coming in from new investors. But when his clients
rushed to withdraw $7 billion during a
major
stock-market decline, he could not cover those
expenses and he confessed to the fraud.
The humiliation for Madoff’s whole family was so
greatthat he and his wife attempted suicide,
and shortly afterward their son did kill himself. When
we look at Madoff as a human being,
we
see that his immoral business conduct was a
consequence of his flawed character. His desire
for money, power, and a lavish lifestyle became
so excessive that it created a trap for him
from
which he could not break free. He
had what moral philosophers call
vices: bad habits of character that
result in a serious moral failing. He
was unjust, deceitful, intemper-
ate, overambitious, and immod-
est. What Madoff lacked were
virtues—the opposite of vices—
which are good habits of character
that result in morally proper behav-
ior. He did not have the virtues of
justice, truthfulness, temperance,
27. restraint, and modesty.
Virtue theory is the view that
morality is grounded in the virtu-
ous character traits that people
acquire. The ancient Greek phi-
losopher Aristotle (384 BCE–322
BCE) developed the most influen-
tial analysis of virtues, which even
today is considered the standard view of the
subject (trans. 2002 by J. Sachs). It all
begins with
our natural urges. For example, we all have natural
desires for pleasure, and we automatically
gravitate towards pleasurable activities such as
entertainment, romance, eating, and even social
drinking. With each of thesepleasurable activities, though,
thereare threedistinct habits that we
can develop. On the one hand, we might eat
too much, drink too much, and become
addicted
to all sorts of pleasurable activities. This is the
vice of overindulgence. At the opposite
extreme,
we might reject every form of pleasure that
comes our way, and live like monks locked in
their
monasterycells. This is the vice of insensibility,
insofar as we have become desensitized to
the
happiness that pleasures can bring us. There is,
though, a third habitual response to pleasure
that
stands midway between thesetwo extremes: We can
enjoy a wide range of pleasures in
28. moderate
amounts, and this is the virtue of temperance.
Jeff Daly/Picture Group via AP Images
This 2011 photo shows rows of Bernie Madoff’s shoes, which
U.S. marshals put up for auction, along with many of his other
belongings, to help repay the victims of his crimes.
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CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Moral Standards
According to Aristotle, most virtues and vicesmatch
this scheme:
• There is a natural urge,
• there is a vice of excess,
• there is a vice of deficiency, and
• there is a virtue at the middle
position between the two extremes.
Take the virtue of courage, which is driven by
our natural fear of danger. If we go to an
excess, we
develop the vice of rashness, where we lose all
fear of danger and rush into hazardous situations
that might kill us. If we are deficient in
courage, we become timid and develop the
vice of coward-
liness. The virtuous middle ground of courage is
one in which we respect the dangers before
29. us
but, when the circumstances are right, we rise
above our fears.
A largepart of our childhood involves cultivating
virtuous habits and avoiding vicious ones,
and
during our formative years our parents bear much
of the responsibility to shape us in
virtuous
directions. As I become older, though, the
responsibility becomes mine alone, and I must
think
carefully about exactly where that virtuous middle
ground is. How much habitual eating can I
do
before I become overindulgent? How much can I
habitually hide from danger before I become a
coward? Finding that perfect middle ground,
Aristotle says, is not easy,but it is something
that
the moral person must figure out nonetheless.
Madoff did not even come close. His desires
for
wealth, power, and fame were so all-consuming that
the virtue of temperance became out of
reach for him.
Duties
A small computer software company named Plurk
accused the software giantMicrosoft of com-
putercode theft. The product in question was
blogging software that Microsoft developed for its
market in China and which it hoped would
30. catch hold in that country the way Facebook
has in
the United States. Around 80% of the computer
code for Microsoft’s product was lifted directly
from blogging software created by Plurk. Microsoft
apologized for the episode and said that the
fault rested with an outside company it had hiredto
develop the blogging software. It was that
outside company that copied Plurk’s computer code
(Nystedt, 2009). The irony is that Microsoft
zealously guards against software piracy and code
theft of its own products, but here it did that
very thing, even if only indirectly. In this
situation, therewas no moral gray area: Theft is
wrong,
the evidence for code theft was incontestable, and
Microsoft had no choice but to immediately
admit to it and apologize.
This Microsoft case highlights the fact that thereare at
least someprinciples of morality that we all
clearly recognize and endorse. One moral theory in
particular emphasizes the obvious and intui-
tive nature of moral principles. Duty theory is
the position that moral standards are grounded in
instinctive obligations—or duties—that we have.
It is also called deontological theory, from
the
Greek word for duty.The idea behind duty theory is
that we are all born with basicmoral prin-
ciples or guidelinesembedded in us, and we use
theseto judge the morality of people’s actions.
There are two approaches to duty theory. First,
31. somemoral theorists hold that we have a long
catalog of instinctive obligations. The list of
the Ten Commandments is a classic
example. Among
those listed are obligations not to kill, steal,
bear false witness, or covet your neighbor’s
things.
These are all basicmoral principles that cultures
around the world have endorsed from the earliest
11
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CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Moral Standards
times. If you are thinking about stealing your
neighbor’s car, theseprinciples tell you that it
would
be wrong to do so. With enough principles like
these, we will have somestandard for judging a
wide range of human actions. Many moral
philosophers have developed and expanded the list of
our intuitive duties beyond the Ten Commandments
to include a few dozen of them.
