This document provides instructions for an essay assignment due on February 26th. Students are asked to write a 300-450 word MLA formatted essay analyzing Ernest Nagel's essay "Does God Exist?". The essay should follow an outlined structure: introduce the writer and essay, briefly summarize the essay and state the direction of the student's essay, discuss the three classical arguments for God's existence that Nagel provides and his views on each, discuss Nagel's argument against Kant's "blunder" and the role of evil in his argument, and conclude with Nagel's conclusions. Students are instructed to follow this outline structure and format their paper according to the provided instructions.
Title of Report in Initial Capital LettersArial (24 point.docxherthalearmont
Title of Report in Initial Capital Letters:
Arial (24 points, Boldface) and
No More Than Three Lines
Your Name
Name of Your Department
Name of Your Institution
Date
Title of Report in Initial Capital Letters:
Arial (18 points, Boldface) and
No More Than Three Lines
Your Name
Name of Your Department
Name of Your Institution
Date
Summary
Here you present a one- or two-paragraph summary of the report. This summary should stand alone (no reference to figures or tables in the text) and present the most important results of the work. Replace all writing in blue with your own writing. The line spacing for this paragraph is to be single-spaced, which is common in professional reports (note that graduate theses and dissertations are often space and a half). Please indent all paragraphs in this document. XXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX.
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX.
Table of Contents
Summary
i
Introduction
1
Second Major Heading
X
First Subheading (If Subheadings Exist)
X
Second Subheading (If Subheadings Exist)
X
Third Subheading (If One Exists)
X
Third Major Heading
X
First Subheading (If Subheadings Exist)
X
Second Subheading (If Subheadings Exist)
X
Third Subheading (If One Exists)
X
Fourth Major Heading
X
Conclusions
X
Appendix A: Title of Appendix A
X
Appendix B: Title of Appendix B
X
References
X
Introduction
Headings are 14 points, flush left, and boldfaced. Use initial capitals. A good typeface for the heading is Arial, because it holds bold facing well. To preserve hierarchy, allot three line skips before the heading and two line skips after. In the “Introduction,” make sure that you orient the audience with sufficient background to understand what the problem is and why the problem was addressed. In this format, you formally reference the problem memo. A good test for this section is to imagine how well it would orient you should you read it a year from now. Also in the “Introduction,” be sure to state what the topic includes and any limitations about the topic.
Indent all paragraphs. Also, you may place 6 points between paragraphs, but do not place more—that would upset the special hierarchy of the headings and subheadings. In addition, make sure that you use the paragraph of the “Introduction” to map the report. This mapping serves as a transition to the report's middle.
Second Major Heading
Headings are 14 points, flush left, and boldfaced ...
Title of Report in Initial Capital LettersArial (24 point.docxherthalearmont
Title of Report in Initial Capital Letters:
Arial (24 points, Boldface) and
No More Than Three Lines
Your Name
Name of Your Department
Name of Your Institution
Date
Title of Report in Initial Capital Letters:
Arial (18 points, Boldface) and
No More Than Three Lines
Your Name
Name of Your Department
Name of Your Institution
Date
Summary
Here you present a one- or two-paragraph summary of the report. This summary should stand alone (no reference to figures or tables in the text) and present the most important results of the work. Replace all writing in blue with your own writing. The line spacing for this paragraph is to be single-spaced, which is common in professional reports (note that graduate theses and dissertations are often space and a half). Please indent all paragraphs in this document. XXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX.
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX.
Table of Contents
Summary
i
Introduction
1
Second Major Heading
X
First Subheading (If Subheadings Exist)
X
Second Subheading (If Subheadings Exist)
X
Third Subheading (If One Exists)
X
Third Major Heading
X
First Subheading (If Subheadings Exist)
X
Second Subheading (If Subheadings Exist)
X
Third Subheading (If One Exists)
X
Fourth Major Heading
X
Conclusions
X
Appendix A: Title of Appendix A
X
Appendix B: Title of Appendix B
X
References
X
Introduction
Headings are 14 points, flush left, and boldfaced. Use initial capitals. A good typeface for the heading is Arial, because it holds bold facing well. To preserve hierarchy, allot three line skips before the heading and two line skips after. In the “Introduction,” make sure that you orient the audience with sufficient background to understand what the problem is and why the problem was addressed. In this format, you formally reference the problem memo. A good test for this section is to imagine how well it would orient you should you read it a year from now. Also in the “Introduction,” be sure to state what the topic includes and any limitations about the topic.
Indent all paragraphs. Also, you may place 6 points between paragraphs, but do not place more—that would upset the special hierarchy of the headings and subheadings. In addition, make sure that you use the paragraph of the “Introduction” to map the report. This mapping serves as a transition to the report's middle.
Second Major Heading
Headings are 14 points, flush left, and boldfaced ...
Fog computing or fog networking, also known as fogging, is an architecture that uses edge devices to carry out a substantial amount of computation, storage, and communication locally and routed over the internet backbone.
With the Technological advancements, it is well understood that more and more objects are getting connected together. These objects are becoming more smarter to handle many operations through its inter connectivity. Rather than requiring devices to go through the network backbone infrastructure, fog computing permits devices to connect directly with their destination with ease and allows them to handle their connections and tasks. As a result, fog computing improves quality of service, reduces latency, and gives a more satisfactory user experience.
Paper Title (use style paper title)Note Sub-titles are not.docxaman341480
Paper Title* (use style: paper title)
*Note: Sub-titles are not captured in Xplore and should not be used
line 1: 1st Given Name Surname
line 2: dept. name of organization
(of Affiliation)
line 3: name of organization
(of Affiliation)
line 4: City, Country
line 5: email address
line 1: 4th Given Name Surname
line 2: dept. name of organization(of Affiliation)
line 3: name of organization
(of Affiliation)
line 4: City, Country
line 5: email address
line 1: 2nd Given Name Surname
line 2: dept. name of organization
(of Affiliation)
line 3: name of organization
(of Affiliation)
line 4: City, Country
line 5: email address
line 1: 5th Given Name Surname
line 2: dept. name of organization
(of Affiliation)
line 3: name of organization
(of Affiliation)
line 4: City, Country
line 5: email address
line 1: 3rd Given Name Surname
line 2: dept. name of organization
(of Affiliation)
line 3: name of organization
(of Affiliation)
line 4: City, Country
line 5: email address
line 1: 6th Given Name Surname
line 2: dept. name of organization
(of Affiliation)
line 3: name of organization
(of Affiliation)
line 4: City, Country
line 5: email address
Abstract—This electronic document is a “live” template and already defines the components of your paper [title, text, heads, etc.] in its style sheet. *CRITICAL: Do Not Use Symbols, Special Characters, Footnotes, or Math in Paper Title or Abstract. (Abstract)
Keywords—component, formatting, style, styling, insert (key words)
I. Introduction (Heading 1)
This template, modified in MS Word 2007 and saved as a “Word 97-2003 Document” for the PC, provides authors with most of the formatting specifications needed for preparing electronic versions of their papers. All standard paper components have been specified for three reasons: (1) ease of use when formatting individual papers, (2) automatic compliance to electronic requirements that facilitate the concurrent or later production of electronic products, and (3) conformity of style throughout a conference proceedings. Margins, column widths, line spacing, and type styles are built-in; examples of the type styles are provided throughout this document and are identified in italic type, within parentheses, following the example. Some components, such as multi-leveled equations, graphics, and tables are not prescribed, although the various table text styles are provided. The formatter will need to create these components, incorporating the applicable criteria that follow.
II. Ease of Use
A. Selecting a Template (Heading 2)
First, confirm that you have the correct template for your paper size. This template has been tailored for output on the A4 paper size. If you are using US letter-sized paper, please close this file and download the Microsoft Word, Letter file.
B. Maintaining the Integrity of the Specifications
The template is used to format your paper and style the text. All margins, column widths, line spaces, and text fonts are prescribed; please do n.
New folderfac_lee023_HW06_WR5_FuncDecomp (3).pdfECE380 Pr.docxcurwenmichaela
New folder/fac_lee023_HW06_WR5_FuncDecomp (3).pdf
ECE380 Professional Seminar
Spring 2017
HW5 (WR5): Functional Decomposition
Date assigned: 3/13/17, Monday
Due date: Noon, 3/20/17, Monday
Max points: 20 pts.
Description:
Written Report 5 is on completing 3-level (i.e., Level 0, Level 1, and Level 2) functional
decomposition of your project. Each student shall individually submit one report that
shows complete functional decomposition of the project but also clearly identified
individual responsibilities for implementation. As such, all team members of a project
should first discuss and come up with a complete set of Level 1 subsystems that could be
implemented under balanced workloads among the team members. Then, each member
shall further elaborate his/her assigned Level 1 subsystems into Level 2.
This report should include block diagrams of all Level 0 ~ Level 2 subsystems and
corresponding tables of ALL subsystems with module name, inputs, outputs,
functionality (see pp. 93 ~ 98 of textbook by Ford and Coulston), AND responsible team
member.
Submission instructions:
Report length: No limit
How to submit: Upload onto EvalTools by the deadline shown above.
Grading:
Overall functional decomposition – team performance
Subsystems – individual performance
New folder/fac_lee023_HW11_WR6_FinalReport (1) (1).pdf
ECE380 Professional Seminar
Spring 2017
HW11: Final Report
Date assigned: 4/10/16, Monday
Due date: Noon, Monday, 4/24/17
Max points: 100 pts.
Description:
Each team’s final report must contain properly revised details of all project aspects covered
in this course, i.e., marketing and engineering requirements, proper description of the
project, 3-level functional decomposition, and project management including a well-
planned project plan presented in a Gantt chart.
To give incentive to a proper revision of functional decomposition, the final report will
carry 100 points of which 40 points will be allocated to the revised functional
decomposition (presented within the final report). Gantt chart (presented within the final
report) will have 10 points among the total of 100 points for the final report. The rest 50
points will go to the overall quality of the report as described in the review criteria.
Submission instructions:
Final Reports are team submissions so each document shall have all team member names
and only one person in the team shall upload the report to the designated submission link.
New folder/fac_lee023_HW11_WR6_FinalRpt_Guideline (1) (1).docxFinal Project Report Title ECE 380 Professional Seminar
by
Author(s) Name(s)
Author Affiliation(s)
E-mail
Date
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Gannon University, Erie, PA
Acknowledgement
If you have any positive remarks this is the place to show your gratitude.
Abstract
The abstract is to be in fully-justified italicized text, as it is here, ...
AFRICAResearch Paper AssignmentInstructionsOverview.docxSALU18
AFRICA
Research Paper Assignment
Instructions
Overview
In developing your expertise in transnational
organized crime (TOC) you will be writing a series of research papers. All
together the writing contained in all these papers combined would be quite
significant project! You will find that in some modules, the research papers
mimic our readings with respect to subject matter and some modules, the
research papers do not mimic the reading. Again, the goal of these research
papers is to stretch the depth and breadth of your knowledge. You should feel
well prepared to teach a course in TOCs after completing this course. The
research papers and PowerPoints you create could serve as the basis for such
class. Additionally, you will find that this course and the course CJUS701
Comparative Criminal Justice Systems complement each other very well.
Instructions
·
Each
research paper should be a minimum of 6 to 8 pages.
·
The
vast difference in page count is because some countries and/or crime/topics are
quite easy to study and some countries and/or crime/topics have very limited
information.
·
In
some instances, there will be a plethora of information and you must use
skilled writing to maintain proper page count.
·
Please
keep in mind that this is doctoral level analysis and writing – you are to take
the hard-earned road – the road less travelled – the scholarly road in forming
your paper.
·
The
paper must use current APA style, and the page count does not include the title
page, abstract, reference section, or any extra material.
·
The
minimum elements of the paper are listed below.
·
You
must use a
minimum
of 8 recent (some
countries/crimes/topics may have more recent research articles than others),
relevant, and academic (peer review journals preferred and professional
journals allowed if used judiciously) sources, at least 2 sources being the
Holy Bible, and one recent (some countries/crime/topics have more recent than
others) news article. Books may be used
but are considered “additional: sources beyond the stated minimums. You may use
.gov sources as your recent, relevant, and academic sources if the writing is
academic in nature (authored works). You may also use United Nations and
Whitehouse.gov documents as academic documents.
·
Again,
this paper must reflect graduate level research and writing style. If you need to go over the maximum page count
you must obtain professor permission in advance! Please reference the Research
Paper Rubric when creating your research paper.
These are minimum guidelines – you may expand the
topics covered in your papers.
1)
Begin
your paper with a
brief
analysis of the following elements:
a.
Country
analysis
i.
Introduction
to the country
ii.
People
and society of the country
iii.
What
is the basic government structure?
2)
Analyze
the nature of organized crime in the assigned area (you may narrow the scope of
your analysis through your introduction or thesis stat.
Adversarial ProceedingsCritically discuss with your classmates t.docxSALU18
Adversarial Proceedings
Critically discuss with your classmates the claim that adversarial proceedings can be distinguished as relying more on the government’s ability to prove guilt (following specific rules of criminal procedure the defendant’s guilt whereas the inquisitorial process spends more time on investigations to determine if the defendant truly committed the crime).
.
More Related Content
Similar to ESSAY ASSIGNMENT # 2Due Feb. 26 at the beginning of class.Prin.docx
Fog computing or fog networking, also known as fogging, is an architecture that uses edge devices to carry out a substantial amount of computation, storage, and communication locally and routed over the internet backbone.
With the Technological advancements, it is well understood that more and more objects are getting connected together. These objects are becoming more smarter to handle many operations through its inter connectivity. Rather than requiring devices to go through the network backbone infrastructure, fog computing permits devices to connect directly with their destination with ease and allows them to handle their connections and tasks. As a result, fog computing improves quality of service, reduces latency, and gives a more satisfactory user experience.
