Part of an ongoing series of webinars with The Pulse Network, this presentation features 10 great tips to bring more attendees into your exhibitions and conferences.
This document discusses the unique properties of water including its polar molecular structure, ability to form hydrogen bonds, cohesion and adhesion properties, high heat capacity, and ability to form solutions and suspensions. It explains that water can dissolve both ionic compounds and polar molecules due to its polarity. The document also defines acids and bases according to their pH levels and introduces buffers as substances that help maintain homeostasis by neutralizing changes in pH.
Part of an ongoing series of webinars with The Pulse Network, this presentation features 10 great tips to bring more attendees into your exhibitions and conferences.
This document discusses the unique properties of water including its polar molecular structure, ability to form hydrogen bonds, cohesion and adhesion properties, high heat capacity, and ability to form solutions and suspensions. It explains that water can dissolve both ionic compounds and polar molecules due to its polarity. The document also defines acids and bases according to their pH levels and introduces buffers as substances that help maintain homeostasis by neutralizing changes in pH.
Protists use various methods of locomotion including amoeboid movement, cilia, flagella, and some are nonmotile. They reproduce through mitosis, conjugation which involves the exchange of micronuclei between two cells, or alternation of generations with both asexual reproduction via mitosis and sexual reproduction through meiosis and fertilization.
This document discusses the challenges of classifying protists, which are eukaryotic organisms that are not plants, animals, or fungi. Protists exhibit a wide variety in their characteristics such as being photosynthetic or motile, unicellular or multicellular, and living in various habitats. They are difficult to classify because some protists share similarities with organisms from other kingdoms. While classification of protists continues to evolve, they are believed to have been the first eukaryotes and some protist ancestors gave rise to plants, animals and fungi based on their evolutionary relationships.
Protists use various methods of locomotion including amoeboid movement, cilia, flagella, and some are nonmotile. They reproduce through mitosis, conjugation which involves the exchange of micronuclei between two cells, or alternation of generations with both asexual reproduction via mitosis and sexual reproduction through meiosis and fertilization.
This document discusses the challenges of classifying protists, which are eukaryotic organisms that are not plants, animals, or fungi. Protists exhibit a wide variety in their characteristics such as being photosynthetic or motile, unicellular or multicellular, and living in various habitats. They are difficult to classify because some protists share similarities with organisms from other kingdoms. While classification of protists continues to evolve, they are believed to have been the first eukaryotes and some protist ancestors gave rise to plants, animals and fungi based on their evolutionary relationships.
Prokaryotes are unicellular organisms that are classified as bacteria or archaea. They vary greatly in size, shape, movement, nutrition, and metabolism. Prokaryotes play important roles in the living world as decomposers, producers, and nitrogen fixers, recycling nutrients and producing food and biomass that supports food chains. They are ecologically important due to their diversity and roles in ecosystems.
Viruses can only reproduce by infecting living cells. There are two main types of viral infections: lytic infections immediately use the host cell to replicate new viruses which then burst out and kill the cell, while lysogenic infections insert viral DNA into the host cell's genome where it remains inactive for many generations before replicating in a lytic cycle. Viruses either replicate immediately through lytic infection or initially persist in an inactive state through lysogenic infection within the host cell before replicating.
This document discusses modern evolutionary classification and how it differs from Linnaean classification. It explains how to make and interpret cladograms using shared derived characters to show evolutionary relationships between organisms. DNA sequences are also used in classification. Cladograms place organisms in clades based on shared ancestors and can be used to classify organisms differently than traditional taxonomic groups. Constructing cladograms involves identifying derived characters in organisms.
The document discusses several topics related to land use including the tragedy of the commons, externalities, maximum sustainable yield, public lands management, rangelands, forests, timber harvesting practices, fire management, federal land regulations, residential land types, urban sprawl, and government policies influencing land use and development. It also introduces the concept of smart growth which promotes mixed land uses, transportation choices, and preserving open spaces.