The second approach is that thereis a single
instinctive principle of duty that we all should
fol-
low; the Golden Rule is the best example of this.
That is, I should do to others what I
32. would want
them to do to me. If I am thinking about
stealing someone’s car, I should consider
whether I
would want someone to steal my car. If I am
thinking about lyingto someone, I should
consider
whether I would want someone to lie to me. So
too with good actions: When considering
whether
I should donate to charity, I should
consider how I would feel if I were a
needy person dependent
on the charity of others. Like those in the
Ten Com-
mandments, the Golden Rule is a time-honored
moral
principle that we find in cultural traditions around
the
world, dating back thousands of years.
In more recent times, one of the most influential
theo-
ries of duty is that developed by the German
philoso-
pher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804). Inspired by
the
Golden Rule, Kant offered a single principle of
moral
duty,which he called the “categorical
imperative”—
a term which simply means “absolute
command”
(1785/1996). The categorical imperative, for Kant,
was this: Treat people as an end, and never
merely as
33. a means to an end. His pointwas that we should
treat
all people as beings that have value in and of
them-
selves, and not treat anyone as a mere instrument
for
our own advantage.
There are two parts to his point. The first
involves
treating people as ends that have value in
and of
themselves. We value many things in life,
such as our
cars, our homes, and a good job. Mostof the things
we value, though, have only instrumental value, that
is, value as a means for achieving something
else. Our
cars are instruments of transportation. Our homes
are
instruments of shelter. Our jobs are instruments of
obtaining money.
Other times, though, we appreciatethings because
they have intrinsic value: We value them for
the special qualities that they have in and of
themselves, and not because of any instrumental
value that they have. Human happiness has
intrinsic value, and so too do experiences of
beauty
and friendship. The first part of the categorical
imperative, then, says that we should treat all
people as beings with intrinsic value and regard
34. them as highly as we would our own
happiness.
If I steal someone’s car, I am not respecting
the owner the way I value my own
happiness. The
second part of the categorical imperative is
that we should not treat people as things
that have
mere instrumental value. People are not tools or
objects that we should manipulate for our
own
gratification. If steal a car, I am using the
owner for my own gain.
Copyright Bettmann/Corbis/AP Images
Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), the German
philosopher who developed the moral
principle of the categorical imperative, stat-
ing that we should treat people as an end,
and never merely as a means to an end.
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CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Moral Standards
Like the Golden Rule, the categorical imperative
provides a litmus test for determining
whether
any action is right or wrong. It not only detects
immoral actions such as lyingand stealing, but it
35. also tells us when actions are moral. When I
donate to charity, for example, I am
thinking of the
value of the needy people who will benefit
from my contribution; I am not merely
thinking of any
benefit that I may receive through my charity.
In the business world, thereare occasionally times
when an action is so obviously wrong
that
thereis no pointin defending it. That was true of
Microsoft and also of Madoff, who immediately
admitted to his crime once his company became
insolvent. In cases like these, duty theory is
at its
best. In othercases, though, morality is a little
more blurry. Napster is a good example. Napster
was the first widely used peer-to-peer file-sharing
program, and it enabled usersto easily pirate
MP3 music files,directly violating the copyrights of
record companies. While this at first appears
to be a clear case of a software product that
intentionally enabled usersto steal, many
people
within the music industry itselfdefended Napster.
Record companies had become stuck in
their
old ways of selling records and CDs and had not
developed a good mechanism for consumers to
purchase MP3 files separately at a reasonable price.
Napster entered the music market as a
36. rogue
competitor, and forced record companies to be
more responsive to the needs of their
consumers.
In a sense, Napster was a positive forcewithin
the music industry. Duty theory may not be
well
suited for making moral pronouncements in
complex cases like Napster’s;othermoral
theories
discussed in this chapter may need to be drawn
upon.
Utilitarianism
Some years ago, a pesticide factory in Bhopal,
India, owned by Union Carbide, exploded,
killing
2,500 people and injuring an additional 300,000.
The active ingredient for the pesticide was stored
in 600-gal tanks. The size of the tanks
themselves was a problem. Larger tanks
are economically
efficient, sincethey hold more gas, but they pose greater
risks in case of a tank leak. For this rea-
son, regulations at a similar Union Carbide
factory in Germany required tank sizes to be
restricted
to 100 gal. Also, the tank that exploded in the
Indian plantwas supposed to be refrigerated to
0 °C.
Instead, the refrigeration unit was not working and
the tank was at roomtemperature. Although
the Indian factory had safety features to prevent
disasters, several of the safety systems were
37. not
functioning. The explosion started when someone
added water to a 600-gal tank of the
chemical,
perhaps an act of sabotage by a disgruntled
employee.The temperature in the tank rose in a
chain
reaction, and the tank blew up. A fog of the gas
drifted through the streets of Bhopal, killing
people
on the spotswhere they stood. Although Union
Carbide responded quickly and compassionately
to the disaster, the tragedy raised questions about
their views on safety in developing
countries.