Paper Title (use style paper title)Note Sub-titles are not.docxaman341480
Paper Title* (use style: paper title)
*Note: Sub-titles are not captured in Xplore and should not be used
line 1: 1st Given Name Surname
line 2: dept. name of organization
(of Affiliation)
line 3: name of organization
(of Affiliation)
line 4: City, Country
line 5: email address
line 1: 4th Given Name Surname
line 2: dept. name of organization(of Affiliation)
line 3: name of organization
(of Affiliation)
line 4: City, Country
line 5: email address
line 1: 2nd Given Name Surname
line 2: dept. name of organization
(of Affiliation)
line 3: name of organization
(of Affiliation)
line 4: City, Country
line 5: email address
line 1: 5th Given Name Surname
line 2: dept. name of organization
(of Affiliation)
line 3: name of organization
(of Affiliation)
line 4: City, Country
line 5: email address
line 1: 3rd Given Name Surname
line 2: dept. name of organization
(of Affiliation)
line 3: name of organization
(of Affiliation)
line 4: City, Country
line 5: email address
line 1: 6th Given Name Surname
line 2: dept. name of organization
(of Affiliation)
line 3: name of organization
(of Affiliation)
line 4: City, Country
line 5: email address
Abstract—This electronic document is a “live” template and already defines the components of your paper [title, text, heads, etc.] in its style sheet. *CRITICAL: Do Not Use Symbols, Special Characters, Footnotes, or Math in Paper Title or Abstract. (Abstract)
Keywords—component, formatting, style, styling, insert (key words)
I. Introduction (Heading 1)
This template, modified in MS Word 2007 and saved as a “Word 97-2003 Document” for the PC, provides authors with most of the formatting specifications needed for preparing electronic versions of their papers. All standard paper components have been specified for three reasons: (1) ease of use when formatting individual papers, (2) automatic compliance to electronic requirements that facilitate the concurrent or later production of electronic products, and (3) conformity of style throughout a conference proceedings. Margins, column widths, line spacing, and type styles are built-in; examples of the type styles are provided throughout this document and are identified in italic type, within parentheses, following the example. Some components, such as multi-leveled equations, graphics, and tables are not prescribed, although the various table text styles are provided. The formatter will need to create these components, incorporating the applicable criteria that follow.
II. Ease of Use
A. Selecting a Template (Heading 2)
First, confirm that you have the correct template for your paper size. This template has been tailored for output on the A4 paper size. If you are using US letter-sized paper, please close this file and download the Microsoft Word, Letter file.
B. Maintaining the Integrity of the Specifications
The template is used to format your paper and style the text. All margins, column widths, line spaces, and text fonts are prescribed; please do n.
New folderfac_lee023_HW06_WR5_FuncDecomp (3).pdfECE380 Pr.docxcurwenmichaela
New folder/fac_lee023_HW06_WR5_FuncDecomp (3).pdf
ECE380 Professional Seminar
Spring 2017
HW5 (WR5): Functional Decomposition
Date assigned: 3/13/17, Monday
Due date: Noon, 3/20/17, Monday
Max points: 20 pts.
Description:
Written Report 5 is on completing 3-level (i.e., Level 0, Level 1, and Level 2) functional
decomposition of your project. Each student shall individually submit one report that
shows complete functional decomposition of the project but also clearly identified
individual responsibilities for implementation. As such, all team members of a project
should first discuss and come up with a complete set of Level 1 subsystems that could be
implemented under balanced workloads among the team members. Then, each member
shall further elaborate his/her assigned Level 1 subsystems into Level 2.
This report should include block diagrams of all Level 0 ~ Level 2 subsystems and
corresponding tables of ALL subsystems with module name, inputs, outputs,
functionality (see pp. 93 ~ 98 of textbook by Ford and Coulston), AND responsible team
member.
Submission instructions:
Report length: No limit
How to submit: Upload onto EvalTools by the deadline shown above.
Grading:
Overall functional decomposition – team performance
Subsystems – individual performance
New folder/fac_lee023_HW11_WR6_FinalReport (1) (1).pdf
ECE380 Professional Seminar
Spring 2017
HW11: Final Report
Date assigned: 4/10/16, Monday
Due date: Noon, Monday, 4/24/17
Max points: 100 pts.
Description:
Each team’s final report must contain properly revised details of all project aspects covered
in this course, i.e., marketing and engineering requirements, proper description of the
project, 3-level functional decomposition, and project management including a well-
planned project plan presented in a Gantt chart.
To give incentive to a proper revision of functional decomposition, the final report will
carry 100 points of which 40 points will be allocated to the revised functional
decomposition (presented within the final report). Gantt chart (presented within the final
report) will have 10 points among the total of 100 points for the final report. The rest 50
points will go to the overall quality of the report as described in the review criteria.
Submission instructions:
Final Reports are team submissions so each document shall have all team member names
and only one person in the team shall upload the report to the designated submission link.
New folder/fac_lee023_HW11_WR6_FinalRpt_Guideline (1) (1).docxFinal Project Report Title ECE 380 Professional Seminar
by
Author(s) Name(s)
Author Affiliation(s)
E-mail
Date
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Gannon University, Erie, PA
Acknowledgement
If you have any positive remarks this is the place to show your gratitude.
Abstract
The abstract is to be in fully-justified italicized text, as it is here, ...
AFRICAResearch Paper AssignmentInstructionsOverview.docxSALU18
AFRICA
Research Paper Assignment
Instructions
Overview
In developing your expertise in transnational
organized crime (TOC) you will be writing a series of research papers. All
together the writing contained in all these papers combined would be quite
significant project! You will find that in some modules, the research papers
mimic our readings with respect to subject matter and some modules, the
research papers do not mimic the reading. Again, the goal of these research
papers is to stretch the depth and breadth of your knowledge. You should feel
well prepared to teach a course in TOCs after completing this course. The
research papers and PowerPoints you create could serve as the basis for such
class. Additionally, you will find that this course and the course CJUS701
Comparative Criminal Justice Systems complement each other very well.
Instructions
·
Each
research paper should be a minimum of 6 to 8 pages.
·
The
vast difference in page count is because some countries and/or crime/topics are
quite easy to study and some countries and/or crime/topics have very limited
information.
·
In
some instances, there will be a plethora of information and you must use
skilled writing to maintain proper page count.
·
Please
keep in mind that this is doctoral level analysis and writing – you are to take
the hard-earned road – the road less travelled – the scholarly road in forming
your paper.
·
The
paper must use current APA style, and the page count does not include the title
page, abstract, reference section, or any extra material.
·
The
minimum elements of the paper are listed below.
·
You
must use a
minimum
of 8 recent (some
countries/crimes/topics may have more recent research articles than others),
relevant, and academic (peer review journals preferred and professional
journals allowed if used judiciously) sources, at least 2 sources being the
Holy Bible, and one recent (some countries/crime/topics have more recent than
others) news article. Books may be used
but are considered “additional: sources beyond the stated minimums. You may use
.gov sources as your recent, relevant, and academic sources if the writing is
academic in nature (authored works). You may also use United Nations and
Whitehouse.gov documents as academic documents.
·
Again,
this paper must reflect graduate level research and writing style. If you need to go over the maximum page count
you must obtain professor permission in advance! Please reference the Research
Paper Rubric when creating your research paper.
These are minimum guidelines – you may expand the
topics covered in your papers.
1)
Begin
your paper with a
brief
analysis of the following elements:
a.
Country
analysis
i.
Introduction
to the country
ii.
People
and society of the country
iii.
What
is the basic government structure?
2)
Analyze
the nature of organized crime in the assigned area (you may narrow the scope of
your analysis through your introduction or thesis stat.
Adversarial ProceedingsCritically discuss with your classmates t.docxSALU18
Adversarial Proceedings
Critically discuss with your classmates the claim that adversarial proceedings can be distinguished as relying more on the government’s ability to prove guilt (following specific rules of criminal procedure the defendant’s guilt whereas the inquisitorial process spends more time on investigations to determine if the defendant truly committed the crime).
.
Advances In Management Vol. 9 (5) May (2016)
1
Generation Gaps: Changes in the Workplace due to
Differing Generational Values
Carbary Kelly, Fredericks Elizabeth, Mishra Bharat and Mishra Jitendra*
Management Department, Grand Valley State University, 50 Front Ave, SW Grand Rapids Michigan 49504-6424, USA
*[email protected]
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to discuss the
generational gaps that are found in the workplace
today. With multiple generations working together,
and the oldest generation having to work longer and
retire later, generational changes are occurring in the
workplace and for management. There is a lack of
communication and understanding between the
different generations caused through differing values
and goals. Younger generations are also entering
different fields than those that were popular for older
generations. There is a serious new problem in the
workplace, and it has nothing to do with downsizing,
global competition, pointy-haired bosses, stress or
greed. Instead, it is the problem of distinct
generations — the Veterans, the Baby Boomers, Gen
X and Gen Y — working together and often colliding
as their paths cross.
Individuals with different values, different ideas,
different ways of getting things done and different
ways of communicating in the workplace have always
existed. So, why is this becoming a problem now? At
work, generation differences can affect everything
including recruiting, building teams, dealing with
change, motivating, managing, and maintaining and
increasing productivity All of these ideas are
explored, discussed, and evaluated, through looking
at current research on the topic and case studies that
have been conducted not only in the United States but
around the world.
Keywords: Generation gap, workplace, values.
Introduction
Throughout the years, as the population has continued to
both grow and age, it has caused generational changes to
take place in the various aspects of life. With the changes in
the demographics of the world’s population, there have also
been changes in how each group thinks and what they
value. This not only affects the way people behave in their
personal lives, but it also affects the workplace. As
generational changes occur in the workplace, a lack of
communication has caused adisconnect to occur between
the values and goals present among the different age groups
along with newer generations choosing different career
paths.
* Author for Correspondence
In order to understand where these differences stem from,
you need to analyze how each generation is different when
it comes to their beliefs and values. So, it is best to identify
the different groups present in workplace which range from
those born in 1922 to those born in the early 1990’s.
Moving chronologically, the fi.
African-American Literature An introduction to major African-Americ.docxSALU18
African-American Literature: An introduction to major African-American writers from the earliest expressions to the present. An examination of the cultural milieu from which the writing arose, the ideological stance of each writer studied, and the styles and structure of the works considered
8 wks
.
African American Women and Healthcare I want to explain how heal.docxSALU18
African American Women and Healthcare
I want to explain how healthcare is perceived in the African American community especially amongst women and if their concerns and apprehension are justified. The paper must include a title page, introduction section, abstract section, literature review section, methods section, results section, discussion section, and a signature page. I will attach some samples that were given to me.
.
Advocacy & Legislation in Early Childhood EducationAdvocacy & Le.docxSALU18
Advocacy & Legislation in Early Childhood Education
Advocacy & Legislation in Early Childhood Education
Advocating for Early Childhood Education
Rasmussen College
COURSE#: EEC 4910
Doreen Anzalone
July 15, 2019
Advocating for Early Childhood Education
· What is advocacy?
Advocacy is how we support our children. We as teachers give advice for our children or we listen. We let the children and families know that we believe in them and we will be there for them. Teachers, admin, staff can advocate for children as long as they are in school. Advocates are also trained people and they are not lawyers. One of their responsibility is to stay up to date with the regulations of the educational laws.
· Why is advocacy important to early childhood education?
Its important to help the families because they might be vulnerable in society. We as teachers need to make sure our children and families are being heard. We as teachers need to make sure their wishes and views are being considered when it’s about their child or family. Its because we are helping the family make life decisions about their children and even their family life. Its also important to make sure we are not judging the family or having or our own personal opinions about what is going on when we are helping advocate for the family, we need to make sure we are stating the facts for the family.
· What is your role as an early childhood educator in making legislative changes?
Our role is to be able to email them or decide how to get a hold of them and let them know our questions, comments or suggestions on things that need to be changed, updated. We need to let them know so we can support our school, children, and families. It is our role as educators to stay aware of the laws. The Federal laws we need to make sure we are aware of the
· Family Education Rights & Poverty Act
· The No Child Left Behind
· Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
With these laws and many more they need to hear from schools in the United States. The federal laws mean we need to address the issues. These issues usually involve infringement of the student’s rights and they are to protect the rights. The state laws depend on the state you are in. The state laws this is where you would go if you have a problem or need to voice about
· Teacher Retirement
· Teacher evaluations
· Charter schools
· State Testing requirements
· The required learning standards
· Much more
Your school board is also a great place to help with policies and regulations and any revisions that need to be done.
· What ethical issues must early childhood education professionals consider related to advocacy and why do those issues exit?
In NAEYC the code of Ethical Conduct and in their it describes how any educator is required to act and what they do and not to do. At times as an educator as staff we tend to do what is the simplest or sometimes, we want to please others but when it comes to this, we must remember to follow our responsi.
Advertising is one of the most common forms of visual persuasion we .docxSALU18
Advertising is one of the most common forms of visual persuasion we encounter in everyday life. The influence of advertising in our society is persuasive and subtle. Part of its power comes from our habit of internalizing the intended messages of words and images without thinking deeply about them. Once we begin decoding the ways in which advertisements are constructed, once we view them critically, we can understand how, or if, they work as arguments. We may then make better decisions about whether to buy products and what factors convinced us or failed to convince us.
What are the different forms of advertising?
Modern media comes in many different formats, including print media (books, magazines, newspapers), television, movies, video games, music, cell phones, various kinds of software, and the Internet. Each type of media involves both content and also a device or object through which that content is delivered.
TEAM TASK:
As a team you are going to Review Chapter 4: Visual Rhetoric: Thinking About Images as Arguments. You will
be assigned a Section of the Chapter (written, visual, unfit, political, caricature, photography-maps graphs charts ) and as a Team you willResearch
the content of that Chapter Area (you will see topic page overlap ) and implement the following:
You will look at and interpret a media campaign or advertisement. Focus on social or ethical aspects * Seek to find one or more of the FALLACY TYPES identified Chapter 9 pages 363- 380. Include this information in your findings. Consider and incorporate as many of the following 16 categories :
The objectives: What role does the ad play in the economy?
The audience: Is it targeted to a group that could be considered vulnerable?
Effectiveness: Does it promote something that is socially desirable?
Role in marketing mix: What role does the ad play in the economy?
Image, product differentiation and branding: Is the ad misleading?
Other promotion factors
The unique selling proposition.
The basis for the appeal(s).
How would you make improvements?
The creative philosophy
The slogan
Secondary or supporting points or claims
The tone or mood and manner: Is the ad misleading?
Type of presenter
The motivational appeal: Does it promote something that is socially desirable?
Executional style
Each TEAM will develop a
15 minute class presentation
about their researched area. You have
options to use
power points, maps, videos, and other resources that will help educate your audience about your research.
Your Presentation should include:
A Power Point, the media piece or some type of visual presentation~~
A Question and Answer {Q & A} & Interactive session, quiz,.
Adult Health 1 Study GuideSensory Unit Chapters 63 & 64.docxSALU18
Adult Health 1 Study Guide
Sensory Unit
Chapters 63 & 64
Remember that assigned textbook readings should be supplemental to reviewing & studying the Powerpoint presentations. Answers to these study guide questions can be obtained from the textbook chapters, Powerpoint presentations, as well as class lectures & in-class activities.
