The endocrine system regulates homeostasis through hormones that target cells and organs throughout the body. Key endocrine glands include the pituitary gland, which regulates other glands; the thyroid gland, which produces hormones regulating metabolism; the adrenal glands, which produce hormones involved in stress response like cortisol; and the pancreas, which produces insulin and glucagon to regulate blood sugar. Hormones signal to target cells via mechanisms like activating or inhibiting gene expression. The hypothalamus helps regulate the endocrine system by producing hormones that stimulate or inhibit hormone release from the pituitary gland.
Classification of hormones, mechanism of hormone action, structure
and functions of pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal gland, pancreas, pineal gland, thymus and their disorders.
1 GNM - Anatomy Unit - 9 Endocrine system.pptxthiru murugan
The Endocrine system:
The structure and functions of:
The pituitary gland
Pineal gland
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid gland
Adrenal glands
Pancreas (islets of Langerhans)
Ovaries and testes
Endocrine system:
The endocrine system is a number of glands that secrete hormones that the body uses for many functions. They are not having any ducts, so called “ductless glands”
They supply their secretions directly to blood
General functions:
Respiration
Metabolism
Reproduction
Sensory perception
Movement
Sexual development
Growth
The pituitary gland:
Pituitary (hypophysis) is a pea-sized endocrine gland at the base of brain and below the hypothalamus
The pituitary is often referred to as the “master gland” because it not only secretes its own hormones, it tells other glands to produce hormones
Parts:
Front lobe (anterior lobe or adenohypophysis)
Middle lobe (intermediate lobe)
Back lobe (posterior lobe or neurohypophysis)
Hormones secreted by pituitary:
The anterior pituitary gland:
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Growth hormone (GH)
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
Prolactin (PRL)
Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
Functions of pituitary:
ACTH - stimulates the adrenal glands to secrete cortisol, “stress hormone” that maintains BP and blood sugar levels.
GH - regulates growth, metabolism and body composition
LH & FSH - stimulate sex hormone production, and egg and sperm maturity
Prolactin (PRL) - stimulates milk production
TSH - stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete thyroid hormones.
ADH (also called vasopressin) - controls water balance and BP
Oxytocin - stimulates uterine contractions during labour and milk secretion during breastfeeding.
Melanocyte - stimulating hormone, which acts on cells in the skin to stimulate the production of melanin.
Pineal gland:
also called the pineal body or epiphysis cerebri, is a very small gland in brain
It’s a part of endocrine system and secretes the hormone melatonin.
pineal gland’s main job is to help control the circadian cycle of sleep and wakefulness by secreting melatonin.
Hormone:
Melatonin is a hormone that’s mainly produced by pineal gland.
Circadian rhythms are physical, mental and behavioral changes that follow a 24-hour cycle. These natural processes respond primarily to light and dark.
Pineal gland releases the highest levels of melatonin when there’s darkness and decreases melatonin production when exposed to light.
In other words, low levels of melatonin in blood during the daylight hours and high levels of melatonin during the nighttime.
Because of this, melatonin has often been referred to as a “sleep hormone.” While melatonin is not essential for sleeping, but sleep better when the highest levels of melatonin in body.
Melatonin also interacts with biologically female hormones that helps in regulating menstrual cycles.
Melatonin can also protect against neurodegeneration, which is the progressive loss of function of neurons
Function:
The main function of pine
22.chemical control & coordination in one shot.pptxanonymous
There are special chemicals which act as hormones and provide chemical
coordination, integration and regulation in the human body. These hormones
regulate metabolism, growth and development of our organs, the endocrine glands
or certain cells. The endocrine system is composed of hypothalamus, pituitary
and pineal, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, parathyroid, thymus and gonads (testis
and ovary). In addition to these, some other organs, e.g., gastrointestinal tract,
kidney, heart etc., also produce hormones. Progesterone plays a major role in the maintenance of pregnancy as
well as in mammary gland development and lactation. The atrial wall of the heart
produces atrial natriuretic factor which decreases the blood pressure. Kidney
produces erythropoietin which stimulates erythropoiesis. The gastrointestinal tract
secretes gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin and gastric inhibitory peptide. These
hormones regulate the secretion of digestive juices and help in digestion.
Endocrine System (Hormones in Animals/WBBSE))RanjanShaw5
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM : Endocrine system is the system formed by ductless glands which secrete chemical substances called as hormones. Endocrine glands release hormones directly into the blood.
Hormones are minute, chemical messengers thrown into blood to act on target organs.
Hormones can be steroids, proteins, peptides or amino acid derivatives.
These hormones act as on specific organs called target organ.
The target cell has on it surface or cytoplasm, a specific protein molecule called receptor.
The receptor can recognise and pick out the specific hormone capable of acting in cell.
Classification of hormones, mechanism of hormone action, structure
and functions of pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal gland, pancreas, pineal gland, thymus and their disorders.
