This summarizes an Adlerian-based positive group counseling program for emotionally troubled youth that integrated positive psychology interventions. The 12-week program used interventions from positive psychotherapy curriculum to increase positive emotion, engagement, and meaning by emphasizing strengths. Sessions focused on identifying signature strengths, cultivating strengths through goals, developing gratitude, processing good and bad memories, and expressing forgiveness as a way to increase social interest. The positive interventions aligned well with Adlerian principles of emphasizing strengths, social interest, and encouragement to help youth overcome problems.

1. Adlerian-Based Positive Group Counseling
Interventions w ith Emotionally Troubled Youth
J. Steve Hamm, Jon Carlson, and Bengu Erguner-Tekinalp
Abstract
The focus o f Adlerian therapy is to help individuals discover
their resources and
strengths, and to help them to be more encouraged in reaching
their goals in a more
functioning way. Recently, the positive psychology movement
has become the ma-
jo r focus for researchers and mental health providers. Adlerian
theory and ensuing
humanistic approaches have been considered as the basis of
positive psychology.
Positive psychology— like Adlerian theory— calls for looking
at individual strengths,
virtues, and areas of well-being. This article describes an
Adlerian-based group coun-
seling program which integrated positive psychology
interventions with youth in a
residential treatment center. This article describes how Adlerian
theory aligns with
the positive psychology interventions, along w ith
recommendations for practitioners.
Keywords: Individual Psychology, positive psychology,
strength-based, resilience,
well-being, encouragement, posttraumatic growth

2. There has been an increasing interest in focusing on strengths,
solutions,
resilience, and thriving of individuals even after traumatic
experiences.
Alfred Adler has been considered as the forefather of such
strength-based
approaches (Erguner-Tekinalp, 2016; Carlson, Watts, &
Maniacci, 2006).
Within the last two decades, an interest has grown in studies
and interven-
tions examining human strengths, virtues, and well-being with
the increas-
ing popularity of the positive psychology movement (Seligman,
Steen, Park,
& Peterson, 2005). Positive psychology is defined as the
scientific study of
optimal human functioning (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi,
2000). The goal
of this alternative movement is to understand well-being rather
than dis-
order, and not only how people recover or cope but also how
individuals
and communities thrive and flourish (Seligman, 2011). An effort
has been
made to change the focus of mental health professionals from
focusing on
what has been harmful in problematic and traumatic events to
how individu-
als cope with, develop resilient capacities for, and even in some
cases thrive
through these negative experiences. The focus is more on what
goes well
with individuals rather than what goes wrong (Carlson, Watts,
& Maniacci,
2006). This approach to helping is more complete as it
identifies not only

3. The Journal o f Individual Psychology, Vol. 72, No. 4, W inter
2016
©2016 by the University o f Texas Press
Editorial office located in the College of Education at Georgia
State University.
Published for the North American Society o f Adlerian
Psychology.
Positive Psychology Interventions 255
the negative impact but also the individuals' striving to
overcome. It is very
common for individuals to discover their strengths, gifts, and
many posi-
tive traits through experiencing problems (Saleebey, 1992;
2000). As Adler
repeatedly pointed out Individual Psychology as the
"psychology of use"
(Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956), it is not about what a person
has, but more
about how a person uses what they have. Adlerian theory
emphasizes that
nature or nurture is inadequate in explaining the development of
problems
or coping. Rather, there is an emphasis on one's ability to
influence, inter-
pret, and create events as people have the capacity to transform
the events
and determine their own destinies (Adler, 1931; Corey, 2016).
Therefore,
in Adlerian therapy, just like in positive psychology, the focus
is on how

4. individuals overcome difficulties and what they gain out of such
challenges.
Although the traditional diagnostic lens stresses only what is
wrong or harm-
ful, clients become more encouraged, empowered, and resilient
when they
realize skills, positive traits, and strengths they have. It is also
important for
clinicians to understand hardiness, resilience, and posttraumatic
growth or
thriving experiences of their clients (Calhoun & Tedeschi,
2013).
lust as Adlerians perceive their clients as discouraged
individuals who
have the inner strength and potential to overcome, strive from
felt minus to
felt plus, positive psychology calls for looking at individual
strengths, virtues,
and areas of well-being rather than focusing solely on
pathology, weakness,
and deficits. Current research in this area supports what Adler
realized a
century ago, that one of the best ways to remedy problems is to
focus on
identifying and developing client strengths, rather than focusing
exclusively
on their pathology. Positive psychology is a study of strengths
and recogniz-
ing that pathology and weakness can be reduced by identifying,
develop-
ing, and strengthening an individual's positive qualities (Harris,
Thoresen,
& Lopez, 2007; Seligman, 2011; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi,
2000). A
wellness model to counseling which emphasizes prevention over