All businesses make decisions based on a
cost-benefit analysis: They research both the costs
and
the benefits of a particular decision, then determine
whether the costsoutweigh the benefits or
vice versa. In Union Carbide’s case, they determined
that economic savings outweighed the eco-
nomic costsof stricter safety protocols. In
retrospect, it is clear that the company
miscalculated
and should have given greater weight to safety.
Cost-benefit analysis is the distinguishing feature of
the moral theory of utilitarianism: An action
is morally right if the consequences of that action
are more favorable than unfavorable to every-
one. When determining the morality of any given
action, we should list all of the good and
bad
38. consequences that would result, determine which
side is weightier, and judge the action to be
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CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Moral Standards
right if the good outweighs the bad. There are three
components to this theory. First, it empha-
sizes consequences. One of the founders of
utilitarianism was the British philosopher Jeremy
Ben-
tham (1748–1832), who argued that by focusing on
consequences, we make our moral judgments
more scientific (1789/1907). To ground morality in
the will of God requires that we have a special
ability to know God’s thoughts. To ground
morality in conscience or instinctive duties
requires that
we have special mental faculties and know how to
use them properly. None of this is precise,
and
it all relies too much on hunches. According
to Ben-
tham, a more scientific approach to morality
would
look only at the facts that everyone can plainly see,
and consequences of actions are those facts. If
I steal a
39. car, thereare very clear consequences: I gain a vehicle,
but I cause financial harmand distress to the
victim
and put myself at risk of a long stay in prison.
We all
can see theseconsequences and assess their weights.
Bentham held that we can even give numerical values
to the various consequences and mathematically cal-
culate whether the good outweighs the bad, a prac-
tice that we now call the utilitarian calculus. Not all
utilitarians go this far, but it does highlight the
central
role that publicly observed consequences play in the
utilitarian conception of morality.
The second component of utilitarianism is that it
focuses on the consequences of happiness and unhap-
piness. While businesses assess costs and
benefits
in terms of financial gains and losses,
utilitarianism
focuses instead on how our actions affect human
hap-
piness. Some utilitarians, like Bentham, emphasize
pleasure and pain; others emphasize goodness
and
badness; and still others emphasize overall benefit
and disbenefit. What they have in common, though,
is
that moral conduct is in someway linked with
human
happiness and immoral conduct with unhappiness.
40. The third component of utilitarianism is that we
need to assess the beneficial consequences of
actions as everyone is affected. If I am
thinking about stealing a car, I need to
consider the conse-
quences of my conduct for myself, my family,
the victim, the victim’s family, and anyone
else who
might be affected by my action. This is
reflected in utilitarianism’s famous motto that
we should
seek the greatest good for the greatest number of
people.
Because businesspeople are so familiar with financial
cost-benefit analysis, utilitarianism is a natu-
ral way to make moral assessments with
business decisions. Take the Bhopal catastrophe as
an
example. In retrospect, we can see that the
company and its stockholders gained a certain
amount
of benefit through financial savings from lax safety
regulations. However, at the same time,we can
see that this was greatly outweighed by the
disbenefit from the deaths and injuries. It also
created
disbenefits for the company itselfin terms of
bad public relations, lawsuits, and decreased stock
value. At the time,of course, Union Carbide
could not have known with certainty that its
lax safety
standards would have resulted in a disaster of
such magnitude. However, an impartial risk assess-
41. ment of its facility would have revealed that there
were serious safety hazards, and that alone
would have tipped the utilitarian scale.
Associated Press/nmg
Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832), the Brit-
ish philosopher who developed the moral
principle, which we now call the utilitarian
calculus, that morality is determined by
numerically tallying the degree of pleasure
and pain that arises from our actions.
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CHAPTER 1Section 1.5 Morality and Government
1.5 Morality and Government
In this final section, we will examine somemoral
theories that pertain to governments and the
laws that they create. From the start,it is
important to look at the boundaries that
separate moral-
ity and the law that governments create. What
they have in common is that they both command
us to behave in certain ways, and oftentheir
edicts are the same. It is immoral to
steal, and it is
also illegal. It is immoral to assault someone,
and it is also illegal.
However, there are many instances where
42. morality and legality do not overlap. Adultery, for
example, is immoral, but in the United States it
is not illegal in most states. So too with
cheating
on school exams. Similarly, thereare someactions
that are illegal but not immoral. Going 36 in
a
35-mph zone is illegal but not necessarily
immoral. Similarly, someinstances of mercy killing
may
be morally justifiable, even though they are
currently illegal.
Morality is an important source of inspiration
for the law, but it is not the last word on
the issue. In
business ethics, it is oftenimportant to consider
issues of morality and legality separately.
Perhaps
we will find someimmoral actions in business which
are not illegal but should be. Or we might
find
somemorally permissible actions that are illegal,
but should be made legal.
The threemain issues that we will focus on are
social-contract theory, human-rights theory, and
theories of governmental coercion. The driving
questions here are: What is the origin of
govern-
mental authority? What is the main purpose that
governments serve? What are the limits to
the
laws that governments can create?