1 GNM - Anatomy Unit - 9 Endocrine system.pptxthiru murugan
The Endocrine system:
The structure and functions of:
The pituitary gland
Pineal gland
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid gland
Adrenal glands
Pancreas (islets of Langerhans)
Ovaries and testes
Endocrine system:
The endocrine system is a number of glands that secrete hormones that the body uses for many functions. They are not having any ducts, so called “ductless glands”
They supply their secretions directly to blood
General functions:
Respiration
Metabolism
Reproduction
Sensory perception
Movement
Sexual development
Growth
The pituitary gland:
Pituitary (hypophysis) is a pea-sized endocrine gland at the base of brain and below the hypothalamus
The pituitary is often referred to as the “master gland” because it not only secretes its own hormones, it tells other glands to produce hormones
Parts:
Front lobe (anterior lobe or adenohypophysis)
Middle lobe (intermediate lobe)
Back lobe (posterior lobe or neurohypophysis)
Hormones secreted by pituitary:
The anterior pituitary gland:
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Growth hormone (GH)
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
Prolactin (PRL)
Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
Functions of pituitary:
ACTH - stimulates the adrenal glands to secrete cortisol, “stress hormone” that maintains BP and blood sugar levels.
GH - regulates growth, metabolism and body composition
LH & FSH - stimulate sex hormone production, and egg and sperm maturity
Prolactin (PRL) - stimulates milk production
TSH - stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete thyroid hormones.
ADH (also called vasopressin) - controls water balance and BP
Oxytocin - stimulates uterine contractions during labour and milk secretion during breastfeeding.
Melanocyte - stimulating hormone, which acts on cells in the skin to stimulate the production of melanin.
Pineal gland:
also called the pineal body or epiphysis cerebri, is a very small gland in brain
It’s a part of endocrine system and secretes the hormone melatonin.
pineal gland’s main job is to help control the circadian cycle of sleep and wakefulness by secreting melatonin.
Hormone:
Melatonin is a hormone that’s mainly produced by pineal gland.
Circadian rhythms are physical, mental and behavioral changes that follow a 24-hour cycle. These natural processes respond primarily to light and dark.
Pineal gland releases the highest levels of melatonin when there’s darkness and decreases melatonin production when exposed to light.
In other words, low levels of melatonin in blood during the daylight hours and high levels of melatonin during the nighttime.
Because of this, melatonin has often been referred to as a “sleep hormone.” While melatonin is not essential for sleeping, but sleep better when the highest levels of melatonin in body.
Melatonin also interacts with biologically female hormones that helps in regulating menstrual cycles.
Melatonin can also protect against neurodegeneration, which is the progressive loss of function of neurons
Function:
The main function of pine
22.chemical control & coordination in one shot.pptxanonymous
There are special chemicals which act as hormones and provide chemical
coordination, integration and regulation in the human body. These hormones
regulate metabolism, growth and development of our organs, the endocrine glands
or certain cells. The endocrine system is composed of hypothalamus, pituitary
and pineal, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, parathyroid, thymus and gonads (testis
and ovary). In addition to these, some other organs, e.g., gastrointestinal tract,
kidney, heart etc., also produce hormones. Progesterone plays a major role in the maintenance of pregnancy as
well as in mammary gland development and lactation. The atrial wall of the heart
produces atrial natriuretic factor which decreases the blood pressure. Kidney
produces erythropoietin which stimulates erythropoiesis. The gastrointestinal tract
secretes gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin and gastric inhibitory peptide. These
hormones regulate the secretion of digestive juices and help in digestion.
Endocrine System (Hormones in Animals/WBBSE))RanjanShaw5
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM : Endocrine system is the system formed by ductless glands which secrete chemical substances called as hormones. Endocrine glands release hormones directly into the blood.
Hormones are minute, chemical messengers thrown into blood to act on target organs.
Hormones can be steroids, proteins, peptides or amino acid derivatives.
These hormones act as on specific organs called target organ.
The target cell has on it surface or cytoplasm, a specific protein molecule called receptor.
The receptor can recognise and pick out the specific hormone capable of acting in cell.
Antibiotic Stewardship by Anushri Srivastava.pptxAnushriSrivastav
Stewardship is the act of taking good care of something.
Antimicrobial stewardship is a coordinated program that promotes the appropriate use of antimicrobials (including antibiotics), improves patient outcomes, reduces microbial resistance, and decreases the spread of infections caused by multidrug-resistant organisms.
WHO launched the Global Antimicrobial Resistance and Use Surveillance System (GLASS) in 2015 to fill knowledge gaps and inform strategies at all levels.
ACCORDING TO apic.org,
Antimicrobial stewardship is a coordinated program that promotes the appropriate use of antimicrobials (including antibiotics), improves patient outcomes, reduces microbial resistance, and decreases the spread of infections caused by multidrug-resistant organisms.
ACCORDING TO pewtrusts.org,
Antibiotic stewardship refers to efforts in doctors’ offices, hospitals, long term care facilities, and other health care settings to ensure that antibiotics are used only when necessary and appropriate
According to WHO,
Antimicrobial stewardship is a systematic approach to educate and support health care professionals to follow evidence-based guidelines for prescribing and administering antimicrobials
In 1996, John McGowan and Dale Gerding first applied the term antimicrobial stewardship, where they suggested a causal association between antimicrobial agent use and resistance. They also focused on the urgency of large-scale controlled trials of antimicrobial-use regulation employing sophisticated epidemiologic methods, molecular typing, and precise resistance mechanism analysis.