5. remedia-
tion (Myers, 1992) has been adopted by Adlerians and became
popular with
the positive psychology movement. During the past twenty
years, promising
applications of positive psychology have supported increased
confidence in
the potential for interventions that focus on strengths to produce
measurable
change (Anderson & Lopez-Baez, 2008; Tedeschi & Calhoun,
1996). This
new research in positive psychology provides evidence of
Adlerian prin-
ciples in therapy.
The purpose of this article is to describe an Adlerian-based
group coun-
seling utilizing positive psychology interventions with
emotionally troubled
youth in a residential treatment center. The interventions are
applicable to
various age groups and treatment foci, therefore can be used in
various set-
tings. This article presents how these specific positive
interventions converge
with Adlerian therapy.
256 J. Steve Hamm , Jon Carlson, and Bengu Erguner-Tekinalp
Adlerian Theory as a Positive Therapy
Although not given credit by positive psychology researchers,
Individual
Psychology as the original positive psychology has been

6. discussed by
Adlerians (Erguner-Tekinalp, 2016; Carlson, Watts, &
Maniacci, 2006; Watts,
2015) and by some constructivist humanistic authors within the
context
of positive psychology (Higgins & Gallagher, 2009). The
positive psychol-
ogy movement has shifted psychology's focus from
understanding disease,
weakness, and damage to understanding virtues and strengths,
as well as
from curing the suffering to building on well-being (Seligman,
2002).
There have been various criticisms of the positive psychology
movement:
(a) being an American lifestyle, specifically white-middle-class-
centered and
elitist (Christopher & Hickinbottom, 2008; Fernandez-Rios &
Novo, 2012;
Miller, 2008; Perez-Alvarez, 2016); (b) ignoring the previous
psychological
and philosophical context (Cowen & Kilmer, 2002); (c) ignoring
the social,
cultural, and environmental context of the concepts that are
being studied
(Fernandez-Rfos & Novo, 2012; McNulty & Fincham, 2012);
and (d) lacking
an overarching theoretical framework (Cowen & Kilmer, 2002).
In this sense,
as a holistic, strength-based, humanistic approach which focuses
on indi-
viduals' innate capacity to solve their problems through
contributing to oth-
ers and emphasizes understanding the social cultural context of
individuals,

7. Adlerian theory presents itself as a unique approach that can
provide a theo-
retical framework to the positive psychology movement.
Adlerian theory's
general framework is closely related to positive psychology in
general, and
research and interventions in particular.
Adlerian-Based Positive Group Counseling
The following section describes a group counseling model
which in-
tegrated Adlerian theory with positive psychology interventions.
Group
counseling was implemented with a group of male teenagers in a
residen-
tial treatment center. In addition to their usual group and
individual coun-
seling, these individuals volunteered to participate in a 12-week
group
counseling program.
The structure of the group closely followed an outline of group
sessions
and included interventions derived from a 14-session positive
psychotherapy
curriculum outlined in Magyar-Moe (2009). These interventions
were empir-
ically validated (Seligman et al., 2005). Two interventions
(intimate relation-
ships and family strengths) were not included as they
contradicted with this
particular population.
Adlerian-based positive group counseling aims to increase
positive emo-

8. tion, engagement, and meaning by emphasizing individual
strengths. The
purpose is to teach participants specific skills to identify
character strengths,
Positive Psychology Interventions 257
and use them effectively w ith an overarching goal of reducing
problems
in behavior, emotions, and cognition. The interventions were
designed to
intentionally target aspects of the clients' character in the areas
of pleasure,
engagement, and meaning (Seligman et al., 2005; Rashid, 2008).
The group
counseling process implemented follow ing Adlerian theoretical
framework
to understand the members and guide the sessions. Sessions
were connected
by giving homework and all homework was reviewed in the
beginning of
each session in terms of their applicability, ease of practice, and
barriers
in practicing the skills. As an Adlerian-based group counseling,
the group's
process was seen as a psychoeducational process helping
participants de-
velop awareness and meet life's tasks in better ways,
emphasizing a growth
mindset, personal responsibility, equality, encouragement, and
social inter-
est. Positive psychology interventions fit w ell w ith the
Adlerian-based group
counseling, as Adlerian theory emphasizes respectful,