Chapter 63: Assessment & Management of Patients with Eye & Vision Disorders
Conditions to Know
: Glaucoma, Cataracts, Retinal Detachment, Macular Degeneration, Conjunctivitis, Eye trauma
· Know the basic structures & functions of the eye – lens, pupil, iris, cornea, conjunctiva, retina, and sclera
· Questions to ask patients regarding issues with the eyes/vision – Chart 63-1
· Snellen Chart is used to assess visual acuity – 20/20 is considered perfect vision (patient can read line 20 of chart while standing 20 feet away) – this is tested in each eye
1. What are some of the most common causes of blindness?
2. What is responsible for the damage to the optic nerve in patients diagnosed with glaucoma?
3. Glaucoma can lead to what primary complication if not treated properly?
4. What are the differences between open-angle & closed-angle glaucoma?
5. What are the primary signs & symptoms of glaucoma?
6. What are the primary treatment goals for patients with glaucoma?
7. What is the first line treatment of glaucoma? What medication teaching points would you want to include in your patient education?
8. What are some common risk factors for the development of cataracts? See Chart 63-7.
9. What are the primary signs & symptoms of cataracts?
10. The most common treatment for cataracts is outpatient surgery, in which the lens affected by the cataract is replaced with a man-made one. Explain the pre and post-operative nursing management & education that is needed for patients undergoing cataract surgery. See Chart 63-8.
11. Retinal detachment is considered a medical emergency. What happens during retinal detachment?
12. What are some symptoms of retinal detachment?
13. Macular degeneration is the most common cause of vision loss in people > 60 years old. What is macular degeneration?
14. What are some risk factors for dry macular degeneration?
15. What are some signs and symptoms of macular degeneration?
16. Nursing management for patients diagnosed with macular degeneration focus on safety & supportive measures. What are some accommodations we should make or educate patients on regarding how to help improve their vision & ADLs when they have this condition?
17. Conjunctivitis is also called “pink eye”. What are the different types of conjunctivitis and what are some symptoms of this condition? Are any of these types considered contagious?
18. What are some teaching points to include when educating a patient diagnosed with viral conjunctivitis? See Chart 63-11.
19. Explain the emergency nursing treatment needed when a patient presents with eye trauma.
Chapter 64: Assessment & Manag.
Advertising Campaign Management Part 3Jennifer Sundstrom-F.docxSALU18
Advertising Campaign Management
Part 3
Jennifer Sundstrom-Fitzgerald
1
Learning Objectives
Analyze advertising campaign parameters
Identify how a creative brief facilitates effective advertising
Describe the implications of advertising management in the global arena
2
Advertising Campaign Parameters
Advertising goals
Media selection
Tagline
Consistency
Positioning
Campaign duration
Effective advertising campaigns require careful planning and attention to specific parameters including Advertising goals, media selection, tagline, consistency, positioning and campaign duration. We will review each parameter beginning with goals.
3
Advertising Goals
A primary goal of advertising is to build brand awareness among existing and new customers. The creative should inform and persuade them to make purchases and build brand loyalty.
4
Build brand awareness
Inform, persuade, support marketing efforts
Encourage purchase decisions
Building Brand Awareness
Successful brands possess two characteristics. Top-of-mind are brands a consumer mentions first when asked about brands in a particular product category – these are brands in our Evoked Set. Top choice is the brand within a product category that consumers prefer the most. So top choice requires top-of-mind. Brand equity, which is the level of brand strength perceived by consumers, leads to top-of-mind and top choice brands.
This is also applicable on the B2B side when business people are faced with modified rebuy situations. A common dilemma I had was for every Fox Graduation Ceremony, there are three per year, and the need for graduation program booklets. There was a printer who I always wanted to hire because I enjoyed working with them, they always had fair prices and delivered high-quality programs in a timely manner. However, due to non-profit regulations, I had to bid the job to at least three vendors. So my top-of-mind, first choice brand was always included but I had to add two other vendors as well. Tell story about Bill DeVece and misspelled student names and how wonderful he was in fixing these issues.
5
Brand image begins with awareness
Consumers recognize the brand
Brand equity leads to top-of-mind and top choice
B2B important in modified rebuy situations
Building Brand Awareness
Successful brands possess:
Top-of-mind
Top choice
The 10 Most Valuable Brands in the World per 2018 study
Coca Cola brand is a good example of a brand with these characteristics. Here is a recent list of a top 10 most valuable and recognized list of global brands. (click link)
6
Goal to Persuade
Dare to be Devoted Campaign
Every Kiss Begins with Kay Campaign
Another common goal of advertising is to persuade consumers that a particular brand is superior to others and should be their top choice. Both of these brands, owned by the same parent company (Signet), do extensive advertising, but only Kay Jewelers has successfully used the same slogan, “Every Kiss Begins w.
Adopt-a-Plant Project guidelinesOverviewThe purpose of this.docxSALU18
Adopt-a-Plant Project guidelines
Overview:
The purpose of this project is for you to choose a plant, conduct online research into the biology of the plant, and communicate what you have learned. You will be preparing an annotated bibliography on the plant you choose. The entire project is worth 50 points
Annotated Bibliography (50 points)
You will prepare an annotated bibliography with a list of the top 10 most interesting facts about your plant.
· Each fact should be paraphrased (i.e. written in your own words, no quotations allowed).
· Then tell me why this is interesting to you – make connections to your life or to currents issues in our world.
· Finally, give a full citation and tell me why you think this is a reliable, trustworthy source. Use this libguide to help you come up with reasons why your source is trustworthy.
· At least one of your sources should be from a peer-reviewed, science journal article.
Here is an example:
Fact 1: Taxol is a chemotherapy agent derived from the bark of the Pacific Yew Tree. The chemical itself is derived from a fungal endophtye within the bark. I thought this was very interesting, because the Pacific Yew tree is native to the state of Washington, and my aunt Jane received Taxol while undergoing chemotherapy for ovarian cancer. I also thought it was interesting because of the mutualistic relationship between the plant and the fungus.Citation: Plant natural products from cultured multipotent cells
Roberts, Susan; Kolewe, Martin. Nature Biotechnology28.11 (Nov 2010): 1175-6.
This is a reliable source because it is published in a peer-reviewed science journal article, written by two PhDs that are providing a review of the current literature on the topic
To complete the assignment, you should first choose a plant, gather articles discussing your plant, read the articles sufficiently enough to discuss the plant, and finally write the annotated bibliography. You are expected to produce original work, and any plagiarism will receive a zero. The paper should be double-spaced, and typed in 12 point font size, with normal margins. The instructions for how to properly cite your sources are at the end of this handout.
*** Reminder: The scientific name of a plant should always be typed in italics, with the first letter of the Genus capitalized. For ex.: Digitalis lanata. When you search for information on your plant online, make sure to use the scientific name, which will bring back a wider variety of results
The bibliography is worth 50 points and will be graded on:
1. Effort
• Quality of references
•Depth/breadth/quality of material covered
2. Following directions/ requirements
I will use the following rubric to grade your bibliography:
Research, Critical Reading and Documentation
Balanced, authoritative sources; correctly cited sources; effectively integrated outside sources. Most sources from science journals
10 pts
Effective sources, correctly cited, Could have a few more.
ADM2302 M, N, P and Q Assignment # 4 Winter 2020 Page 1 .docxSALU18
ADM2302 M, N, P and Q Assignment # 4
Winter 2020 Page 1
Assignment # 4
Decision Analysis and Project Scheduling
ADM2302 students are reminded that submitted assignments must be typed (i.e. can NOT be hand
written), neat, readable, and well-organized. Assignment marks will be adjusted for sloppiness, poor
grammar, spelling, for technical errors as well as if you submit a PDF file.
The assignment is to be submitted electronically as a single Word Document file via Brightspace by
Friday April 3rd prior to 23:59. Front page of the Word document has to include title of the assignment,
course code and section, student name and student number. Second page is the individual/group
statement of integrity that must be signed.
E-mail questions related to the assignment should be sent to the Teaching Assistant or posted on the
Brightspace course website “Discussion page” (viewed by all).
Section M: Parisa Keshavarz ([email protected])
Section N: : Niki Khorasanizadeh ([email protected])
Section P: Makbule Kandakoglu ([email protected])
Section Q: Afshin Kamyabniya ([email protected])
Problem 1: Payoffs/Decision Table (13 points)
A small building contractor has recently experienced two successive years in which work opportunities
exceeded the firm’s capacity. The contractor must now make a decision on capacity for next year.
Estimated profits (in $ thousands) under each of the two possible states of nature are as shown in the
table below.
NEXT YEAR’S DEMAND
Alternative Low High
Do nothing
Expand
Subcontract
$50**
20
40
$60
80
70
** Profit in $ thousands.
Which alternative should be selected if the decision criterion is:
a. The optimistic approach? (3 points)
b. The conservative approach? (3 points)
c. Minimize the regret? (7 points)
Problem 2: Payoffs/Decision Table (15 points)
Dorothy Stanyard has three major routes to take to work. She can take Tennessee Street the entire way,
she can take several back streets to work, or she can use the expressway. The traffic patterns are,
however, very complex. Under good conditions, Tennessee Street is the fastest route. When Tennessee
is congested, one of the other routes is preferable. Over the past two months, Dorothy has tried each of
route several times under different traffic conditions. This information is summarized in minutes of
travel time to work in the following table:
mailto:[email protected]
mailto:[email protected]
mailto:[email protected]
mailto:[email protected]
ADM2302 M, N, P and Q Assignment # 4
Winter 2020 Page 2
No Traffic Congestion
(Minutes)
Mild Traffic
Congestion
(Minutes)
Severe Traffic
Congestion
(Minutes)
Tennessee Street
Back roads
Expressway
15
20
30
30
25
30
45
35
30
In the past 60 days, Dorothy encountered severe traffic congestion 10 days and mild traffic congestion
20 days. Assume that the past 60 days are typical of traffi.
After completing the assessment, my Signature Theme Report produ.docxSALU18
After completing the assessment, my Signature Theme Report produced the following results: Communication, Relator, Individualization, Consistency, and Strategic. When I first saw the themes presented, I was a little skeptical at first but after reading the detailed descriptions I felt like it made a lot of sense and mirrored a lot of what I had already thought about myself.
A core value that I would like to continue to strengthen would be the value of acceptance. One of my top five themes was relator which explained that I have a comfortability with gravitating towards people I already know and building relationships from there. I don’t have issues with making new relationships, but I can see that sometimes I close myself off initially to embracing new ones. With acceptance, you have to understand that there are some situations you can control and some that you can’t but embracing the latter can lead to new experiences that could be beneficial (Riley, 2021). Another core value that I would like to improve upon would be calmness. This fits in well with my theme of consistency. While I am a firm believer of things being fair and consistent, I can get easily upset when things don’t balance out like they are expected to. I know that working on being calm in tense situations will help me adapt easier when things don’t always work out as they should.
One of the strengths that I would like to embrace fully and continue to improve upon is communication. It was no surprise to me that communication was at the top of my list for my themes. When I am in a position of leadership at work, I make it a priority to keep my staff updated on everything that is going on for that night and it is something I expect from my charge nurse when I am working the floor also. A communicator is only effective when they are aware of their style of communicating and how others perceive or respond to it (Marshall & Broome, 2021). As a communicator I know that I can always work on how I communicate non-verbally and with body language especially. The other strength that I would like to continue to work on is of being strategic. The report explained that the strategic theme fit me because I am able to sort through the clutter and find the best route when I am trying to accomplish something. I really believe this about myself because when I have a task I need to accomplish, whether I am in a leader position or not, I will break everything down and reorganize it to make sure I have come up with the best solution. I feel like the best way to do something is the way that makes it concise and without a lot of excess getting in the way.
A characteristic of mine that I would like to strengthen would be that of instinct. My theme of individualization points out that I have an instinct about others and how they work and function. I have always felt that I easily read people and can get a sense of who they truly are and for example in the workplace how they are as a staff member. S.
After careful reading of the case material, consider and fully answe.docxSALU18
After careful reading of the case material, consider and fully answer the following questions:
1. What were the primary reasons for changing the current system at Butler?
2. What role did Butler's IS department play?
3. List the objectives of the pilot. Were there any problems?
4. Do you think Butler made the right decision to utilize this new technology? What implications does this decision hold for Butler's IT department in the long run?
NOTE: Butler refers to it's IT department as IR. You may consider these two acronyms as synonymous (i.e. IT = IS = IR for purposes of this assignment)
.
Affluent
Be unique to
Conform
Debatable
Dominant
Enforce
Ethnic
Internalize
Rank
Restrict
You will write your own sentences using each of the vocabulary words. The sentence
must be an
original sentence
created by you, AND it must use the vocabulary word correctly.
Your sentence
MUST
demonstrate that you understand the meaning of the word.
.
Advanced persistent threats (APTs) have been thrust into the spotlig.docxSALU18
Advanced persistent threats (APTs) have been thrust into the spotlight due to their advanced tactics, techniques, procedures, and tools. These APTs are resourced unlike other types of cyber threat actors.
Your chief technology officer (CTO) has formed teams to each develop a detailed analysis and presentation of a specific APT, which she will assign to the team.
.
Your report should use
The Cybersecurity Threat Landscape Team Assignment Resources
to cover the following five areas:
Part 1: Threat Landscape Analysis
Provide a detailed analysis of the threat landscape today.
What has changed in the past few years?
Describe common tactics, techniques, and procedures to include threat actor types.
What are the exploit vectors and vulnerabilities threat actors are predicted to take advantage of?
Part 2: APT Analysis
Provide detailed analysis and description of the APT your group was assigned. Describe the specific tactics used to gain access to the target(s).
Describe the tools used. Describe what the objective of the APT was/is. Was it successful?
Part 3: Cybersecurity Tools, Tactics, and Procedures
Describe current hardware- and software-based cybersecurity tools, tactics, and procedures.
Consider the hardware and software solutions deployed today in the context of defense-in-depth.
Elaborate on why these devices are not successful against the APTs.
Part 4: Machine Learning and Data Analytics
Describe the concepts of machine learning and data analytics and how applying them to cybersecurity will evolve the field.
Are there companies providing innovative defensive cybersecurity measures based on these technologies? If so, what are they? Would you recommend any of these to the CTO?
Part 5: Using Machine Learning and Data Analytics to Prevent APT
Describe how machine learning and data analytics could have detected and/or prevented the APT you analyzed had the victim organization deployed these technologies at the time of the event. Be specific.
Part 6: Ethics in Cybersecurity.
Ethical issues are at the core of what we do as cybersecurity professionals. Think of the example of a cyber defender working in a hospital. They are charged with securing the network, medical devices, and protecting sensitive personal health information from unauthorized disclosure. They are not only protecting patient privacy but their health and perhaps even their lives. Confidentiality, Integrity, Availability - the C-I-A triad - and many other cybersecurity practices are increasingly at play in protecting citizens in all walks of life and in all sectors. Thus, acting in an ethical manner is one of the hallmarks of cybersecurity professionals.