Genes do not always follow Mendel's principles of dominance and segregation. Some alleles show incomplete dominance where neither is fully dominant. Others show codominance where both alleles are expressed simultaneously. Multiple alleles exist for some genes with more than two variants. Polygenic traits are influenced by multiple interacting genes and show wide variety in phenotypes. Maternal inheritance and genetic imprinting also influence traits. While an organism's genotype determines traits, its phenotype is also influenced by environmental conditions interacting with its genes.
This document discusses Mendel's principles of genetics and probability. It explains how geneticists use Punnett squares to determine the likelihood of traits being passed from parents to offspring based on dominant and recessive alleles. The principles of independent assortment and segregation are described, where genes for different traits segregate independently during gamete formation. This allows geneticists to predict phenotypic outcomes and offspring ratios using Punnett squares and determine genotypes that are homozygous or heterozygous.
This document describes a dihybrid cross between two hypothetical traits: hair length and eye color. The parents are both heterozygous for short/long hair and black/red eyes. A Punnett square is constructed with the parents' alleles to determine the possible genotypes and phenotypes of their offspring. The offspring have 9 chances to be short haired with black eyes, 3 chances each for short haired with red eyes and long haired with black eyes, and 1 chance for long haired with red eyes.
Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants to study inheritance of traits. He found that (1) when he crossed plants with contrasting traits, the hybrid offspring only showed traits of one parent, (2) in the next generation, the traits separated and were expressed in a 3:1 ratio, with the dominant trait appearing more often. His findings supported that inheritance is determined by discrete units (genes and alleles) that are transmitted from parents to offspring and can be dominant or recessive.
Mutations are heritable changes in genetic information that fall into two categories: gene mutations and chromosomal mutations. Gene mutations include point mutations such as substitutions that change a single base, and insertions or deletions that add or remove a single base. Chromosomal mutations involve deletions, duplications, inversions, or translocations of larger chromosomal segments. Mutations can harm organisms by dramatically changing proteins or gene activity, help organisms by producing useful new proteins, or have no effect.
This document discusses RNA, ribosomes, and protein synthesis. It explains that DNA is transcribed into messenger RNA, which directs the process of translation where transfer RNA and ribosomes work together to assemble amino acids into proteins according to the genetic code stored in DNA. The central dogma of molecular biology is that DNA makes RNA makes protein, with three types of RNA - messenger RNA, transfer RNA, and ribosomal RNA - all playing important roles in the transfer of genetic information from DNA to protein.
During development, cells differentiate to become specialized cell types like muscle, nerve, or skin cells. Stem cells are unspecialized cells that can differentiate into various cell types. There are embryonic stem cells found in early-stage embryos and adult stem cells found in tissues like bone marrow. Stem cells may help with regenerative medicine by repairing or replacing damaged cells and tissues, but embryonic stem cell research raises ethical issues because it involves human embryos.
The document discusses the process of cell division in eukaryotic cells. It describes that cell division occurs through the cell cycle, which includes mitosis and cytokinesis. Mitosis is further broken down into 4 main stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. During these stages, the chromosomes condense, align, separate, and the nuclear envelope reforms. Cytokinesis then partitions the cytoplasm to complete cell division into two daughter cells.
As cells grow larger, they face problems related to their surface area to volume ratio decreasing. This causes issues like an information overload for the DNA and insufficient material exchange. To address this, cells undergo cell division to split into two smaller daughter cells, maintaining a high surface area to volume ratio. Cells can also reproduce asexually by separating after duplicating their DNA, or sexually by fusing with another cell to produce offspring with a mix of both parents' genetic information.
The document describes the process of cellular respiration which occurs in three main stages: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain. Glycolysis converts one glucose molecule into two pyruvic acid molecules while producing ATP and NADH. The Krebs cycle further breaks down pyruvic acid to extract more energy in the form of ATP, NADH, and FADH2. Finally, the electron transport chain uses the electrons from NADH and FADH2 to power ATP synthesis, producing about 36 molecules of ATP per glucose molecule through the entire cellular respiration process.