The Social Contract
43. Business by its very nature is dog-eat-dog, where
one company tries to draw customers awayfrom
the competition, perhaps to the pointof putting
the competition out of business. Sometimes
efforts to succeed can go too far and involve
intentionally sabotaging the competition by
steal-
ing tradesecrets, publishing misleading attack
ads, or even vandalizing property. For example, an
owner of a pizza restaurant in Philadelphia
was charged with releasing mice into two competing
pizzerias. The owner went into the bathroom of one
competitor and placed a bag of mice in
the
drop ceiling. He then crossed the street, entered a
second one, and placed another bag of mice
into a garbage can. When caught and arrested, he
claimed that he was just getting even for his
competition doing the same thingto him (Kim,
2011).
Even though business is inherently cutthroat, thereare
still requirements for civil behavior and
limits on how far one can go in defeating the
competition. Without those requirements,
business
competition would descend into gang warfare and
ultimately destroy the economic playing field
that is required for businesses to even exist.
This is precisely the rationale behind social contract
theory: To preserve our individual lives, we
agree to set asideour hostilities towards each otherin
44. exchange for the peace that a civilized
society offers. The champion of this view is Thomas
Hobbes, who, as we saw earlier, defended the
theory of psychological egoism. Hobbes began by
having us thinkabout what the world would
be
like if therewere no governments and laws to keep
society peaceful. In his words, what would
the
state of nature be like, in which every person
was seeking to survive in competition with
everyone
else, without the protection of the government? His
answer was that it would be a condition of
war between every person, and two factors make
this so:
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CHAPTER 1Section 1.5 Morality and Government
1. First, life’s necessities are scarce, and it
is a constant struggle for us to adequately
supply
our basicneeds like food, clothing, and shelter.
2. Second, we are not by nature generous, and
we will not be inclined to share what we
have with others.
As a psychological egoist, Hobbes held that we
45. will
always be interested in our own personal
interests
and that we are not capable of acting towards
others
with true altruism. If we were capable of acting
self-
lessly, then we would peacefully divide up
the scarce
resources that we all need. If I find an apple,
and then
see that you are hungry, I will naturally be
inclined to
split the apple with you. But, according to Hobbes,
our
natural inclination towards selfishness prevents us
from
doing this. The result, then, is that the state of
nature
is really a state of war, which he vividly
describes here:
In such condition there is no place for
industry, because the fruit thereof is
uncertain, and consequently, no culture
of the earth, no navigation, nor use of
the commodities that may be imported
by sea, no commodious building, no
instruments of moving and removing
such things as require much force, no
knowledge of the face of the earth, no
account of time,no arts, no letters, no
society, and which is worst of all, con-
tinual fear and danger of violent death,
and the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty,
brutish, and short. (Hobbes, 1651/1994)
46. Within the state of nature, thereis no pointin
my even trying to growa garden, builda
home, or
furnish it: Someone would just come along
and take it from me by force.
How, then, do we escape from the horrible
conditions of the state of nature? The answer
for
Hobbes was the social contract, which has three
steps:
1. First, I must recognize that seeking peace is
the best way for me to preserve my life. I
will
always be selfish, and that will never change.
However, I must see that I can better my
own situation by seeking peace with my competition.
2. Second, I must negotiate a peace settlement
with you: I will set asidemy hostilities
towards you if you set asideyour hostilities towards
me. If we mutually agree to be civil
to each other, then we will both have the hope of
living better lives.
3. Third, we must establish a governmental
authority that will punish us if we break
our
agreement. Talk is cheap, and I can verbally
agree to a peace treaty with you but
then
attack you when your guard is down. And
you can do exactly the same thingto me. But if
47. we create a policing power to watch over
us, then I will be strongly motivated to hold to
my agreementwith you, and so will you.
Copyright Bettmann/Corbis/AP Images/Anonymous
Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679), the English
philosopher who developed the concept
of the social contract, and famously stated
that in the state of nature, “the life of man
[is] solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.”
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CHAPTER 1Section 1.5 Morality and Government
In the business world, it is essentially a
social-contract agreementthat keeps us from
sabotaging
our competitors. Our natural selfish inclination
might be to destroy our competition by
any means
necessary, but doing so would lead to a
savage state of war where we would all be
losers. The
best business strategy, then, is a negotiated peace
settlementwhere all businesses play by a
set of
rules. To keep us from cheating on those rules,
thereare governing bodies such as governments
and professional business associations that can punish
48. us when we break them. Business is
still
motivated by self-interest, but it is now constrained
to be civil.
Human Rights
The U.S. CivilWar was in many ways the result of
a business-ethics dispute. The earliest Spanish
settlers of North America brought African slaves
with them to help cultivate the land and build
towns, and slavery quickly became integral to
business activities throughout the colonies. By
the
time of the American Revolution, slavery in the
North had declined, partly because of a
manufac-
turing economy where it cost more to own and
maintain slaves than the slaves could
economically
produce. However, in the agricultural economy of
the South, slavelaborwas still cost-effective.
As the antislavery movementtook hold,Southern
slaveholders asked who would compensate
them for their financial investment in their slaves if
the slaves were to be freed. There were no
clear answers to this question, and so the slaveholders
saw abolitionism as a direct threat to
their
economic rights. They saw the North as posturing to
steal their property and gut their capacity to
compete in the agricultural marketplace.