9. egalitarian, and op-
tim istic relationships understanding clients' assets, abilities,
personal re-
sources, and contributions (Watts, 2015).
Session 1: Lack of Positive Resources Maintains
Psychopathology. The
first session began w ith the facilitator providing an overview of
group ex-
pectations and goals of group counseling. After introductions,
participants
were given a list of 24 signature strengths and were asked to
identify five
strengths. These "character strengths" (Park, Peterson, &
Seligman, 2004)
were discussed in terms of their practical use in their
relationships and inter-
actions (Rashid, 2008; Magyar-Moe, 2009). Signature strengths
are a co l-
laborative, cross-cultural long-term effort that are described in
six virtues,
core characteristics— courage, justice, humanity, temperance,
wisdom, and
transcendence. These are assumed to be universally valued. The
charac-
teristics associated w ith these virtues are identified as
signature strengths.
Emphasizing psychology of use, participants were encouraged
to set goals
that included using and enhancing their signature strengths
through real-life
exercises. As a holistic approach, Adlerian theory emphasizes
not only fo-
cusing on the weaknesses of the individuals, but also on their
strengths, con-
tributions, and creativity in solving their problems. Identifying

10. and setting
specific goals to effectively use the strengths aligns well w ith
Adlerian theory.
Session 2; Identifying Signature Strengths. In the second
session par-
ticipants were provided a copy of the Positive Psychotherapy
Inventory-
Children's Version (Magyar-Moe, 2009) which provides scores
in the
areas of pleasure, engagement, and meaning, and— when added
together—
establishes an overall happiness score. Scores were interpreted
for the group
participants, and they were asked to identify areas that need
additional at-
tention for increased happiness.
The participants then completed the VIA Strengths Survey for
Children,
which determined their top five signature strengths based on
survey
258 J. Steve Hamm, Jon Carlson, and Bengu Erguner-Tekinalp
responses. These strengths identified through assessment were
referenced in
different contexts throughout the group w ith a goal of being
able to assign
meaning. The character strengths were discussed as intrinsic
capacities and
how finding ways to use identified strengths to express and
accept encour-
agement, respect, and social interest help us feel fu lfille d and

11. optim istic.
The signature strengths were discussed in the context of striving
to move
from felt minus to felt plus. In addition, effective use of
signature strengths
was presented as a means to move from being self-centered to
increased
social interest, as well as moving from discouragement to
encouragement.
Since self-concept is defined as "the sum total of all the beliefs
about who
I am" (Carlson, Watts, & M aniacci, 2006, p. 56), it is important
to explore
the strengths of individuals to develop a holistic awareness of
themselves as
w ell as helping them change their problem-saturated, self-
related lifestyle
convictions. As individuals constantly strive for significance,
completion,
and perfection (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956), identifying
their strengths
w ill help them to strive in positive ways and for positive goals
(Carlson &
Englar-Carlson, 2016). In addition, helping individuals identify
and use their
strengths is a process of encouragement.
Session 3: Cultivation of Signature Strengths and Positive
Experiences.
The third session focused on form ulating specific, concrete,
and achievable
goals using one's signature strengths. Focusing on goal
development using
strengths reminds participants about the "creative power of the
self" (Watts,
2015), a reminder that they can create their own destinies.