Do you think the vulnerability(ies) exploited by the APT constitutes an ethical failure by the defender? Why or why not?
For the APT scenario your group studied, were there identifiable harms to privacy or property? How are these harms linked to C-I-A? If not, what ethically si.
Advanced persistent threatRecommendations for remediation .docxSALU18
Advanced persistent threat
Recommendations for remediation of the threat
Research the use of network security controls associated to your threat and industry
Do Not use topics network security,VPN,FIREWALL,ETC
10-12 pages. Double spaced APA style
At least 10 REFERENCES
5 ATLEASt PEER REVIEWED SCHOLARLY
.
Adultism refers to the oppression of young people by adults. The pop.docxSALU18
Adultism refers to the oppression of young people by adults. The popular saying "children should be seen and not heard" is used as a way to remind a child of his or her place and reaffirm the adult's power in the relationship. The saying suggests that children's voices are not as important or as valid as an adult's and they should remain quiet. Children are often relegated to subordinate positions due to socially constructed beliefs about what they can or cannot accomplish or what they should or should not do; this in turn compromises youth's self-determination. This oppression is further highlighted when considering the intersection of age with race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and sexual orientation. You will be asked to consider all of these when reviewing the Logan case and Parker case.
By Day 3
Post
an analysis of the influence of adultism in the Logan case. Then, explain how gender, race, class, and privilege interact with adultism to influence the family's discourse related to Eboni's pregnancy as well as other family dynamics.
.
ADVANCE v.09212015
•
APPLICANT DIVERSITY STATEMENT IN FACULTY SEARCH PROCESS
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS
1) How does University of California define “diversity?”
A: The academic senate adopted in 2009 the following broad definition of diversity:
Diversity - defining features of California past, present and future - refers to a variety of
personal experiences, values, and worldviews that arise from differences of culture and
circumstance. Such differences include race, ethnicity, gender, age, religion, language,
abilities/disabilities, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, geographic region and more.
2) Why does UC Irvine expect a diversity statement from applicants for faculty positions?
A: UC Irvine’s commitment to inclusive excellence is integral to our ascendancy among globally
preeminent universities. It provides applicants with an opportunity to discuss how their past or
future contributions will advance this enduring campus commitment. For more information,
please see the Provost’s memo on Inclusive Excellence.
3) Is the diversity statement consistent with University of California policy?
A: Yes. APM 210.1-d, which governs appointment, appraisal and promotion, recommends that
faculty be both encouraged and rewarded for activity that promotes inclusive excellence:
“The University of California is committed to excellence and equity in every facet of its mission.
Teaching, research, professional and public service contributions that promote diversity and
equal opportunity are to be encouraged and given recognition in the evaluation of the
candidate's qualifications. These contributions to diversity and equal opportunity can take
a variety of forms including efforts to advance equitable access to education, public
service that addresses the needs of California's diverse population, or research in a
scholar's area of expertise that highlights inequities.”
4) Is UC Irvine alone among UC campuses in adopting this statement?
A: No. UC San Diego adopted this statement in 2010.
5) How will applicants learn about the diversity statement expectation?
A: Per Provost Gillman’s memo of June 2014, all ads for faculty positions will include the following
sentence: “Applicants are encouraged to share how their past and/or potential contributions to
diversity, equity and inclusion will advance UC Irvine’s commitment to inclusive excellence.”
6) How do applicants provide their diversity statement?
A: There is a dedicated field in UC Recruit for applicants to submit their diversity statement.
7) If an applicant does not provide a diversity statement, will his or her application be considered
incomplete?
A: Yes
http://www.provost.uci.edu/news/InclusiveExcellence.html
http://www.ucop.edu/academic-personnel/_files/apm/apm-210.pdf
http://www.provost.uci.edu/news/Diversity-Statement-June-2014.html
ADVANCE v.09212015
8) What are the components of a diversity statement?
.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
ESSAY ASSIGNMENT # 2Due Feb. 26 at the beginning of class.Prin.docx
1. ESSAY ASSIGNMENT # 2
Due Feb. 26 at the beginning of class.
Printed. Stapled in the upper left corner.
MLA format -
300-450 word range
Based on an analysis of Ernest Nagel’s essay, “Does God
Exist”? (Cahn 158).
Instructions for writing the essay-follow the outline below.
Introduce the writer and the essay. Then give a brief summary
of the essay and a directional statement (where you are going)
with the essay.
Give briefly the three “classical” arguments Nagel gives for the
existence of God and what he has to say about each of them.
What argument does Nagel give against Kant’s “blunder”?
What role does “evil” and Omni-benevolence play in his
argument: does that speak for or against God’s existence?
What are his conclusions?
Be sure to follow the above outline in your essay.
Copy and paste the paper title here
1
Title of Report in Initial Capital Letters
(Times Roman 24 -point font, Boldface)
2. (Titles should be 7 words or less)
Figure 1. Descriptive phrase that serves as title and description.
Reprinted [or adapted] from Title of Website, by Author First
Initial. Second Initial. Surname, Year, Retrieved from URL.
Copyright [year] by the Name of Copyright Holder. Reprinted
[or adapted] with permission.
Supervised by: Name of your teacher
Name:
ID:
Department of English Language
Major:
Date: 23 January 2018
Layout of the paper: Delete this page in the
Final Draft
General Instructions:
Line Spacing: double spacing
Font: Times New Roman or another clear, easy to read font, size
12
Margins: 2.5 cm on all sides
Alignment: left-aligned, do not justify
Paragraphs: indent every first line (1 tab or 5 spaces)
Quotations: blocked (justified and indented on both sides)
Page numbers: consecutive numbers, top/bottom right.
Header: Running head (title of paper) top left. (Use Header for
this)
Table of Contents: must be numbered on multiple levels and
3. these numbers must be followed in the text.
Table of Contents
1
Introduction……………………………………………..……
…………………….. 1
2 First Major
Heading…..…………….………………………………….……..…
…. 4
2.1 First Subheading (If Subheadings
Exist)………….……………………………….. 5
2.2 Second Subheading (If Subheadings
Exist)……….………………………………. 5
3 Visual and
Tables..……………………………………...………………………
… 6
4
Conclusions……………………………………….……………
……………….… 7
5 References
……………………….……………….……………………………….
8
6 Appendix
…………………………………………………………………………
. 9
Title of your paper Date Page number
1 Introduction
4. In the “Introduction,” make sure that you orient the
audience with sufficient background to understand what the
problem is and why the problem was addressed. The
“Introduction” must state what the topic includes and any
limitations about the topic. (See Bailey 1.10 p. 72). Also, a
good test for this section is to imagine how well it would help
you know the topic and main ideas of the paper when you read
it a year from now.
The introduction can be more than one paragraph. Be sure
to indent all paragraphs. Headings are 12-point font, flushed
left, and boldfaced. Use initial capitals in all headings.
Discuss what needs to be discussed and clarified at the
beginning of the paper. This part is usually an introduction to
the purpose of the study, the method of research, background to
the study, terminology or definitions, writings of other authors
and any more information to direct the reader. However, not all
sections need subheadings.
2 Second Major Heading
Headings are flush left, and boldfaced. Use initial capitals.
At least one paragraph should follow a major heading before a
subheading exists. The typeface given here for the text portion
of this report is Times New Roman.
2.1 First Subheading
Subheadings should be 12 -point font and boldfaced. Insert one
line before the sub-subheading and one-line skipped after. Use
initial capitals. Note that subheadings are listed in the Table of
Contents. Be conservative (don’t have too many) with
subheadings in a term paper.
2.2 Second Subheading
5. If you have one sub-subheading, you must have a second.
Otherwise, the first sub-subheading has nothing to be parallel
with. Do not allow a heading or subheading to stand as a widow
line at the bottom of a page. If the situation occurs, force a line
break (hit Enter) before the heading or subheading.
3 Third Major Heading
Another formatting consideration concerns the
incorporation of figures and tables. Shown in Figure 1 is a
common format that serves reports well. Note that the word
Figure is always capitalized, not abbreviated, and the discussion
of the graph or table will be part of the essay and not a separate
paragraph. A period (full stop) is a powerful piece of
punctuation—its primary use is to end sentences. Do not dilute
its power by having it do menial tasks such as saving three
letters from a word that is short to begin with, like this...
Following standard convention, the formal introduction of
Figure 1 occurs in the text before the figure appeared. In the
introduction of an illustration, using pointers such as below or
on the next page is undesired. Your technical reader knows
where the illustration is supposed to be placed—after the
paragraph that introduces it or on the next page if not enough
space exists below the paragraph. Note that you should not
break paragraphs in an APA document to insert an illustration.
To distinguish the figure caption from the text, you should place
the figure caption in a smaller typeface, as was done in Figure
2. Recommended for the line spacing of the caption is single
spacing. For the caption, a nice touch is to place the name in the
bold sans serif of the headings and have the caption’s text in the
serif typeface of the chapter’s text. The caption begins with a
phrase and is followed by a sentence (or two) that explains
unusual details.
6. Figure 2. Descriptive phrase that serves as title and description.
Reprinted [or adapted] from Title of Website, by Author First
Initial. Second Initial. Surname, Year, Retrieved from URL.
Copyright [year] by the Name of Copyright Holder. Reprinted
[or adapted] with permission.
Tables are presented in a different fashion. For instance,
Table 1 presents an example. The heading for the table goes
above and is 11-point font. The heading is a single phrase. If
there are unusual details, those are explained in footnotes
beneath the table. Note each line skip above and below that
separates each illustration and its caption (or heading) from the
text.
Table 1. Facts concerning the planets
Planet
Diameter
(km)
Gravity
(earth ratio)
Year
(earth days)
Temperature
(K)
Mercury
5,100
0.40
88
700
Venus
12,600
0.90
225
700
Earth
8. Bailey, 1.11 p. 76 for more information.)
5 Reference List
Anderson, A. K. (2005). Affective influences on the attentional
dynamics supporting awareness. Journal of Experimental
Psychology: General, 154, 258–281. doi:10.1037/0096-
3445.134.2.258
Anderson, A. K., Christoff, K., Panitz, D., De Rosa, E., &
Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2003). Neural
correlates of the automatic processing of threat facial signals.
Journal of Neuroscience,
23, 5627–5633.
Armony, J. L., & Dolan, R. J. (2002). Modulation of spatial
attention by fear-conditioned
stimuli: An event-related fMRI study. Neuropsychologia, 40,
817–826. doi:10.1016/S0028-3932%2801%2900178-6
Beck, A. T., Epstein, N., Brown, G., & Steer, R. A. (1988). An
inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: Psychometric
properties. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56,
893–897. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.56.6.893
Calvo, M. G., & Lang, P. J. (2004). Gaze patterns when looking
at emotional pictures:
Motivationally biased attention. Motivation and Emotion, 28,
221–243. doi:10.1023/B%3AMOEM.0000040153.26156.ed
Carretie, L. Hinojosa, J. A., Martin-Loeches, M., Mecado, F., &
Tapia, M. (2004). Automatic attention to emotional stimuli:
Neural correlates. Human Brain Mapping, 22, 290–
299.doi:10.1002/hbm.20037
9. If you are still uncertain whether you have followed the correct
format and citation techniques, visit this webpage to see
numerous tutorials on the APA guide:
http://www.apastyle.org/
6 Appendix
Appendix A
Title
An Appendix is for additional information about some topic in
discussed in the paper. It may be graphs or charts or additional
text. It may discuss more details about a study or survey or
experiment that is referred to in the content of the paper.
Titles of appendices are 12 -point font, flush left, and
boldfaced. Use initial capitals.. Illustrations in this appendix are
labeled Figure A-1, Figure A-2, Table A-1, Table A-2, and so
forth. Note that each appendix should be introduced somewhere
in the text portion of the report. Below is an example of a
visual aid used in an appendix.
Appendix B
Demographic Information for Cummings et al. (2002) Review
10. ENGL 118: Term Paper Rubric (Assessment of Written Report)
Sem.382
Criteria
Mark
Level Descriptor
Mark Awarded
Paper lay-out
2
Paper layout correct and complete. Interesting, creative
development.
Points possible 2-1.5
Layout complete and descriptive. Logical. Required
information.
Points possible 1-0.5
Basic layout, without clarifying content. Distinct paragraphs
introduce new idea.
Points possible 0.5-0.1
Poor layout without different sections. No main or sub-
headings.
Points possible 0
Writing: Clarity of writing
2
Accurate sentence structure. Sequencing of ideas within
paragraphs and transitions between paragraphs make the
writer’s points easy to follow.
Points possible 1.5 - 2
Sequencing of ideas within paragraphs and transitions between
paragraphs make the writer’s points easy to follow, even though
some sentences not correctly structured.
11. Points possible 0.5 - 1
Sentence structure and/or word choice sometimes interfere with
clarity. Needs to improve sequencing of ideas within
paragraphs and transitions between paragraphs to make the
writing easy to follow.
Points possible 0.5
Incorrect sentence structure and word choice. Lack of
transitions and/or sequencing of ideas makes reading and
understanding difficult.
No coherence.
Points possible 0
Content/ Plagiarism
10
ALL content original OR cited correctly. Interpreted and
commented on.
Points possible 10
-1 for each sentence taken from source and not properly cited
(plagiarized) up to total 10.
Paper not according to student’s own writing style. (Check and
compare quiz 1, 2 and MT). **
Critical thinking and creativity
2
Sources analysed and results synthesized correctly; presented in
creative logical way.
Points possible 1.5 - 2
Sources analysed and synthesized correctly. Results presented
12. in logical way.
Points possible 0.5 - 1
Sources analysed correctly but separate synthesis or presented
in separate paragraphs. Little cohesion between analysis and
synthesis.
Points possible 0 – 0.5
Sources not analysed, just reproduced given text.
Points possible 0
In-text referencing
6
Used sources correctly in text for EACH reference.
Points possible 5.5 - 6
Used sources in text.
Up to 50% deviation from APA referencing techniques.
Points possible 4.5 -5
More than 50% deviation from APA referencing techniques.
Points possible 3.5 - 4
Work fails to follow required report format.
Points possible 0 – 3
Use of Figures, Graphs, Charts, Tables & Drawings
4
All figures and tables are effectively interpreted and discussed
in report; and labelled or titled correctly in accordance with
department requirements.
13. Points possible 4-3.5
Minor departures from required format. Captions effectively
communicate content. Figures and tables clearly interpreted and
important features noted.
Points possible 3.4-2.5
Many departures from required format. Captions are ineffective
in communicating content. Many figures not interpreted.
Important features not communicated or understood.
Points possible 2.4-1
Work fails to follow required format. Captions, figures and
tables are not used effectively or not included at all. Little
understanding of important features or issues.
Points possible 0
Reference List
6
Reference section complete, comprehensive and follows
required format. One or two errors.