We now see slavery as one of the worst
chapters in American history, regardless of the
49. economic
argumentsof the slaveholders. And even today, we
are horrified to hear of slavery-like condi-
tions around the world, where laborers are
sometimes kidnappedor otherwise coerced into
working in sweatshops or on farms with
grueling hours, horrible conditions, and meager
pay. We
see theseas rights violations that can never be
morally justified by any economic benefit to
the
business owner.
The central idea here is that of a right, which
is a justified claim against another
person’s behavior.
For example, I can rightfully claim that you cannot
steal from me, torture me, enslave me, or kill
me. I am making a claim about what you
can and cannot do. When asserting our various
rights, it
is important to distinguish between two types:
• Legal rights are those created by
governments. The government, for example, has
estab-
lished laws that grantme the right to drivewhen I
reach a certain age, or carrycertain
types of weapons, or visit publicly owned parks.
• Human rights—alsocalled natural rights—are not
created by governments but are rights
all people around the world have regardless of
the country in which they live. The rights
against slavery and torture are commonly listed
among these.
50. There are threedistinct features of human rights:
• They are natural in the sense that we
are born with them. They are not given to us
by the
government or any otherhuman institution, but
are part of our identity by our merely
being born as human beings.
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CHAPTER 1Section 1.5 Morality and Government
• They are universal in that all humans
worldwide
possess them. No matter who you are or where
you live, you have human rights.
• They are equal in the sense that we all
have the
same list of fundamental human rights, and no
one has more or fewer than another person.
The concept of human rights was first developed by
the English philosopher John Locke (1632–1704),
who
argued that by nature everyone has the basicrights
to life, health, liberty, and possessions. God gives
51. us
thesewhen we are born, and we retain them
through-
out life, so long as we do not violate the rights
of oth-
ers. For Locke, the right to acquire possessions
was
the source of our economic freedom and the ability
to conduct business transactions. Once I
rightfully
acquire possessions, I can keep them or sell them as
I
see fit. However, just as Hobbes warned, the world
is
a nasty place, and many out therewill want to
violate
my rights and take what I have. According to
Locke,
we establish governments specifically for the pur-
pose of protecting our fundamental rights: We sub-
contract to the government the job of keeping
the
peace. If the government adequately performs
its
task of protecting our rights, then we all benefit. If
the government fails in that task, however, we have a
right to overthrow the government and
replace it with a better one that can more
adequately do its job.
Thomas Jefferson, when penning the Declaration of
Independence, latched onto this exact part
of Locke’s theory:
52. We hold thesetruths to be self-evident, that all
men are created equal, that they
are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable
Rights, that among these
are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.
That, to secure theserights, Gov-
ernments are instituted among Men,deriving their just
Powers from the consent
of the governed. That, whenever any form of
Government becomes destructive
of theseends, it is the Right of the People
to alter or to abolish it, and to institute
new Government.
Through Jefferson, the concept of human rights
has become embedded into the American mind-
set, and it has inspired countries around the world
to similarly acknowledge human rights.
But the concept of human rights took its modern
form through a document called the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights, which was adopted
by the United Nations General Assembly in
1948.
The Universal Declaration reiterates the same core set of
human rights as Locke and Jefferson:
“Everyone has the right to life, liberty and
security of person” (1948, Article 3).
However, the docu-
ment continues by listing a range of very specific
rights, such as thesepertaining to businesses:
Copyright Bettmann/Corbis/AP Images/Anonymous
John Locke (1632–1704), the English phi-
53. losopher who developed the concept of
natural rights and the right of citizens to
overthrow governments that fail to protect
their rights.
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CHAPTER 1Section 1.5 Morality and Government
1. Everyone has the right to work,
to free choice of employment,
to just and favourable condi-
tions of work and to protection
against unemployment.
2. Everyone, without any discrimi-
nation, has the right to equal
pay for equal work.
3. Everyone who works has the
right to just and favourable
remuneration ensuring for him-
self and his family an existence
worthy of human dignity, and
supplemented, if necessary, by
othermeans of social protection.
4. Everyone has the right to form
and to join tradeunions for the
protection of his interests.
Everyone has the right to rest and leisure,
54. including reasonable limitation of work-
ing hours and periodic holidays with pay.
(Universal Declaration of Human Rights,
1948, Articles 23–24)
Although not all of the human rights listed in
the Uni-
versal Declaration have yet become a reality
around
the world, it is nevertheless the standard
towards
which all countries within the United Nations
have
pledged to work.
Principles of Governmental Coercion
To effectively compete in the marketplace,
businesses
are continually pushing the boundaries of tasteful
adver-
tising. Presenting shocking and even offensive images
in advertisements will attract attention, and may gen-
erate sales. A quick online image search
for “offensive
advertisement” will reveal a range of troubling
ads that
are sexually explicit, demeaning to women or
minority
groups, or offensive to religious groups. A case in
point
is an advertisement by the Italian clothing
company
Benetton that contained an altered image of the
Catho-
55. lic pope romantically kissing a Muslim imam. In
keeping with the company’s theme of
multicultural-
ism, a spokesperson said that “the meaning of this
campaign is exclusively to combat the culture
of
hatred in all its forms” (Rocca, 2011). When
the Vatican threatened to sue, Benetton
removed the ad.
What Would You Do?