ATP is an important energy-storing molecule in cells that is produced when phosphate groups are added to ADP. Cells store energy by converting ADP to ATP, and release energy by breaking ATP back down. Plants produce their own food through photosynthesis, which converts sunlight into chemical energy stored in carbohydrates, allowing plants to produce ATP and be autotrophs.
Photosynthesis uses energy from sunlight, captured by the pigment chlorophyll in chloroplasts, to convert carbon dioxide and water into oxygen and energy-rich sugars. Electrons produced during light absorption are transferred by electron carrier molecules like NADPH to drive the chemical reactions that ultimately fix carbon into sugars. The overall equation for photosynthesis is: carbon dioxide + water + light energy → sugars + oxygen.
2. 2
WWhhaatt AArree EEnnzzyymmeess??
• Most enzymes are
PPrrootteeiinnss ((tertiary
and quaternary
structures)
• Act as CCaattaallyysstt to
accelerates a
reaction
• NNoott ppeerrmmaanneennttllyy
changed in the
process
3. 3
EEnnzzyymmeess
• Are specific for
what they will
ccaattaallyyzzee
• Are RReeuussaabbllee
• End in –aassee
--SSuuccrraassee
--LLaaccttaassee
--MMaallttaassee
4. 4
HHooww ddoo eennzzyymmeess WWoorrkk??
Enzymes work by
wweeaakkeenniinngg
bboonnddss wwhhiicchh
lloowweerrss
aaccttiivvaattiioonn
eenneerrggyy
5. 5
EEnnzzyymmeess
Free
Energy
Reactants
Without Enzyme
With Enzyme
FFrreeee eenneerrggyy ooff aaccttiivvaattiioonn
Products
Progress of the reaction
8. 8
AAccttiivvee SSiittee
• A rreessttrriicctteedd rreeggiioonn of an eennzzyymmee
molecule which bbiinnddss to the ssuubbssttrraattee.
Active
Site
Substrate Enzyme
9. 9
IInndduucceedd FFiitt
• A change in the
sshhaappee of an
enzyme’s active
site
• IInndduucceedd by the
substrate
10. 10
IInndduucceedd FFiitt
• A cchhaannggee in the ccoonnffiigguurraattiioonn of an
eennzzyymmee’’ss aaccttiivvee ssiittee (H+ and ionic
bonds are involved).
• IInndduucceedd by the ssuubbssttrraattee..
Active Site
Enzyme
substrate
induced fit
13. 13
22.. CCooffaaccttoorrss aanndd CCooeennzzyymmeess
• IInnoorrggaanniicc ssuubbssttaanncceess ((zziinncc,, iirroonn)) and
vviittaammiinnss (respectively) are sometimes need
for proper eennzzyymmaattiicc aaccttiivviittyy.
• EExxaammppllee::
IIrroonn must be present in the qquuaatteerrnnaarryy
ssttrruuccttuurree -- hheemmoogglloobbiinn in order for it to ppiicckk
uupp ooxxyyggeenn..
14. 14
TTwwoo eexxaammpplleess ooff EEnnzzyymmee
IInnhhiibbiittoorrss
aa.. CCoommppeettiittiivvee iinnhhiibbiittoorrss:: are
chemicals that rreesseemmbbllee an
eennzzyymmee’’ss nnoorrmmaall ssuubbssttrraattee and
ccoommppeettee with it for the aaccttiivvee
ssiittee.
Enzyme
Substrate
Competitive inhibitor
15. 15
IInnhhiibbiittoorrss
bb.. NNoonnccoommppeettiittiivvee iinnhhiibbiittoorrss::
Inhibitors that ddoo nnoott eenntteerr tthhee
aaccttiivvee ssiittee, but bbiinndd ttoo aannootthheerr ppaarrtt
of the eennzzyymmee causing the eennzzyymmee to
cchhaannggee iittss sshhaappee, which in turn
aalltteerrss tthhee aaccttiivvee ssiittee.
Enzyme
active site
altered
Noncompetitive
Inhibitor Substrate