Points possible 6-5
Minor inadequacies in references or inconsistencies in format.
Points possible 4-3
Inadequate list of references or failure to follow required
format.
Points possible 2-1
Attempted reference list; incorrect format.
Points possible 1
No referencing system used.
Points possible 0
14. Language Accuracy
(Spelling, Grammar, & Mechanics)
8
Academic language used.
NO contractions. Correct word choice. ONLY typographical
errors.
Formal and correct tone and style.
Points possible 6.5 - 8
Mostly spelling errors. Acceptable tone and style.
Errors do not impede meaning.
Less than 10 major errors
Points possible 5 - 6
Errors indicative of poor grammar knowledge.
Incomplete sentences.
10 to 20 major errors
Points possible 3 – 5.5
Language almost incomprehensible
More than 20 errors
Points possible 0 -2.5
Overall Performance
Total marks= /40
/20
**In addition, you must give your instructor the following
15. documents:
___________________________________
Signature:
Printed copies of source documents, properly annotated as
instructed in class. (See Blackboard for examples).
1 source card for EACH source document with correct APA
formatting. (See Blackboard for examples).
Minimum of 4 note cards per student author, correctly written
as instructed in class. (See Blackboard for examples).
**No marks are given for these documents.
ENGL118 English Composition II Semester 382
Bottom of Form
Analysis and valuation of the health and climate change co-
benefits of dietary change
Marco Springmann, H. Charles J. Godfray, Mike Rayner and
Peter Scarborough
PNAS 2016 April, 113 (15) 4146-4151.
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1523119113
1. Edited by David Tilman, University of Minnesota, St. Paul,
MN, and approved February 9, 2016 (received for review
November 22, 2015)
· Article
· Figures & SI
· Authors & Info
· PDF
Significance
The food system is responsible for more than a quarter of all
greenhouse gas emissions while unhealthy diets and high body
weight are among the greatest contributors to premature
mortality. Our study provides a comparative analysis of the
health and climate change benefits of global dietary changes for
all major world regions. We project that health and climate
16. change benefits will both be greater the lower the fraction of
animal-sourced foods in our diets. Three quarters of all benefits
occur in developing countries although the per capita impacts of
dietary change would be greatest in developed countries. The
monetized value of health improvements could be comparable
with, and possibly larger than, the environmental benefits of the
avoided damages from climate change.
Abstract
What we eat greatly influences our personal health and the
environment we all share. Recent analyses have highlighted the
likely dual health and environmental benefits of reducing the
fraction of animal-sourced foods in our diets. Here, we couple
for the first time, to our knowledge, a region-specific global
health model based on dietary and weight-related risk factors
with emissions accounting and economic valuation modules to
quantify the linked health and environmental consequences of
dietary changes. We find that the impacts of dietary changes
toward less meat and more plant-based diets vary greatly among
regions. The largest absolute environmental and health benefits
result from diet shifts in developing countries whereas Western
high-income and middle-income countries gain most in per
capita terms. Transitioning toward more plant-based diets that
are in line with standard dietary guidelines could reduce global
mortality by 6–10% and food-related greenhouse gas emissions
by 29–70% compared with a reference scenario in 2050. We
find that the monetized value of the improvements in health
would be comparable with, or exceed, the value of the
environmental benefits although the exact valuation method
used considerably affects the estimated amounts. Overall, we
estimate the economic benefits of improving diets to be 1–31
trillion US dollars, which is equivalent to 0.4–13% of global
gross domestic product (GDP) in 2050. However, significant
changes in the global food system would be necessary for
regional diets to match the dietary patterns studied here.
· sustainable diets
· dietary change
17. · food system
· health analysis
· greenhouse gas emissions
The choices we make about the food we eat affect our health
and have major ramifications for the state of the environment.
The food system is responsible for more than a quarter of all
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (1), of which up to 80% are
associated with livestock production (2, 3). The aggregate
dietary decisions we make thus have a large influence on
climate change. High consumption of red and processed meat
and low consumption of fruits and vegetables are important
diet-related risk factors contributing to substantial early
mortality in most regions while over a billion people are
overweight or obese (4). Without targeted dietary changes, the
situation is expected to worsen as a growing and more wealthy
global population adopts diets resulting in more GHG emissions
(5) and that increase the health burden from chronic,
noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) associated with high body
weight and unhealthy diets (6).
Recent analyses have highlighted the environmental benefits of
reducing the fraction of animal-sourced foods in our diets and
have also suggested that such dietary changes could lead to
improved health (7⇓ ⇓ ⇓ ⇓ ⇓ ⇓ –14). They have shown that
reductions in meat consumption and other dietary changes
would ease pressure on land use (11, 12) and reduce GHG
emissions (7, 11⇓ ⇓ –14). Changing diets may be more effective
than technological mitigation options for avoiding climate
change (14) and may be essential to avoid negative
environmental impacts such as major agricultural expansion (7)
and global warming of more than 2 °C (13) while ensuring
access to safe and affordable food for an increasing global
population (8, 15).
The diets investigated in these studies include diets with a pro
rata reduction in animal products (ruminant meat, total meat,
dairy) (11, 13, 14), specific dietary patterns that include
reduced or no meat (such as Mediterranean, “pescatarian,” and
18. vegetarian diets) (11, 12), and diets based on recommendations
about healthy eating (7, 11). The health consequences of
adopting these diets have not been explicitly modeled or
quantitatively analyzed, but instead inferences have been drawn
from information available in the epidemiological literature
(16). In the most comprehensive study to date, Tilman and Clark
(12) analyzed the GHG emissions of a series of diets that
differed in their animal-sourced food content and presented
their results alongside a series of observational studies of the
health consequences of adopting the different diets.
Here, we use a region-specific global health model to link the
health and environmental consequences of changing diets. We
also make a first attempt, to our knowledge, to estimate the
economic value of different dietary choices through their effects
on health and the environment. For the health analysis, we built
a comparative risk assessment model to estimate age and
region-specific mortality associated with changes in dietary and
weight-related risk factors (4, 17). The specific risk factors
influence mortality through dose–response relationships, which
allow us to compare different dietary scenarios based on their
exposure to those risk factors. Given the availability of
consistent epidemiological data, we focused on changes in the
consumption of red meat, and of fruits and vegetables, which
together accounted for more than half of diet-related deaths in
2010 (4), and also on the fraction of people who are overweight
or obese through excess calorie consumption, which too is
associated strongly with chronic disease mortality (18, 19). The
disease states included were coronary heart disease (CHD),
stroke, type 2 diabetes (T2DM), and cancer that is an aggregate
of site-specific cancers. These four disease states accounted for
about 60% of NCD deaths and for about 40% of deaths globally
in 2010 (6). Given that dietary and weight-related risk factors
are predominantly associated with chronic disease mortality, we
focused on the health implications of changes in those risk
factors for adults (aged 20 y and older).
For the environmental analysis, we linked regional and
19. scenario-specific food type consumption levels to GHG
emissions using Tilman and Clark’s metaanalysis of life cycle
studies (12) although we adjusted for likely future productivity
improvements (3). In the economic analysis, we placed a
monetary value on changes in GHG emissions by using
estimates of the social cost of carbon (20) and explored
monetizing the health consequences using the value of
statistical life (21, 22) and projections of health-care
expenditure by cause of death (23⇓ –25). We stress from the
outset that we consider the economic valuation to be a first step
and that the estimates are not exactly comparable nor do they
include all consequences of dietary changes.
We used this coupled modeling framework to analyze the
environmental and health impacts of four dietary scenarios in
the year 2050 (SI Appendix, Table S1) (7, 9⇓ ⇓ ⇓ –13). The first
(referred to below as REF) is a reference scenario based on
projections from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations (FAO), with adjustments to take into account the
fraction of nonedible and wasted food (26, 27). The second
scenario [healthy global diets (HGD)] assumes the
implementation of global dietary guidelines on healthy eating
(16, 28) and that people consume just enough calories to
maintain a healthy body weight (29). The last two scenarios also
assume a healthy energy intake but based on observed
vegetarian diets (30, 31), either including eggs and dairy [lacto-
ovo vegetarian (VGT)] or completely plant-based [vegan
(VGN)]. The three nonreference scenarios are not intended to be
realizable dietary outcomes on a global level but are designed to
explore the range of possible environmental and health
outcomes of progressively excluding more animal-sourced foods
from human diets (7, 9⇓ ⇓ ⇓ –13).
The different diet scenarios were implemented by adjusting the
region-specific diets described in the REF scenario, which
maintained the regional character of food consumption (SI
Appendix, section SI.1). The HGD diet included (per day) a
minimum of five portions of fruits and vegetables (16), fewer
20. than 50 g of sugar (16), a maximum of 43 g of red meat (28),
and an energy content of 2,200–2,300 kcal, depending on the
age and sex composition of the population (29). The VGT and
VGN diets differed from the HGD in including six (VGT) or
seven (VGN) portions of fruits and vegetables (30, 31) and one
portion of pulses (30, 31), with no red meat, poultry, or fish,
and in the VGN diet no dairy or eggs. Energy intake was
adjusted to the target levels by varying the proportion of staple
foods in the diet, but preserving their region-specific
composition.
Results
Less than half of all regions meet, or are projected to meet,
dietary recommendations for the consumption of fruit,
vegetables, and red meat, and also exceed the optimal total
energy intake (SI Appendix, Fig. S1). As a consequence, large
changes in the food system would be necessary to achieve the
dietary patterns considered here (SI Appendix, Table S7). In the
HGD scenario, the changes include increasing global fruit and
vegetable consumption by 25% (99 g⋅ d−1) and by more in Sub-
Saharan Africa (190%, 323 g⋅ d−1), South Asia (101%, 248
g⋅ d−1), and Latin America (39%, 138 g⋅ d−1) and decreasing
global red meat consumption by 56% (42 g⋅ d−1), and by more
in Western high-income and middle-income countries (78%, 113
g⋅ d−1 and 69%, 72 g⋅ d−1, respectively), East Asia (74%, 93
g⋅ d−1), and Latin America (72%, 83 g⋅ d−1). The nonmeat
diets require greater increases in the consumption of fruits and
vegetables (VGT, 39%, 152 g⋅ d−1; VEG, 54%, 212 g⋅ d−1),
and of pulses (324%, 61 g⋅ d−1, each). Compared with the
reference scenario, the alternative diets require 15% less total
energy intake.
Health Impacts.
Moving to diets with fewer animal-sourced foods would have
major health benefits (Fig. 1A). Compared with the reference
scenario, we project that adoption of global dietary guidelines
(HGD) would result in 5.1 million avoided deaths per year [95%
confidence interval (CI), 4.8–5.5 million] and 79 million years
21. of life saved (CI, 75–83 million) (Fig. 1A and SI Appendix, Fig.
S2). The equivalent figures for the vegetarian (VGT) diet are
7.3 million avoided deaths (CI, 7.0–7.6 million) and 114 million
life years saved (CI, 111–118 million) and for the vegan (VGN)
diet 8.1 million avoided deaths (CI, 7.8–8.5 million) and 129
million life years saved (CI, 125–133 million). Differentiated
by risk factor, more than half of avoided deaths (51–57% across
the three scenarios) were due to decreased red meat
consumption, 24–35% to increased fruit and vegetable
consumption, and 19–30% to a lower prevalence of being
overweight and obese associated with limiting excessive energy
intake. The reduced mortality in the VGT and VGN scenarios
compared with the HGD scenario was due to lower red meat
consumption (1.7 million additional avoided deaths in each) and
higher fruit and vegetable consumption (VGT, 0.8 million;
VGN, 1.8 million additional avoided deaths). Across the three
nonreference scenarios, about 45–47% of all avoided deaths
were from reduced coronary heart disease (CHD), 26% from
stroke, 16–18% from cancer, and 10–12% from type 2 diabetes
mellitus (T2DM) (SI Appendix, Fig. S3). Adopting the
nonreference diets reduced the combined number of deaths per
year from CHD, stroke, cancer, and T2DM in 2050 by 12%
(HGD), 17% (VGT), and 19% (VEG) and the overall number of
deaths from all causes by 6% (HGD), 9% (VGT), and 10%
(VEG) (SI Appendix, Table S8).
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Fig. 1.
Health and environmental analysis of dietary change for the
year 2050. The diet scenarios include a reference scenario based
on FAO projections (REF), a scenario based on global
guidelines on healthy eating and energy intake (HGD), and
scenarios based on vegetarian (VGT) and vegan (VGN) dietary
patterns. (A) Number of avoided deaths in the dietary scenarios
22. relative to the reference scenario in 2050 by risk factor and
region. Risk factors include changes in the consumption of
fruits and vegetables [ΔC(fruit&veg)] and red meat [ΔC(red
meat)], combined changes in overweight and obesity (Δweight),
and all risk factors combined (Total). The regional aggregation
is detailed in SI Appendix, Table S3 and section SI.1). (B)
Changes in food-related greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the
dietary scenarios relative to the reference scenario in 2050 by
food group and region.
Our analysis allows a regional breakdown of the health benefits
of dietary change. The greatest number of avoided deaths
(∼72% across the three nonreference scenarios) occurred in
developing countries, in particular in East Asia (31–35%) and
South Asia (15–19%) (Fig. 1A). Reducing red meat
consumption was the risk factor that had the most positive
effect on health in East Asia (78–82%), Western high- and
middle-income countries (64–71%; 58–65%), and Latin America
(42–48%). Increasing fruit and vegetable consumption was
responsible for the majority of avoided deaths in the least
developed regions (South Asia, 75–83%; Sub-Saharan Africa,
72–84%). Reduced energy intake and the consequent fewer
people overweight and obese were particularly important in the
Eastern Mediterranean (41–79%), Latin America (32–48%), and
Western high- and middle-income countries (29–40%; 20–33%).
The model results can also be expressed as avoided deaths per
capita, a measure of personal risk (SI Appendix, Figs S5–S7).
By this measure the greatest benefits of dietary change occurred
in developed countries due to the relatively larger per capita
reductions in red meat consumption and total energy intake that
are necessary to meet dietary guidelines (HGD) or a vegetarian
diet (VGT, VGN) (SI Appendix, Table S7).
Emissions Impacts.