12. In this session, the role of positive emotions in well-being was
also dis-
cussed. Negativity bias is a tendency to focus on and remember
the nega-
tive w hile overlooking the positive (Lopez & Snyder, 2009).
The participants
were encouraged to recognize positive experiences and cultivate
the benefits
from such positive experiences by simply remembering and m
indfully pay-
ing attention to them.
At the end of this session the participants were provided
journals to start
a gratitude journal. They were instructed to identify three good
things that
happened during the day (big or small), and w rite them down,
along w ith
a description of the context in which they happened. The
participants were
asked to continue recording three positives each day throughout
the dura-
tion of the group. This activity was presented as a way to m
indfully combat
negativity bias.
Session 4: Cood versus Bad Memories. This session began w ith
a dis-
cussion of the gratitude journal assignment. The participants
were asked if
they had experienced any difficulty recalling specific good
events, and were
provided an opportunity to share their positive experiences w
ith others.
Next the facilitator introduced the topic of memories. The role

13. of both good
and bad memories was discussed— how they affect the present
in terms of
Positive Psychology Interventions 259
their maintenance of the symptoms of depression. "Adler
emphasized the
importance of not only recognizing the comforts of one's life,
but also the
discomforts" (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956, p. 136).
Recognizing that ad-
versity is unavoidable, participants were encouraged to express
feelings of
anger and bitterness. Then the effect of such feelings on
depression and w e ll-
being were discussed.
Sessions three and four addressed the Adlerian notion of
focusing on
efforts to compensate for their self-perceived inferiority to
others. These exer-
cises are designed to target the feelings of inferiority that may
manifest from
memories of one's position in the fam ily constellation,
especially given the
population addressed, and the likelihood of past traumatic
experiences.
Session 5: Forgiveness as an Expression of Social Interest.
Forgiveness
is viewed as a process that transforms anger and bitterness into
feelings of
neutrality or even into positive emotions (Enright & Coyle,

14. 1998; Rashid,
2008; Magyar-Moe, 2009; W orthington, 2001). Social interest
is an integral
element of forgiving, as forgiveness is a process of replacing
relationship-
destructive responses w ith relationship-appropriate prosocial
responses
(McCullough, Root, Tabak, & W itvliet, 2009). Forgiveness
does not mean
forgetting, condoning, pardoning, or excusing the transgression;
and the
goal of forgiveness is not necessarily reconciliation (Enright,
2001; Erguner-
Tekinalp, 2007; W orthington, 2001). Factors which motivate
forgiveness
were described as careworthiness of the transgressor, expected
value, sense
of safety, and personality characteristics. In this sense, it can be
assumed that
both social interest and lifestyle are major antecedents of
forgiveness. In this
session, forgiveness was used to process participants' efforts to
compensate
for their self-perceived inferiority to others. The forgiveness
exercise was de-
signed to help clients regain a sense of superiority over the
transgression, by
allow ing themselves to let go of the unhealthy feelings they
harbor.
Adler was a forerunner of a subjective approach to psychology
that em-
phasizes the internal determinants of behavior such as values,
beliefs, and
attitudes. The forgiveness exercise was centered on encouraging
participants

15. to question the mistaken belief systems they hold onto that
maintain their
perception of inferiority to their transgressor. The participants
were informed
about what forgiveness is and is not, and the benefits of
forgiveness. The
participants were asked to think of a person against whom they
are holding
a grudge or w ith whom they have been in conflict. They then
answered the
fo llo w in g questions: "Flow is the grudge affecting you?
Flow is the grudge
affecting the other person?"
Participants were asked to w rite a letter in which they describe
a trans-
gression that has been com m itted against them and the
emotions related to
the transgression. Then the participants were asked to process
how it w ould
be to forgive the transgressor (if appropriate). It is important to
note that the
260 J. Steve Hamm, Jon Carlson, and Bengu Erguner-Tekinalp
purpose was not to send or discuss the contents of the letter
with the trans-
gressor (Rashid, 2008; Magyar-Moe, 2009); rather it was
starting a process of
letting go. Adler claimed that social interest is required for
healthy function-
ing, and the absence of social interest results in self-absorption,
egocentric-
ity, and an overidentification with the self (Leak & Leak, 2006).

16. Forgiveness
in this sense can be considered as an expression of social
interest (McBrien,
2004). The importance of developing empathy— understanding
the fragility
and humanity of the offender (Worthington, 2001)— can be
strengthened by
developing social interest (McBrien, 2004), as social interest is
character-
ized by not only focusing on self but also on the interest of
others (Leak &
Williams, 1989). Forgiveness allows development of
compassion, empathy
(McBrien, 2004), and understanding human beings as imperfect.
Forgiveness
allows creating a new meaning of a situation, the first step in
encouragement
(Eckstein, 1997). Forgiveness is an expression of social interest
in both an in-
terpersonal and cosmic social feeling (McBrien, 2004) and a
process that fa-
cilitates more encouraging interpersonal relationships. Social
interest that is
generated in the group setting was assumed to facilitate the
forgiveness pro-
cess, and experiencing forgiveness would in return promote
social interest.
Session 6: Gratitude: Enduring Thankfulness. In order to link
the session
with learning in previous sessions, gratitude was discussed in
relation to
good and bad memories (Rashid, 2008; Magyar-Moe, 2009). For
individu-
als who are not satisfied with the past, gratitude may be the key
to getting