Say you are a midlevel supervisor at
a sportswear company that special-
izes in athletic footwear. You have just
found out that someof your manu-
facturing facilities in Bangladesh hire
childworkers as young as age 10. They
work 14 hours a day, 7 days a week,
and receive wages as low as 20 cents
an hour. You know that this is a clear
human-rights violation.
1. Would you discuss your moral
concerns with your superiors in
the company?
2. Suppose you did discuss your con-
cerns with them and their response
was essentially that this was stan-
dard practice in Asian countries,
and what your company was doing
was no different from what any
othercompany does that has tex-
tile facilities in those countries.
Also, if your company set higher
56. standards, it would not be able
to compete in the marketplace.
Would this explanation satisfy you?
3. Suppose that the response of your
superiors was that they acknowl-
edged the problem and were
working on it, but that it would
take several years before this prac-
tice could be eliminated. Would
this explanation satisfy you?
4. Suppose that your company stated
in its advertising and packaging
that no childlaborwas used in
manufacturing its products. You
knew, though, that this was not
true. Would you bring this to the
attention of a government agency?
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CHAPTER 1Section 1.5 Morality and Government
While ads like Benetton’s may be offensive to
somepeople, they nevertheless may be perfectly
legal. That raises the question of how bad an
action needs to be before the government
stepsin
and makes it illegal. All governments are
coercive in the sense that they forceus to
conform to
57. laws under threat of punishment. PepsiCo would
not burn down Coca-Cola’s company headquar-
ters, even if it wanted to, because of how the
government would punish it. But governments
can-
not randomly single out someactions as criminal
and allow others to be legal. There
are reasons
why someactions are prohibitedand others are not.
There are four common justifications of gov-
ernmental coercion: the harmprinciple, the offense
principle, the principle of legal paternalism,
and the principle of legal moralism.
The first is the harm principle: Governments may restrict
our conduct when it harms otherpeople.
Burning down Coca-Cola’s headquarters could
injure and kill many people, and would
undoubt-
edly cause financial harmto the company. However,
for the government to step in and outlaw
harmful actions, the injury must be serious, not
trivial. For example, almost all fast-food
products
are harmful in comparison to organic food
alternatives. However, serving unhealthy food is
far less
serious than serving food tainted with salmonella,
which causes severe illness and even death.
Thus, the government cannot reasonably outlaw
fast food, whereas it justifiablycan do so
with
salmonella-tainted food.
Second is the offense principle: Governments may
58. keep us from offending others. We cannot
walk naked through the streets, be publicly
intoxicated, or shout obscenities in
playgrounds. As
with the harmprinciple, the offense principle also looks
at the degree to which a particular action
is objectionable: Is it outrageously offensive or
merely a nuisance? Benetton’s ad touches on
this
very issue. It was certainly offensive to specific
groups of Catholics and Muslims, but whether it
was deeply offensive to society at largeis another
matter. Again, Benetton’s ad was perfectly
legal,
which means that in our present cultural
climate, it was not offensive enough to be
illegal.
Third is the principle of legal paternalism, which
is a sister concept to the harmprinciple.
While
the harmprinciple focuses on the harmour actions
cause to otherpeople, legal paternalism looks
at the harmthat we cause ourselves through our
actions and maintains that the government can
restrict such conduct. I can hurt myself by
participating in a dangerous sportsuch as cliff
diving or
by working in a dangerous occupation such as
tree trimming. When the government mandates
that I wear a seat belt when driving, the concern
is principally with protecting me from my own
careless conduct. The term paternalism comes from
59. that Latin word for father, which implies
that
the government is overseeing my conduct in
the way that parents try to protect their
children. But
does the government have any business in doing
this? Yet again, the question is one of degree.
With our stupidest and most dangerous actions, we may
want the government to protect us from
ourselves. However, with an action that does not cause
serious harmto me, I may want the gov-
ernment to just leave me alone.
Finally, thereis legal moralism: Governments may
restrict conduct that is especially sinful or
immoral. Prime examples of this are laws against
blasphemy and somesex acts, such as sodomy.
The question here is not whether a type of conduct
is harmful to others, publicly offensive, or
harmful to oneself. It is a matter of
whether an act, even when done privately, crosses
some
moral boundary that justifies the government’s
stepping in. Of all the principles of govern-
mental coercion, legal moralism is probably the
weakest. One reason is that many moral
and
religious standards vary widely, and by outlawing an
action solely on moral or religious
grounds,
the government may be unfairly adopting the
standards of one cultural group and applying
them to everyone.
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CHAPTER 1Section 1.6 Conclusion
Although legal moralism may be the weakest of the
four principles, someof the others may also be
seri-
ously questionable. The British philosopher John
Stuart Mill argued that, in fact, only one principle of
governmental coercion is justifiable, namely the
harm
principle. The government has no right to restrict
our
conduct on the otherthreegrounds. In Mill’s words:
The only purpose for which power can
be rightfully exercised over any member
of a civilized community, against his will,
is to prevent harm to others. His own
good, either physical or moral, is not a
sufficient warrant (1859/1999).