In line with other studies (7, 12, 13), we find that dietary
changes toward less animal-sourced foods can help mitigate an
expected growth in food-related GHG emissions. Under our
reference scenario, we project GHG emissions associated with
23. food consumption to increase by 51%, from 7.6 ± 0.1 giga
tonnes (Gt)⋅ y−1 (measured in CO2 equivalents) in 2005/2007
to 11.4 ± 0.2 Gt⋅ y−1 in 2050 (SI Appendix, Fig. S8). Food-
related GHG emissions in the HGD scenario were 8.1 ± 0.1
Gt⋅ y−1, which is 29% less than REF emissions in 2050 and 7%
greater than emissions in 2005/2007. The two vegetarian diets
resulted in food-related GHG emissions at midcentury (VGT,
4.2 ± 0.1 Gt⋅ y−1; VEG, 3.4 ± 0.1 Gt⋅ y−1) that were 45–55%
lower than the 2005/2007 levels and 63–70% lower than REF
emissions. Emissions reductions in the HGD scenario were
largely attributable to reduced red meat consumption (3.2 ± 0.1
GtCO2, 97%) whereas reductions in red meat (6.1 ± 0.1 GtCO2,
85%) and poultry (1.08 ± 0.01 GtCO2, 15%) were responsible
for lower VGT emissions, and lower consumption of red meat
(76%), poultry (13%), and eggs and dairy (1.2 ± 0.03 GtCO2,
15%) for lower VGN emissions (Fig. 1B). In relation to an
emissions pathway that is believed to be likely to limit global
temperature increase to below 2 °C (32), we project that the
ratio of food-related GHG emissions to GHG emissions from all
sources increases from 16% in 2005/2007 to 52%, 37%, 19%,
and 15% in 2050 in the REF, HGD, VGT, and VGN scenarios,
respectively (SI Appendix, Fig. S6 and section SI.3).
We can identify where changes to region-specific diets
contribute the most to reduced GHG emissions. About three-
quarters of the total reductions (72–76% across the
nonreference scenarios) occurred in developing countries, in
particular in East Asia (HGD, 55%; VGT, 41%; VEG, 38%) and
Latin America (13–15%) (Fig. 1B). In contrast, food-related
GHG emissions per capita fell twice as much in developed
compared with developing countries across all three
nonreference scenarios (SI Appendix, Fig. S10), driven mainly
by reductions in red meat consumption (SI Appendix, Table S7).
As a result, the difference in food-related per capita GHG
emissions between developed and developing countries
narrowed (SI Appendix, Fig. S9). The average per capita GHG
emissions from someone in a developing country was 53% that
24. of a person from a developed country in the REF scenario but
only 26% and 20% in the HGD and VGT scenarios,
respectively. In the VGN scenario, food-related GHG emissions
per capita were 4% lower in developed countries than in
developing ones, which was due to higher fruit and vegetable
consumption in some developing countries (exceeding adjusted
values in the baseline) (SI Appendix, Table S8). On a country
level, 77 out of the 105 regions in the environmental analysis
reduced their food-related GHG emissions per capita in the
HGD scenario whereas an increase occurred in 28 (SI Appendix,
Fig. S11). These increases in emissions were relatively minor
(together they made up about 2% of the total changes in food-
related GHG emissions) and were primarily due to increasing
energy intake in regions with extensive current
undernourishment, in particular in Africa. In the VGT and VGN
scenarios, the number of regions where per capita food-related
GHG emissions increased was reduced from 28 to 1 (the
Democratic Republic of the Congo).
Economic Valuation.
We used two complementary approaches to assess the economic
value of the health benefits associated with dietary change.
First, using “cost-of-illness” techniques (23, 25), we calculated
the direct health-care costs and the indirect costs of informal
care and lost work days that are associated with deaths from
specific diseases. Second, we used region-specific data on the
willingness of individuals to pay for incremental mortality
reductions, the “value of statistical life” (VSL) (21, 22), to
obtain an estimate of the cost of the lives (and life-years) saved
under each dietary scenario. The two approaches span the range
of potential valuation methods (33, 34); the VSL approach is
commonly used in cost-benefit analysis (22) to indicate societal
preferences whereas the cost-of-illness approach, in particular
its direct cost component, highlights the economic impact on
the health-care sector and on patients (23, 25).
Using the cost-of-illness approach, we estimate that the health-
related cost savings of moving to the diets based on dietary
25. guidelines (HGD) from that assumed in the REF scenario will
be 735 billion US dollars per year ($735 billion⋅ y−1) in 2050
with values in the range [based on uncertainties in the cost
transfer method (Methods)] $482–987 billion⋅ y−1 (Fig. 2).
Greater savings occur with the adoption of vegetarian diets
(VGT, $973 billion⋅ y−1, range $644–1,303 billion⋅ y−1) and
vegan diets ($1,067 billion⋅ y−1, range $708–1,426
billion⋅ y−1). As a percentage of expected world gross domestic
product (GDP) in 2050, these savings amount to 2.3% (1.5–
3.1%) for HGD diets, 3.0% (2.0–4.0%) for VGT diets, and 3.3%
(2.2–4.4%) for VGN diets. About two thirds of the savings (64–
66% across the nonreference scenarios) were due to reductions
in direct health care-related costs, a third (31–33%) to less need
for unpaid informal care (although this figure is an
underestimate because we were not able to obtain estimates of
the indirect costs of diabetes), and a small fraction (3–4%) to
reduced productivity from lost labor time (SI Appendix, Fig.
S12). Although more than twice as many deaths were avoided in
developing countries than in developed ones, more than half of
all cost savings (54–56%) occurred in developed countries due
to their higher health expenditure and income (SI Appendix,
Fig. S12 and Fig. 1A).
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Fig. 2.
Economic valuation of the health and environmental benefits of
dietary change compared with a reference scenario for the year
2050. The three nonreference scenarios are as follows: one
based on global guidelines on healthy eating and energy intake
(HGD) and two based on vegetarian and vegan dietary patterns
(VGT and VGN). (Left) The value of environmental benefits
derived from estimates of the social cost of carbon (SCC) and
the value of healthcare benefits based on estimates of the costs
of illness (CoI), including direct healthcare costs and total
26. costs, which also include indirect costs associated with unpaid
informal care and productivity losses from lost labor time.
(Right) The value of health benefits associated with the
willingness to pay for mortality reductions based on the value
of statistical life and life-year (VSL and VSLY). The
uncertainty intervals for the environmental valuation stem from
different SCC values in 2050 [71 US dollars per ton of CO2 (71
USD/tCO2); 27–221 USD/tCO2], and the uncertainty intervals
for the health valuation stem from high and low values of the
costs of illness (±30%) and the VSL (±50%).
The value-of-statistical-life approach led to much higher
estimates of the economic benefits associated with dietary
change (Fig. 2). For the HGD scenario, we estimate that the
monetized value associated with diet-related changes in
mortality amount to 21 trillion (or 1012) US dollars per year
($21 trillion⋅ y−1) in 2050 with a range (again reflecting
uncertainties in the methodology) of $10–31 trillion⋅ y−1. The
values we obtain for the VGT diet are $28 trillion⋅ y−1 ($14–42
trillion⋅ y−1), and for the VGN diet $30 trillion⋅ y–1 ($15–46
trillion⋅ y−1). In terms of percentage of expected global GDP in
2050, these values amount to 9% (4–14%) for HGD diets, 12%
(6–18%) for VGT diets, and 13% (6–20%) for VGN diets (Fig.
2). A criticism of the VSL approach, which treats each avoided
death as equally valuable, is that most of the avoided deaths
occur late in life (SI Appendix, Fig. S4). Recalculating the
estimates by monetizing the years of life saved reduces them by
approximately one half (Fig. 2). The regional distribution of the
monetized economic benefits broadly corresponds to the
distribution of changes in mortality despite regional variation in
the value of statistical life (SI Appendix, Fig. S13).
To explore the economic benefits of reduced GHG emissions,
we used estimates of the social cost of carbon (20) for the year
2050 and calculated the value of avoided harm due to less CO2
in the atmosphere (Fig. 2). We found that adoption of diets
meeting dietary guidelines (HGD) would have monetized
environmental benefits of $234 billion⋅ y−1, with values in the
27. range $89–729 billion⋅ y−1 for different assumptions about
discount rates (Methods). The benefits were greater for diets
with fewer animal-sourced foods: for VGT, $511 billion⋅ y−1
($194–1,589 billion⋅ y−1) and, for VGN, $570 billion⋅ y−1
($217–1,773 billion⋅ y−1). As a percentage of expected world
GDP in 2050, the benefits amounted to 0.10% (0.04–0.32%) for
HGD diets, 0.22% (0.08–0.69%) for VGT diets, and 0.25%
(0.09–0.77%) for VGN diets. The regional distribution of the
monetized environmental benefits largely reflects the changes in
GHG emissions (SI Appendix, Fig. S14 and Fig. 1B).
Discussion
Our analysis indicates that dietary changes toward fewer animal
and more plant-based foods are associated with significant
benefits due to reductions in diet-related mortality and GHG
emissions. Changes in the consumption of red meat, fruits, and
vegetables and in total energy intake could result in reductions
in total mortality of 6–10%, compared with a reference diet in
2050. This estimate is likely an underestimate of the total
impact that the dietary patterns studied here could have on diet-
related mortality because we were not able to model the health
consequences of changes in the consumption of all food groups.
For example, diets with fewer animal-sourced foods typically
include more nuts and whole grains (30, 31), which evidence
suggests have health benefits and are likely to increase the
number of avoided deaths (4). Similarly, it is known that salt
and sugar ingested in sugary drinks affect health (4), but
comparative international data on their effects is insufficient to
include in our models whereas the health impacts of other food
groups (for example dairy) is inconclusive (35). Wherever
possible, we have placed confidence estimates around our
results, but we are aware that other sources of uncertainty exist
that we have not been able to treat. Those uncertainties include
food demand and mortality projections, possible deviations from
the linear dose–response relationships linking risk factors and
mortality, and our inability to remove all possible confounding
effects when deriving relative risk parameters.
28. Our health estimates are in line with current epidemiological
evidence. Tilman and Clark (12) reported results from a
metaanalysis that indicated that adopting vegetarian,
pescatarian, and Mediterranean dietary patterns could reduce
overall mortality by 0–18%. Orlich et al. (36) reported results
from a prospective cohort study, focused on vegetarian dietary
patterns, that indicated reductions in mortality from all causes
in vegetarians and vegans compared with nonvegetarians of 9%
and 15%, respectively; and, in combining those results with two
preceding prospective cohort studies, Le and Sabaté (37)
reported reductions in mortality in vegetarians compared with
nonvegetarians living in the United States of 12–20%. However,
a prospective cohort study focused on vegetarians living in the
United Kingdom found no statistically significant reduction in
mortality compared with nonvegetarians (38), the reasons for
which are debated (37). In general, it should be noted that
inferring the health impacts of dietary patterns from
observational studies is complicated by the potential presence
of multiple confounding factors (even if some are controlled
for).
The strength of our health analysis is that we used dose–
response relationships of dietary and weight-related risk factors,
such as changes in red meat consumption and overweight, that
are epidemiologically more robust than the association of
mortality with complete diets. With this approach, we were able
to analyze differences in mortality caused by changes in
consumption of specific food groups in individual regions. We
found that about half of the global avoided deaths occurred
because of the consumption of less red meat and that the other
half was due to a combination of increased fruit and vegetable
consumption and reductions in total energy intake (and the
associated decreases in the fraction of people overweight and
obese). However, there were marked regional variations. For
example, the two areas with the greatest number of avoided
deaths were East Asia and South Asia, in the former primarily
driven by reduced red meat consumption and in the latter by
29. increased fruit and vegetable consumption. Regions also
differed in whether the net sum of avoided deaths was due to a
modest reduction in the risk of mortality of many people or a
larger reduction in the risks to a smaller population. The
greatest improvement in per capita risk reductions occurred in
Western high- and middle-income countries due to reduced red
meat consumption and lower energy intakes.
In our environmental analysis, we project reference emissions to
increase by 51% between 2005/20007 and 2050 (from 7.6
GtCO2-eq to 11.4 GtCO2-eq) and dietary changes to decrease
the reference emissions by 29–70% (3.3–8.0 GtCO2-eq). The
latter is likely to be a conservative estimate because we did not
account for the beneficial impacts of dietary change on land use
through avoided deforestation. Other studies have estimated that
the associated emissions reductions could amount to 2.1–2.8
GtCO2-eq per year between 2010 and 2050 (7, 12). We also did
not take into account emissions feedbacks from increased life
expectancy in the dietary-change scenarios. However, such
effects are likely to be small for the health impacts estimated
here (SI Appendix, section SI.9).
In aggregate, our results are consistent with previous studies of
the environmental consequences of dietary change. Hedenus et
al. (13) projected that dietary changes (ranging from the partial
replacements of ruminant meats with other meats, and of animal
products with pulses and cereals) could reduce food-related
GHG emissions in 2050 by 3.4–5.2 GtCO2-eq and that technical
mitigation in the agricultural sector and increased productivity
could lead to additional reductions of 1.7–2 GtCO2-eq each.
Tilman and Clark (12) projected that adopting Mediterranean,
pescatarian, and vegetarian diets would reduce food-related
GHG emissions in 2050 by 4.2–8.4 GtCO2-eq, and Bajželj et al.
(7) projected reductions of 5.8–6.4 GtCO2-eq in 2050 if dietary
recommendations were globally adopted. In contrast to our
study, Bajželj et al. (7) included land-use emissions, and their
dietary scenario is largely based on national health guidelines,
which are more stringent than the global ones we used in our
30. HGD scenario. Although we adopted the same baseline GHG
emissions factors as Tilman and Clark (12), our reference
estimates are slightly lower than theirs (SI Appendix, section
SI.10) because we accounted for output-based productivity
improvements in agriculture (which lower emissions
intensities), and we did not account for the GHG emissions
associated with the consumption of fish and seafood. Another
difference is that we used food demand projections produced by
FAO whereas Tilman and Clark generated their own income-
dependent ones.
The strength of our environmental analysis is that we were able
to explore regional details. For example, we found that some
increases in food consumption-related GHG emissions would be
necessary to achieve global dietary recommendations in Sub-
Saharan Africa but that, overall, adopting global dietary
recommendations would reduce the food-related per capita
emissions gap between developing and developed countries (and
close the gap completely if purely plant-based diets were
adopted). Our analysis also indicated that adopting global
dietary guidelines would not be enough to reduce food-related
GHG emissions to the same extent that total GHG emissions
will need to fall to achieve a climate stabilization pathway that
would have a high probability of limiting global temperature
increases to below 2 °C (32). For managing food demand
(including efficiency improvements in line with current trends)
to make its prorated contribution, reductions in animal-based
foods of the degree found only in the VGN scenario would be
required. Given that such reductions would be hard to achieve,
our analysis suggests that, to achieve climate stabilization, a
balance will need to be struck between the degree of adoption of
plant-based diets, advances in mitigation technologies of the
food sector, and disproportionate reductions in non–food-related
GHG emissions.