17. unstuck from past grudges or bitterness. Gratitude, in Adlerian
theory, can be
conceptualized as expressing and accepting encouragement,
respect, and
social interest, which in turn leads to fulfillment and optimism.
Gratitude is the willingness to perceive a positive outcome from
an-
other person or a moral agent (Peizhen, FHongyan, Minyi, &
Feifei, 2014).
Individuals experience the emotion of gratitude when they
affirm that some-
thing positive happened, and when they recognize someone else
is largely
responsible for this outcome (Watkins, Woodward, Stone, &
Kolts, 2003).
Gratitude therefore is an interpersonal process. Gratitude has
also been de-
scribed as a trait, a tendency to recognize the contributions of
others and
respond with grateful emotions (McCullough, Emmons, &
Tsang, 2002). In
both of these conceptualizations, social interest seems to be the
key for
gratitude. When an individual's basic movement is toward
others, it would
be easier for them to recognize the contributions of others.
Gratitude is con-
ceived as a "moral barometer." Someone (a "moral motivator")
benefited
the individual, which encourages prosocial behavior and acts as
a "moral
reinforcer"— showing gratitude w ill increase the likelihood of
the positive
actions (McCullough, Kilpatrick, Emmons, & Larson, 2001). As
a higher-

18. level trait, gratitude is linked to having a higher sense of
abundance and a
tendency to notice and appreciate the contributions of others, as
well as a
Positive Psychology Interventions 261
tendency to savor small pleasures (Watkins et al., 2003).
Gratitude is gener-
ated through noticing positive experiences and recognizing the
source of
positive experiences as outside of the self (Emmons & Stern,
2013). High
levels of social interest, therefore, seem to be a factor in
facilitating a grate-
ful outlook. The relationship between gratitude and social
interest seems to
be cyclical. Gratitude as an interpersonal process, appreciating
the positive
impact of others, is facilitated by social interest. As a process
that encourages
prosocial behaviors, gratitude then influences social interest.
Adlerians stress that helping others and expressing generosity is
the path
to mental health (Carlson, Englar-Carlson, & Emavardhana
2011). Since for-
giveness is a more d ifficu lt process than gratitude, an exercise
that combines
the principles of both gratitude and forgiveness was conducted.
Fhrticipants
were asked to think about a person they are holding a grudge
against, and
then recall and w rite as many things as they can about that

19. person for which
they are grateful. The goal was to help group members view the
person in his
or her entirety, and recalling gratitude w ill loosen the grudge
and allow the
process of forgiveness to occur.
The participants were additionally asked to think of a person w
ho has
made a difference, large or small, that they have not properly
acknow l-
edged. For homework, participants were asked to w rite and
present a letter
of gratitude to someone, perhaps a staff member, who had never
heard them
express their gratitude. Both w riting and behavioral
expressions of gratitude
have been found effective in alleviating stress and promoting w
ell-being (Isik
& Erguner-Tekinalp, 2016; Emmons & M cCullough, 2003;
Oguz-Duran &
Tan, 2013; Watkins, et al., 2003).
Session 7: "Mid-Therapy Check." This session was an overview
of previ-
ous sessions, revisiting strategies learned and used, and also
what barriers
participants were facing transferring learning in the group to
their daily lives.
The importance of the cultivation of positive emotions was
discussed in the
group. The goals regarding using signature strengths were
reviewed.
Session 8: Satisficing Instead of Maximizing. Participants were
pre-