The reason, according to Mill, is that a wide sphere
of personal liberty is essential for a happy
society,
and that includes the possibility of offending others,
harming ourselves, or crossing sometraditional moral
boundary. Do we want to decide for ourselves what
61. makes us happy, or do we want the government
to do
so? From Mill’s perspective, I am a better
judge of my
own happiness than the government ever could be,
and society on the whole will be a happier
place when
we are each allowed that freedom.
All of theseprinciples of governmental coercion apply
to businesses just as they do to individual
people.
Again, with Benetton, although their ad was offensive
to somegroups, the offense was not serious or
widespread enough to justify its being
illegal. But
with many ad campaigns, merely being legal
may not be good enough. Public opinion can be
as
coercive as any government-imposed restriction. If
Microsoft, PepsiCo, or any otherFortune 500
company published an ad with the pope kissing a
Muslim, the backlash would likely be
financially
crippling. Catholics and Muslims worldwide might
boycott their products. Benetton is a much
smaller company, with a specialized market niche
and a history of using shocking ads to
get con-
sumers’ attention. Not so with Microsoft and PepsiCo,
which have much broader customer bases
worldwide. With them, consumer coercion is as
powerful as governmental coercion.
1.6 Conclusion
62. In this chapter we have looked at a wide
spectrum of classic moral theories and showed
how
they apply to an equally broad spectrum of
business ethics issues. These are moral
theories
that, 1,000 years from now, will be just as
important as they are today; in a sense,
they define
the moral thought process for humans. The
philosophers who proposed thesevarious theories
were not always in agreementwith each other; in
fact, they rejected many rival moral theories.
Bentham believed that all moral and social issues
should be decided solely using the
utilitarian
principle, not through theories about religion, virtue,
duty,social contracts, or human rights.
Copyright Bettmann/Corbis/AP Images/Anonymous
John Stuart Mill (1806–1873), a British
philosopher who defended personal lib-
erty and argued that government should
restrict our conduct only when we harm
others, not when we merely offend others,
harm ourselves, or behave immorally.
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CHAPTER 1Summary
63. Similarly, Kant believed that the categorical imperative
was the single moral litmus test. But
exclusive claims like theseare much like efforts at
brand loyalty in the business world.
Walmart
would like us to shop at only their stores. Coca-
Cola would like us to drink only their beverages.
Exxon would like us to buy only their gas. But in
the real world, our purchasing habits are
more
diverse and we are drawn to a range of
different stores and products.
So too with moral theories: In the real world,
when we reflect on moral issues, some
theories will
be more relevant or illuminating than others.
Bentham’s utilitarianism may be helpful with
some
types of moral evaluations, but not with others.
The same is true for the othertheories that we
have examined.We are trapped in a morally
complex world that demands that we make
moral
choices. One way or another we will do that, and
drawing on all of the various moral
theories can
help make the job easier.
In the following chapters of this book, all of
the issues covered can be analyzed using
theseclassic
moral theories. As authors, though, we have not
forced that approach. Issues such as pricefixing,
64. corporate punishment, consumer advocacy, insider trading,
and others are challenging enough in
their own right, without the added intricacies of
a utilitarian or duty-theory analysis. Neverthe-
less, classic moral theories are always lurking in
the background of most of thesediscussions.
Does
a particular government regulation serve the greatest
good for the greatest number of people? Do
affirmative action policies violate the rights of
majority groups? Do we have special moral
duties
to protect the environment? A full evaluation of
business-ethics issues may greatly benefit from
the contributions of classic moral theories.
Summary
We began this chapter looking at theories of
where morality comes from and the debate
between
moral objectivism and moral relativism. Moral
objectivists claim that moral standards are
not cre-
ated by human beings, are unchanging, and are
universal. Moral relativists hold the opposite view,
that moralstandards are created by human beings,
change from society to society, and are not
universal. Also relevant to the question of where
morality comes from is the connection
between
religion and ethics. Divine command theory is
the position that moral standards are created by
God’s will, but we saw somechallenges to this
view. Religious ethical theories also commonly
65. hold
that religious believers have a special moral ability;
we looked at challenges to this view as
well.
We next looked at ways in which our human
psychological makeup might affect how we
view
morality. One issueconcerns our ability to act
selflessly. Psychological egoists hold that human
conduct is selfishly motivated and we cannot
perform actions from any othermotive. By
contrast,
psychological altruists hold that people are at least
occasionally capable of acting selflessly. Also
of relevance is how gender shapes men’s and
women’s conceptions of morality. Care ethics is
the
theory that women see morality as the need to
care for people who are in situations of vulner-
ability and dependency.
One of the central concerns of ethical theory is
to present and explain the moral standards
that
guide our behavior. One such approach is virtue
theory, which is the view that morality is
grounded
in the virtuous character traitsthat people acquire.
According to Aristotle, virtues are good mental
habits that regulate our urges and stand at a
mean between vicesof deficiency and vicesof
excess.
Another approach is duty theory, which holds
that moral standards are grounded in instinctive
66. 22
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CHAPTER 1Summary
obligations. Some duty theories propose a list of
obligations, such as the Ten Commandments,
and
others propose a single principle, such as the
Golden Rule. Kant offered a single
principle that he
called the categorical imperative, which states
that we should treat people as an end and
never
as a means to an end. A third approach is
the theory of utilitarianism, which holds
that an action
is morally right if the consequences of that action
are more favorable than unfavorable to every-
one. Bentham developed the idea of the utilitarian
calculus, whereby numerical values could be
assigned to the positive and negative consequences of
actions.