In our economic analysis, we found that the economic value of
the health benefits associated with more plant-based diets is
comparable with, or exceeds, the value of the environmental
31. benefits (depending on the valuation method used). However,
although these valuation techniques are routinely used in cost-
benefit analyses (20, 22), they are not strictly comparable. The
value of environmental benefits represents the value of avoided
damages, the health benefits based on cost-of-illness estimates
capture the direct and some of the indirect healthcare costs
avoided, and the health benefits based on value-of-statistical-
life estimates can be interpreted as the aggregate value that
individuals in society would be willing to pay for the reductions
in mortality associated with the different dietary patterns. In
assessing the worth of public programs aimed to achieve
healthier and more environmentally sustainable diets, the use of
measures based on avoided costs provides a narrow estimate of
cost-effectiveness whereas the use of the value-of-statistical-
life approach can be seen as providing a broader estimate of net
societal benefits.
We are not aware of other studies that contrasted the value of
environmental and health benefits (SI Appendix, section SI.11),
and we repeat the caveat that the valuation techniques we used
are subject to significant uncertainties. The most important
source of uncertainty for the environmental valuation is the
discount rate used to calculate the net present value of the
future harm caused by climate change. For example, changing
the discount rate from five to a measure that assumes higher
than expected impacts of temperatures in the upper tails of the
modeled distribution (Methods) increases the value of the
environmental benefits of the HGD diet scenario from $89
billion to $729 billion. The main source of uncertainty in the
health valuation involves the benefit transfer technique
(Methods) used to obtain region-specific costs-of-illness (CoI)
and value-of-statistical-life (VSL) estimates. Ideally, we would
have used values that were specifically estimated for the regions
used. However, such data do not exist for all of the regions
included in this study, so instead we used a comprehensive and
quality-screened database of VSL estimates (21, 22) and a
regional set of comparable CoI estimates (23⇓ –25). The
32. valuation based on CoI estimates might be further improved by
the inclusion of comorbidities that can affect the costs
attributable to specific disease, and by breaking down aggregate
cancer costs into site-specific costs. Sufficient data already
exist in some regions to explore the latter, but not enough for a
global analysis (34). Finally, we note that we did not assess the
market responses associated with dietary changes: e.g., due
price changes, which remain an important area for future
research.
There is a general consensus that dietary change across the
globe can have multiple health, environmental, and economic
benefits (12). Our analysis confirms this view and takes a step
forward in providing better estimates of the magnitude of the
possible benefits and how they are distributed across different
regions. It introduces a framework to analyze multiple costs and
benefits across different sectors simultaneously. The size of the
projected benefits, even taking into account all of the caveats
about the unavoidable sources of uncertainty in our work,
should encourage researchers and policy makers to act to
improve consumption patterns. But we also show the magnitude
of the task. To achieve the HGD diet that embodies a (minimal)
global consensus on the consumption of a few major food
groups would require a 25% increase in the number of fruits and
vegetables eaten globally and a 56% reduction in red meat
whereas, overall, the human species would need to consume
15% fewer calories. We hope our work will help identify the
targeted, region-specific interventions (8, 39) that will be
needed on both the production and consumption sides of the
food system to achieve these benefits.
Methods
In the health analysis, we estimated the mortality and disease
burden attributable to dietary and weight-related risk factors by
calculating “population attributable fractions” (PAFs). PAFs
describe the proportions of disease cases that would be avoided
were the risk exposure changed from a baseline to a
33. counterfactual (4, 17). We assumed that changes in relative
risks follow a dose–response relationship (4) and that PAFs
combine multiplicatively (4, 40). Changes in mortality were
calculated by multiplying region- and disease-specific PAFs by
region, disease, and age-specific death rates and population
numbers (SI Appendix, section SI.2). In addition to changes in
mortality, we also calculated the years of life lost (YLL) due to
a change in dietary and weight-related risk factors. We did this
calculation by multiplying each age-specific death by the life
expectancy at that age using the Global Burden of Disease
standard abridged life table (40).
We used publically available data sources to parameterize the
comparative risk analysis. Population and mortality projections
for the year 2050 were adapted from the United Nations
Population Division and the World Health Organization (WHO),
respectively. The diet and weight-related relative risk
parameters (SI Appendix, Table S4) were taken from pooled
analyses of prospective cohort studies (18, 19) and from
metaanalyses of prospective cohort and case-control studies (28,
41⇓ ⇓ ⇓ ⇓ –46). The cancer associations have been judged as
probable or convincing by the World Cancer Research Fund,
and, in each case, a dose–response relationship had been
identified and there was consistent evidence suggesting a
plausible mechanism (28). For the weight-related risk
assessment, we used the scenario estimates of total energy
intake to estimate changes in the prevalence of being
overweight and obese based on historical relationships between
weight categories and caloric availability using data from the
WHO and the FAO (SI Appendix, section SI.2).
In the environmental analysis, we calculated the environmental
impacts associated with the different dietary scenarios by using
commodity-specific GHG emissions factors. The emissions
factors are adopted from a recent metaanalysis of life cycle
analyses (LCAs) that estimated the “cradle to farm gate”
emissions of different food items (12), with adjustments to
account for likely productivity improvements that would reduce
34. GHG intensity over time (3) (SI Appendix, section SI.3). The
factors exclude emissions from land-use change and post–farm-
gate activities, such as processing, packaging, and
transportation to households. We did not include GHG
emissions related to the consumption of fish and seafood
because those food groups are not resolved in the projections of
food demand used in this study (26).
To estimate the economic consequences of the health impacts,
we used two complementary costing methods (33, 34): the
value-of-statistical-life (VSL) approach (22) and the cost-of-
illness (CoI) approach (47). We based our VSL valuation on a
comprehensive global metaanalysis of stated preference surveys
of mortality risk valuation undertaken for the Organization for
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (21).
Following OECD recommendations, we adopted a VSL base
value for the European Union (EU) of 3.5 million US dollars
(1.75–5.25 million US dollars) and used the benefit-transfer
method to calculate VSLs in other regions (22), taking into
account differences in income expressed as GDP per capita
adjusted for purchasing power parity (PPP) and projected to
2050 (SI Appendix, section SI.4). We also monetized the health
impact in terms of years of life lost (YLL) by using the value of
statistical life year (VSLY). We calculated the VSLY for each
region by expressing the VSL as the discounted net present
value of the VSLY throughout a lifetime, adopting a discount
rate of 3% and a maximum age of 86 adapted from the Global
Burden of Disease standard life table. We used nonlinear
programming (GAMS, NLP solver) to numerically solve for the
VSLYs per region (SI Appendix, section SI.4).
To implement the CoI approach, we used a cost transfer method
to estimate the costs of illness in different parts of the world.
This technique is similar to the benefit transfer method
described above, and it has been used in other global
assessments (34). We based our cost-of-illness estimates on a
comparative assessment of the economic burden of
cardiovascular diseases (23, 24) and cancer (25) across the EU.
35. We adopted the total cost estimate associated with CHD, stroke,
and cancer for the EU in 2009, which included direct costs
(healthcare expenditure, health service utilization, expenditure
on medication) and indirect costs (opportunity costs of informal
care, productivity costs due to mortality and morbidity),
calculated costs per death based on mortality statistics (24), and
estimated the costs per death by disease in the EU and other
regions in 2050 by scaling the base values by the ratio of health
expenditure per capita for direct costs and by the ratio of GDP
per capita (adjusted for purchasing power parity) for indirect
costs (SI Appendix, section SI.4). Productivity losses due to
morbidity and mortality, which are a part of the indirect costs,
were included only for deaths occurring among adults of
working age (<65 y old). For the CoI analysis related to
diabetes (SI Appendix, section SI.4), we adopted country-
specific cost estimates (48) and, to avoid double-counting of
cardio vascular disease-related complications, adjusted those
estimates for the incremental cost component specifically
attributable to diabetes (49, 50).
In the economic valuation of the environmental effects of
dietary change, we estimated the monetary value of changes in
GHG emissions. We used estimates of the social cost of carbon
(SCC), which represents the monetized damages associated with
an incremental increase in carbon emissions. The values
adopted are based on a comprehensive integrated-assessment
modeling exercise facilitated by technical experts from several
US agencies (20). For the year 2050, the SCC estimates are 27,
71, 98, and 221 US dollars⋅ ton−1 of CO2 for discount rates of
5%, 3%, and 2.5%, and the 95th percentile at a 3% discount
rate. The last value is designed to represent the possible higher
than expected economic impacts from climate change further
out in the tails of the SCC distribution (20).
Acknowledgments
We thank Aikaterini Kavallari (FAO) for data support and
valuable comments and Alastair Gray (HERC, University of
Oxford) for useful discussions.
36. Footnotes
· ↵ 1To whom correspondence should be addressed. Email:
[email protected].
· Author contributions: M.S., H.C.J.G., M.R., and P.S. designed
research; M.S. performed research; M.S., H.C.J.G., M.R., and
P.S. analyzed data; and M.S. and H.C.J.G. wrote the paper.
· The authors declare no conflict of interest.
· This article is a PNAS Direct Submission.
· Data deposition: The region-specific results of the health,
environmental, and economic valuation analyses have been
deposited in the Oxford University Research Archive (ORA),
ora.ox.ac.uk/ (doi: 10.5287/bodleian:XObxm2ebO).
· This article contains supporting information online at
www.pnas.org/lookup/suppl/doi:10.1073/pnas.1523119113/-
/DCSupplemental.
Freely available online through the PNAS open access option.
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52. as much meat will be produced
for consumption as is today, for a
projected total of 465 million tons 1.
For more than a decade the largest
increases in production have taken
place in developing countries: more
than half the world’s total meat
production took place there over this
time1. Despite this, more than one in
seven people globally do not receive
sufficient protein and energy from
their diet, and one in every three
people worldwide (encompassing all
age groups and populations) suffers
from malnutrition 2, 3. An Increase
in global population and the relative
declining per capita availability of
energy resources, land and water have
contributed to this. Technological
advances in agriculture have secured
increased production and output but
have meant devastating environmental
impacts, including climate change. The
complexities of competing agendas of
food production and environmental
sustainability will have to be carefully
managed: “Balancing competing
demands from the need to sustainably
intensify food production to meet
growing demands for food while also
responding to consumer demands for
more meat and more dairy products
will be a significant challenge for food
systems in the coming decades” 4.
53. Current Consumption
On average each person in the world
consumes approximately 40kg of meat
per year. This is expected to increase to
45.3kg by 2030 5. Predictions for meat
consumption differ between developing
and developed countries: 36.7kg and
100.1kg of meat per person respectively.
In 2011, Australians consumed around
111kg of meat per person: 33kg of beef,
9kg of lamb, 43kg of chicken and 25kg
of pork. Currently Australian consumers
allocate about 40% of their total food
expenditure to meat 6.
In developing countries, access to meat
of any variety means increased food
security and decreased malnutrition. In
poorer countries the less affluent are
forced to buy whatever is affordable and
readily available, whether it be poor
Alexis Clarke
Alexis has graduate and post-graduate qualifications in
Journalism and Graphic Design. She recently completed a
Graduate Certificate in Sustainability at the University of
Sydney.
Vegetarianism
and sustainability
106 | vol21 no2 | JATMS
54. quality fruit and vegetables, processed
foods or factory-farmed meat and dairy.
“The perception of the role of meat,
particularly red meat, in the global
diet is dichotomous” 7. Should the first
priority be adequate food security and
nutrition standards for all, or should
environmental conservation come first?
This paper presents some of the key
arguments in this complex debate.
Food security and national
standards
How important is meat in human diets?
A dichotomy exists regarding attitudes
to meat consumption: meat is deemed
both a protein-rich and nutrient-
packed dietary necessity and an
artery-clogging, life-shortening food
that should be avoided at all costs. On
the one hand red meat contributes
key micronutrients (iron, vitamin A,
vitamin B, essential fatty acids and zinc)
and protein to the global food supply,
all of which are essential for human
health 7, 8. But, on the other, excessive
consumption of meat in developed
countries is often linked with non-
communicable diseases, obesity and
cancer8. And as Australians we are
disproportionately guilty of excessive
consumption. A report released by
the Australian Institute of Health
and Welfare showed that Australians
55. consume 116kg of meat per year,
compared to the world average of
40kg 9.
Recommendations to reduce
consumption of animal fat, and in
particular saturated fat, continue
to dominate dietary guidelines,
with emphasis on selecting lean
cuts of meat and trimming external
fat. Studies have shown that lean
meats such as chicken and beef can
contribute to a well-balanced, energy-
restricted diet to support weight loss
or maintenance7
Can we live without meat?
It is entirely possible for vegetarians to
meet all their nutritional needs without
having to consume meat. Vegetarian
diets, when properly planned, provide
the full range of protein, essential
fatty acids, vitamins, minerals and
fibre necessary for optimal nutritional
status10. However dietary planning
needs to take into account that
nutritional needs may increase during
stages of growth and development,
pregnancy and lactation, which may
mean that it becomes necessary to eat
meat at certain stages of life11.
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W
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JATMS | Winter 2015 | 107
Malnutrition in the developing
world
In developing countries it is estimated
that 16-28% of the population are
consuming insufficient energy-rich
57. foods, compared to less than 5% in
developed countries. On average, only
10% of this limited energy intake is
consumed as protein, with less than
25% derived from high-quality animal
protein7. The Food and Agriculture
Organisation of the United Nations (FAO)
predicts that by 2050 consumption of
red meat worldwide (bovine and ovine)
will increase by approximately 200%,
and that of pork by 158%. Predicted
growth in production and consumption
of livestock products suggests an
opportunity for increased food security
among a growing population7. The FAO
notes that livestock varieties, such as
cattle, that consume primarily roughage
and agro-industrial waste products,
add to the food supply beyond what
can be provided by crops12. Feeding
agri-waste to livestock raised for food
contributes more to the food supply
than would be contributed by people
eating crops and grains because the total
of the end product of cattle-raising is
more nutritious than the content of the
vegetable matter the cattle consumed.
The effects of malnutrition on child
survival in developing countries are
devastating. It has been noted that
protein malnutrition is a causal factor
in 49% of the approximately 10.4
million annual deaths of children under
five years of age12. UNICEF have also
estimated that one-third of children
58. under the age of five in the developing
world have stunted growth. Stunting is
caused by long-term insufficient nutrient
intake and frequent infections13. On
top of this, iron deficiency and anaemia
affect nearly 600 million pre-school
and school-aged children in developing
countries14. A recent study highlighted
how important meat is to the diets of
children in developing countries to
decrease stunting and increase the
sufficiency of key micronutrients15. Meat
is also important to the diets of pregnant
and lactating women: “Efforts to reduce
micronutrient deficiency through the
increased availability of animal proteins
are also important to support maternal
health” 7.