20. sented tw o processes in decision-making styles: being a
satisficer or a maxi-
mizer (Schwartz, 2004). Satisficers set the criteria and they
make a decision
or take action as soon as the criteria are met. Maximizers, on
the other
hand, always try for the optimal decision, by making a decision
after care-
fu lly examining every possibility to make sure they're making
the best pos-
sible choice (Schwartz, 2004). Participants were encouraged to
think about
the uncomfortable feelings associated w ith yearning for
something beyond
reach, in contrast to being appreciative and satisfied w ith what
is attain-
able. Adlerians are concerned w ith understanding the private
beliefs and
strategies that each individual creates in childhood. This
thought process
and lifestyle serve as the individual's reference for attitudes,
behaviors, and
262 J. Steve Hamm, Jon Carlson, and Bengu Erguner-Tekinalp
their view of self, others, and the world. Having choices is
important to
well-being; however, too much choice actually can get in the
way. This is
especially true if you are a person w ho is often looking to get
the best or to
maximize (Magyar-Moe, 2009; Schwartz, 2004). The process of
knowing
all the possibilities, and pursuing all the possible alternatives

21. when mak-
ing a choice or a decision is exhausting. The group members
were encour-
aged to satisfice, or make a "good enough" choice or decision
by searching
through the alternatives until one is found that meets their
needs. Individual
Psychology purports change is possible. We are not stuck in our
present situ-
ation, as our mind and perceptions can always change (Carlson
et al., 2011).
Adler suggests that a person's subjective experience has
strength over one's
true experience. This exercise aimed to encourage participants
to consider
that by changing their perception of their social experience,
they can also
change the quality of their experiences.
Session 9: Optimism and Hope. The aim of this session was
defining
the terms optimism and hope and showing the links between
optimism and
happiness. It is important to recognize that optimism does not
entail simply
thinking positively to reach goals, but noticing strengths and
taking action to
reach goals. Optim ism is having positive expectations in one's
life (Carver,
Scheier, M iller, & Fulford, 2009). Optim ism is best explained
by expectancy
value theories, which presume behaviors are a reflection of
goals that are
pursued so an individual's behaviors fit what is desirable to
them (Carver &
Scheier, 1998). O ptim istic or pessimistic explanatory style

22. describes indi-
viduals' habitual ways of explaining events in their lives
(Peterson & Steen,
2009). In this sense, individuals' private logic, lifestyle
convictions, and mis-
taken beliefs are highly related w ith the explanatory styles, and
therefore
individuals' level of optimism. Optim ism brings confidence
and persistence
when challenges are present (Carver et al., 2009). Optim ism in
this sense can
be explained by having a socially useful lifestyle (Mosak &
Maniacci, 1999;
Carlson & Englar-Carlson, 2016) rather than avoiding, getting,
or ruling styles.
O ptim istic lifestyle therefore can be conceptualized as moving
toward the
goals instead of against or away from them. Optimists not only
expect positive
outcomes but also actively work on gaining them. As Adlerian
theory empha-
sizes individuals' actions rather than passivity, the Adlerian
group counseling
combined w ith optimism activities aimed to help participants w
ork toward
reaching their goals. Optim ism is also highly relevant w ith
Adlerian under-
standing of courage, which is described as having an optim istic
outcome
expectancy in terms of a risky situation and having the self-
confidence to
cope if the outcome is not positive (Dinkmeyer & Dreikurs,
2000).
Hope theory explains how individuals move closer to their goals
by

23. (a) having a perception that goals can be achieved, (b)
generating pathways
to achieve the goals, and (c) having the motivation to use the
pathways to
Positive Psychology Interventions 263
achieve the goals (Rand & Cheavens, 2009; Snyder, 2000).
From this model,
hope is a process of moving from felt minus to felt plus.
Adlerian theory
focuses on actions of the individual, therefore pathways as in
psychol-
ogy of movement and agency as in courage to keep going fit
well with an
Adlerian framework.
Participants were asked to recall times in their lives when they
lost out
on something, a plan fell through, or they felt rejection, only to
find out later
that it provided new opportunities (Rashid, 2008). Participants
filled out a
"One Door Closes, Another Door Opens" worksheet (Magyar-
Moe, 2009)
and shared their responses with the group. Questions such as "H
ow long
after these doors closed were you able to see the doors that were
opened?
What, if anything, tends to get in the way of your ability to see
the open
doors? What can you do in the future when doors close on you,
to more
readily find the open doors?" were asked to process the activity.

24. It is important to recognize that optimism is not simply thinking
positive.
Adlerians identify optimism and hope as a future-oriented
striving toward a
goal of significance, superiority, or success. The integration of
optimism and
hope is a socially …