The final component of this chapter explored the
relationship between morality and government.
One major theory on this is social contract
theory. Hobbes described a warring state of
nature gen-
erated by human selfishness and scarcity of
necessities. The solution is the social
67. contract, which
holds that, to preserve our individual lives, we
agree to set asideour hostilities towards each
other
in exchange for the peace that a civilized society
offers. A second important theory on the
relation-
ship between morality and government is the concept
of human rights. These are rights that
are
not created by government, but are held equally by
all people around the world regardless of
the
country in which they live. The theory was
developed by Locke, who held that by nature,
everyone
has the basicrights to life, health, liberty, and
possessions. People establish governments for
the
purpose of protecting those fundamental rights,
and governments can be overthrown when
they
fail to perform that task. A third theory on the
relation between morality and government
involves
four principles of governmental coercion. They are the
harmprinciple, whereby governments may
restrict our conduct when it harms otherpeople;
the offense principle, which restricts our behav-
ior that offends others; legal paternalism, which
restricts an individual’s actions that harmhim- or
herself; and legal moralism, which restricts especially
sinful or immoral conduct. Mill argued that
only the harmprinciple is justified, and the otherthree
are not.
68. Discussion Questions
1. There are several theories about where
moral values come from, including moral
objec-
tivism, moral relativism, and divine-command
theory. Which if any of thesetheories
works best when understanding the moral
obligations of businesses?
2. Assume that the theory of psychological egoism
is true, that all human actions are self-
ishly motivated. Is therea way that the decision-
making process within a largecorpora-
tion can overcome this fact of human selfishness?
Could the corporation, for example,
establish a charity program that was designed only to
benefit the needy, with no public
relations benefit to the company at all?
3. According to virtue theory, to be morally
good people we should develop virtuous habits
like courage, temperance, wisdom, and justice. Can
therebe such a thingas a “virtuous
corporation”? If so, what are the virtuous habits
that it would need to have?
4. According to duty theory, thereare fundamental
principles of moral obligation that we
all know instinctively, such as do not kill or
steal. Are thereany fundamental principles of
business ethics that everyone in business
automatically knows they should follow?
69. 5. According to Kant’s theory of the
categorical imperative, we should treat people
as an
end, and never merely as a means to an
end. Think of an example in business that
vio-
lates this principle and explain how it does that.
6. Consider the issueof childlabormentioned in
the “What Would You Do?”box. Use a
utilitarian analysis to determine whether use of such
laborwould be morally permissible
for your company.
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CHAPTER 1Summary
7. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights
lists several rights that pertain to businesses
(see that list in the chapter). Would you agree
that all of those are genuine human
rights? Explain.
8. There are four principles of governmental
coercion that explain why the government is
justified in restrictingour actions. It is clear how
the harmprinciple applies directly to
businesses: Businesses should not engage in
conduct that causes serious harmto others,
such as by manufacturing unsafe products, dumping
70. toxicwaste, or having unsafe work-
ing conditions for employees. Explain how the
otherthreeprinciples of governmental
coercion might apply to business conduct.
Key Terms
care ethics The theory that women see moral-
ity as the need to care for people who are in
situations of vulnerability and dependency.
categorical imperative The moral principle
proposed by Immanuel Kant that we should
treat people as an end, and never merely as a
means to an end.
cost benefit analysis The economic model-
ing of a project to check whether the
benefits
outweigh the costs.
divine-command theory The view that moral
standards are created by God’s will.
duty theory The view that moral standards
are grounded in instinctive obligations, that is,
duties.
ethics An organized analysis of values relating
to human conduct, with respect to their right-
ness and wrongness.
Foreign Corrupt Practices Act A U.S. Federal
law regulating the operation of U.S. companies
in foreign countries, which includes an anti-
71. bribery provision.
harm principle The view that governments
may restrict our conduct when it harms other
people.
human rights Rights that are not created by
government, but held by all people around
the world regardless of the country in which
they live.
legal moralism The view that governments
may restrict conduct that is especially sinful or
immoral.
legal paternalism The view that governments
can restrict the conduct of an individual who
harms him- or herself.
legal rights Rights that are created by
governments.
moral objectivism The theory that moral stan-
dards are not created by human beings, are
unchanging, and are universal.
moral relativism The theory that moral stan-
dards are created by human beings, change
from society to society, and are not universal.
offense principle The view that governments
may keep us from offending others.
psychological altruism The theory that human
beings are at least occasionally capable of act-
ing selflessly.
72. psychological egoism The theory that human
conduct is selfishly motivated and we cannot
perform actions from any othermotive.
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CHAPTER 1Summary
right A justified claim against another person’s
behavior.
social-contract theory The moral and political
theory that, to preserve our individual lives,
we agree to set asideour hostilities towards
each otherin exchange for the peace that a
civilized society offers.
utilitarianism The theory that an action is mor-
ally right if the consequences of that action are
more favorable than unfavorable to everyone.
virtue theory The view that morality is
grounded in the virtuous character traitsthat
people acquire.
virtues Good habits of character that result in
morally proper behavior.
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