Environmental Conservation
Changes to global patterns of wealth and
prosperity are changing rates of food
production and consumption and in turn
increasing the environmental impacts
of agricultural and livestock production.
People in developing countries such as
Brazil, China and India are experiencing
greater wealth and therefore have
greater purchasing power. This
purchasing power is often linked to
adding more meat to their diets4. In
China this has caused a substantial
westernisation of diets, entailing a
rapid increase in the demand for meat.
More than half of the 107 million tons
59. of pork eaten worldwide in 2013 were
consumed in China16.
Even though the amount of grain
produced in the world today is enough
to feed the world’s human population
twice over, 70% of this grain is fed to
livestock17. In 2010 the global production
per capita of grain was 323kg. Only half
of the 2010 harvest was used directly
for food; the other half was used for
animal feed or for bio-fuels. The FAO has
predicted that the percentage of grain
used directly by humans will fall even
further, as developing countries emulate
the dietary habits of westerners17. It
has been argued, on both geopolitical
and ethical grounds, that it would be
better to re-deploy this production in an
attempt to meet the nutritional needs of
the world’s poor rather than feed it to
animals who will then be slaughtered to
cater to the culinary tastes of its middle
class.
Land use
Currently 80% of the world’s agricultural
land is used directly or indirectly for
animal production18. In the US over
half the total land mass is used for the
production of meat and dairy products.
In Australia about two thirds of land is
given over to farming production: about
90% of farm land is for grazing on native
pastures19. The irony is that the more
60. arable land we use, the more arable land
we need. Farming increases topsoil loss
and soil degradation, which steadily
decrease the productivity of farm land20.
Water
The harsh reality is that there will not
be enough water available to produce
enough food for the expected 9 billion
population in 2050 if we adhere to
current dietary trends across the
globe. In terms of water availability,
a study undertaken at the Stockholm
International Water Institute warned
that the world’s population may
have to convert almost completely
to a vegetarian diet over the next 40
years to avoid catastrophic shortages.
ARTICLE
“IN TERMS OF WATER AVAILABILITY, A STUDY
UNDERTAKEN AT
THE STOCKHOLM INTERNATIONAL WATER INSTITUTE
WARNED
THAT THE WORLD’S POPULATION MAY HAVE TO
CONVERT
ALMOST COMPLETELY TO A VEGETARIAN DIET OVER
THE NEXT
40 YEARS TO AVOID CATASTROPHIC SHORTAGES.
CURRENTLY
61. 70% OF ALL AVAILABLE WATER GOES TO
AGRICULTURE.”
108 | vol21 no2 | JATMS
Currently 70% of all available water
goes to agriculture21.
According to the FAO food production
will need to increase by 70% by
2050. However this will have huge
ramifications for our already-stressed
water resources 22. Humans derive
about 20% of their protein from
animal-based products. The Stockholm
International Water Institute has
warned that this percentage will need
to drop to 5% by 2050 if we are to feed
the extra 2 billion people expected to
be living on the planet by then 21.
The FAO has suggested that adopting
a vegetarian diet is one option to
increase the amount of water available
to grow more food in an increasingly
climate-erratic world. Producing
animal protein-rich food consumes
five to ten times more water than
producing food for a vegetarian diet.
One third of the world’s arable land is
used to grow crops to feed animals21.
Other options to feed people include
eliminating waste and increasing trade
62. between countries in food surplus and
those in deficit22.
Greenhouse gas emissions
and global warming
A 2006 report by the FAO found that
our meat-heavy diets cause a greater
amount of greenhouse gases (CO2,
methane and nitrous oxide) in the
atmosphere than either transportation
or industry. Current meat production
levels contribute approximately 22%
of the 36 billion tonnes of greenhouse
gases the world produces every year23.
The huge impact of the livestock
sector on global warming is often
overlooked. A global transition towards
a low meat diet may reduce the effects
of climate change by as much as 50%
by 205024.
It is evident that livestock production
requires more land, water, fossil
fuels and other resources than the
production of edible crops. The United
Nations (UN) has also identified the
livestock industry as “one of the most
significant contributors to today’s
most serious environmental problems,
including global warming (livestock
are responsible for 18% of greenhouse
gas emissions, which is higher
than the share of greenhouse gas
emissions from transportation1, loss
of fresh water, rainforest destruction,
63. spreading deserts, air and water
pollution, acid rain, soil erosion and
loss of habitat”25.
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Conclusion: Vegetarianism is
not enough
Although there are powerful arguments
against over-consumption of meat and
dairy products by wealthy populations
in the context of global food security,
blanket advocacy of universal
vegetarianism may be too simplistic a
prescription 26. To quantify the entire
impact of meat consumption on global
food security would require highly
sophisticated computer technology
that analyses how purchasing decisions
on a micro level effect macro systems,
including farming systems, global supply
chains, and food markets18.
One study conducted by the
International Food Policy Research
Institute found that if the western world
halved their meat consumption per
capita, the demand for meat would fall
and prices would decline. This would
make meat globally more affordable,
which would have the greatest impact
for those in developing countries who
would be able to increase their animal-
65. protein consumption. This would
have substantial nutritional benefits,
especially for children18.
However the study also suggested that
eating less meat could compromise food
security. For example, if consumers in
developed nations replaced meat with
wheat-based products global wheat
prices would rise. This in turn would
effect the prevalence of malnutrition
in developing countries which rely on
wheat18.
Although there are many benefits of
vegetarianism, the complexities of global
markets and human food traditions could
produce some counterintuitive results18.
A serious discussion about food security
and natural resource consumption
must emphasise redistributive social
justice and not only lifestyle choices.
It would be incredibly difficult to
persuade people to eat less meat, due to
overall popularity of meat and the great
variety of factors that influence food
practices24. In Western countries these
habits are strongly reliant on a chain
of industrialised activity that produces
“highly standardised meat products,
commonly sold in supermarkets and
de-animalised to avoid reminding
customers about the link between
the meat dish and the killing of the
animal”27.
66. What we learn from the application
of market economics to global human
welfare may be that there is no one
global solution, only partial solutions
that may provide food security or
environmental gains in particular
contexts. The hopeful prospect of
aggregated individual responsibility
solving diabolically complex global
problems has rarely been fulfilled in
human history when the prosperity of
powerful elites has been in the balance.
Perhaps when a meeting of the G20
group of wealthy nations places the
food security of developing nations
and environmental health higher on its
agenda than growth the situation may
begin to turn around.
References
1. WorldWatch Institute. Meat Production
Continues to Rise. Washington, DC:
Worldwatch Institute; 2014 [cited 2014
13/11/2014]; Available from: http://www.
worldwatch.org/node/5443.
2. Godfray HC, Beddington JR, Crute IR, Haddad
L, Larence D, Muir J, et al. Food Security: The
Challenge of Feeding 9 Billion People. Science
67. 2010;327(812).
3. Baroni L, Cenci L, Tettamanti M, Berati M.
Evaluating the environmental impact of various
dietary patterns combined with different food
production systems. European Journal of
Clinical Nutrition. 2007;61:279-86.
4. McDonald B. Food Security. Cambridge: Polity
Press; 2010.
5. World Health Organisation. Availability
and changes in consumption of animal
products. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health
Organisation; 2014 [cited 2014 3/11/2014];
Available from: http://www.who.int/nutrition/
topics/3_foodconsumption/en/index4.html.
6. Wong L, Selvanathan EA, Selvanathan S.
Changing Pattern of Meat Consumption in
Australia. Nathan, Queensland: Griffith Business
School2013.
68. 7. McNeil S, Van Elswyk ME. Red meat in global
nutrition. 2012 21/01/2012;92:166-73.
8. Mosley M. Should I Eat Meat? London: SBS; 2014.
p. 51 minutes.
9. Jean P. It’s official: We eat too much. The Sydney
Morning Herald 2012.
10. Nutrition Australia. Vegetarian Diets. Nutrition
Australia; 2011 [cited 2014 19/11/2014];
Available from: http://www.nutritionaustralia.
org/national/frequently-asked-questions/
vegetarian-diets.
11. Baines S. Meat vs veg: how does a vegetarian
diet stack up? University of Newcastle: The
Conversation; 2013 [cited 2014 19/11/2014];
Available from: https://www.theconversation.
com/meat-vs-veg-how-does-a-vegetarian-diet-
stack-up-14850.
12. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the
69. United Nations. World Livestock 2011: Livestock
in Food Security. Rome: FAO2011.
13. UNICEF. Progress For Children: A World Fit
For Children Statistical Review. 2006 [cited
ARTICLE
“WHAT WE LEARN FROM THE
APPLICATION OF MARKET
ECONOMICS TO GLOBAL
HUMAN WELFARE MAY BE
THAT THERE IS NO ONE
GLOBAL SOLUTION, ONLY
PARTIAL SOLUTIONS THAT MAY
PROVIDE FOOD SECURITY OR
ENVIRONMENTAL GAINS IN
PARTICULAR CONTEXTS.”
110 | vol21 no2 | JATMS
2014 13/11/2014]; Available from: http://www.
70. unicef.org/progressforchildren/2007n6/
index_41505.htm.
14. World Health Organisation. Worldwide
prevalence of anaemia 1993-2005: WHO
global database of anaemia Geneva,
Switzerland: World Health Organisation2008.
15. Krebs N, Mazariegos M, Tshefu A, Bose C,
Sami N, Chomba E. Meat consumption is
associated with less stunting among toddlers
in four diverse low-income settings. Food and
Nutrition Bulletin. 2011;32:185-91.
16. Deckers J. Vegetarianism, Sentimental
or Ethical? Journal of Agricultural and
Environmental Ethics. 2009;22(6):573-97.
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Agricultural and Resource Economics Review 38/2 (October
2009) 109–124
Copyright 2009 Northeastern Agricultural and Resource
77. Economics Association
Some Economic Benefits and Costs of
Vegetarianism
Jayson L. Lusk and F. Bailey Norwood
It is now fashionable in many circles to advocate
vegetarianism, and many activist groups are
vocal in their aim to convert the human race to vegetarians.
What would be the economic costs
and benefits of a shift away from meat consumption? In this
article we provide some partial
answers to this question. In three separate analyses we show (i)
that it is much more costly to
produce energy and protein from animal-based sources than
from some plant-based sources,
(ii) that sizable demand shifts away from meat consumption
would result in significantly lower
corn prices and production, and (iii) that the average U.S.
consumer places a higher value on
having meat in his or her diet than having any other food group.
This information should help
move forward our understanding of the economics of
vegetarianism and provide an objective
stance from which to evaluate the claims being made by
advocates of vegetarianism.
Key Words: cost of nutrients, crop production, dietary costs,
livestock production, value of
meat, vegan, vegetarian
78. In her bestselling book Food in History, Reay
Tannahill begins, “For 12,000 years there has been
a steady undercurrent of antagonism between
vegetarians and meat-eaters” (Tannahill 1988, p.
1). In the Old Testament—a sacred text shared by
Judaism, Christianity, and to some extent Islam—
humans began in the Garden of Eden, where “to
every beast of the earth, and to every fowl of the
air, and to everything that creepeth upon the
earth, wherein there is life, I have given every
green herb” (Genesis 1:30). The interpretation of
this text to some scholars is clear: “this should be
interpreted to mean: every green herb and nothing
else” (Soler 1996, p. 52).
Yet humans left the Garden of Eden, and along
with it, their herbivore diet. The natural history of
humans, including archaeological evidence, sug-
gests that Homo sapiens have always eaten both
plants and animals (Tannahill 1988). For the vast
majority of their existence, obtaining nutritional
needs was a daily challenge for humans, and
famine was a recurring threat. Given the scarcity
of nutritional resources, it would seem odd for
humans to restrict their diet for religious or cul-
tural reasons, but that is exactly what they did.
For example, as early as the sixth century B.C.,
Pythagoras and his followers led a vegetarian life
(Spencer 2000). Because of religious beliefs, many
cultures have restricted their consumption of ani-
mal products in different ways.
Reverence for the Old Testament caused some
Jews to view vegetarianism as closer to the ideal
life that God planned in the Garden of Eden. For
this reason, Jews prefer to eat meat only from
animals that are vegetarians, and thus ban the
79. eating of pigs, which are omnivores. During the
Middle Ages, meat was seen as a sign of earthly
strength and power. Nobles who behaved poorly
and were thus deemed unworthy of their power
were punished by prohibiting the eating of meat,
sometimes for life. The Catholic Church urged its
congregation to seek spirituality and shun the
pursuit of earthly power. To abstain from meat
was to announce a preference for the spiritual
world over the earthly world. Hence, the Catholic
Church banned the eating of meat on Wednes-
days, Saturdays, and all the days of Lent. De-
pending on how the ban was enforced, these days
of meat-fasting could comprise half the days of
the year (Montanari 1996, Tannahill 1988).
Eastern religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism,
and Jainism maintain a belief in reincarnation,
and a specific belief that humans can be rein-
carnated as livestock and vice versa. For these ad-
herents, eating an animal can mean eating an an-
_________________________________________
Jayson Lusk is Professor and Willard Sparks Endowed Chair,
and
Bailey Norwood is Associate Professor, both in the Department
of
Agricultural Economics at Oklahoma State University in
Stillwater,
Oklahoma.
110 October 2009 Agricultural and Resource Economics
Review
80. cestor, so it is not surprising that vegetarianism is
more popular in the regions where these religions
took hold. Ancient India became heavily reliant
on dairy products from female cows and the labor
from male cows, and urged against the killing of
cows because the animals were generally worth
more alive than dead. Combined with the idea of
reincarnation, the Hindu Sacred Cow emerged
(Tannahill 1988). Similar beliefs existed in an-
cient Egypt, and like some Catholic priests, many
of the Egyptian priests also abstained from meat
(Spencer 2000). Pockets of vegetarianism also ex-
isted in American and European cultures, such as
the experimental vegetarian commune that settled
on the Kansas frontier shortly before the Civil
War (Gambone 1972), but they were unusual.
Vegetarianism can denote a specific diet, or be
used as an umbrella term for a variety of diets that
restrict consumption of animal products. When
used to denote a specific diet, the term “vegetar-
ian” refers to the abstaining from all meat, fish, or
shellfish, but does include eggs and dairy prod-
ucts in the diet. A “pescatarian” shuns the eating
of all animal flesh except fish, and a “vegan” ex-
cludes any product derived from animals; dairy,
eggs, and even gelatin are not part of a vegan
diet. This paper largely concerns vegetarianism,
as it focuses on the consequences of changes in
meat consumption, but some of the empirical re-
sults also consider dairy and eggs, which are per-
tinent to vegan diets.
A number of recent cultural and technological
changes have made vegetarianism a timely topic
in the Western and Eastern worlds alike. Live-