Antimicrobial Stewardship(AMS) refers to the optimal selection, dosing, and duration of antimicrobial treatment resulting in the best clinical outcome with minimal side effects to the patients and minimal impact on subsequent resistance.
According to the 2019 report, in the US, more than 2.8 million antibiotic-resistant infections occur each year, and more than 35000 people die. In addition to this, it also mentioned that 223,900 cases of Clostridoides difficile occurred in 2017, of which 12800 people died. The report did not include viruses or parasites
VISION
Being proactive
Supporting optimal animal and human health
Exploring ways to reduce overall use of antimicrobials
Using the drugs that prevent and treat disease by killing microscopic organisms in a responsible way
GOAL
to prevent the generation and spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Doing so will preserve the effectiveness of these drugs in animals and humans for years to come.
being to preserve human and animal health and the effectiveness of antimicrobial medications.
to implement a multidisciplinary approach in assembling a stewardship team to include an infectious disease physician, a clinical pharmacist with infectious diseases training, infection preventionist, and a close collaboration with the staff in the clinical microbiology laboratory
to prevent antimicrobial overuse, misuse and abuse.
to minimize the developme
Defecation
Normal defecation begins with movement in the left colon, moving stool toward the anus. When stool reaches the rectum, the distention causes relaxation of the internal sphincter and an awareness of the need to defecate. At the time of defecation, the external sphincter relaxes, and abdominal muscles contract, increasing intrarectal pressure and forcing the stool out
The Valsalva maneuver exerts pressure to expel faeces through a voluntary contraction of the abdominal muscles while maintaining forced expiration against a closed airway. Patients with cardiovascular disease, glaucoma, increased intracranial pressure, or a new surgical wound are at greater risk for cardiac dysrhythmias and elevated blood pressure with the Valsalva maneuver and need to avoid straining to pass the stool.
Normal defecation is painless, resulting in passage of soft, formed stool
CONSTIPATION
Constipation is a symptom, not a disease. Improper diet, reduced fluid intake, lack of exercise, and certain medications can cause constipation. For example, patients receiving opiates for pain after surgery often require a stool softener or laxative to prevent constipation. The signs of constipation include infrequent bowel movements (less than every 3 days), difficulty passing stools, excessive straining, inability to defecate at will, and hard feaces
IMPACTION
Fecal impaction results from unrelieved constipation. It is a collection of hardened feces wedged in the rectum that a person cannot expel. In cases of severe impaction the mass extends up into the sigmoid colon.
DIARRHEA
Diarrhea is an increase in the number of stools and the passage of liquid, unformed feces. It is associated with disorders affecting digestion, absorption, and secretion in the GI tract. Intestinal contents pass through the small and large intestine too quickly to allow for the usual absorption of fluid and nutrients. Irritation within the colon results in increased mucus secretion. As a result, feces become watery, and the patient is unable to control the urge to defecate. Normally an anal bag is safe and effective in long-term treatment of patients with fecal incontinence at home, in hospice, or in the hospital. Fecal incontinence is expensive and a potentially dangerous condition in terms of contamination and risk of skin ulceration
HEMORRHOIDS
Hemorrhoids are dilated, engorged veins in the lining of the rectum. They are either external or internal.
FLATULENCE
As gas accumulates in the lumen of the intestines, the bowel wall stretches and distends (flatulence). It is a common cause of abdominal fullness, pain, and cramping. Normally intestinal gas escapes through the mouth (belching) or the anus (passing of flatus)
FECAL INCONTINENCE
Fecal incontinence is the inability to control passage of feces and gas from the anus. Incontinence harms a patient’s body image
PREPARATION AND GIVING OF LAXATIVESACCORDING TO POTTER AND PERRY,
An enema is the instillation of a solution into the rectum and sig
CRISPR-Cas9, a revolutionary gene-editing tool, holds immense potential to reshape medicine, agriculture, and our understanding of life. But like any powerful tool, it comes with ethical considerations.
Unveiling CRISPR: This naturally occurring bacterial defense system (crRNA & Cas9 protein) fights viruses. Scientists repurposed it for precise gene editing (correction, deletion, insertion) by targeting specific DNA sequences.
The Promise: CRISPR offers exciting possibilities:
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Agriculture: Engineering crops resistant to pests and harsh environments.
Research: Studying gene function to unlock new knowledge.
The Peril: Ethical concerns demand attention:
Off-target Effects: Unintended DNA edits can have unforeseen consequences.
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Equity: High costs could limit access to this potentially life-saving technology.
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Public Education: Open discussions ensure informed decisions about CRISPR.
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Endocrine System.docx
1. Endocrine System
SHAHINA BANO
Objectives
•Define Endocrine system
•Identify Endocrine glands and Endocrine tissues present in the body
•Discuss types of Hormones, target cells, target organ
•Briefly discuss Mechanism of Action of Hormone (protein and
•steroids)
•Discuss the location and structure of pituitary gland.
• Discuss the role of hypothalamic hormones in the regulation of pituitary gland secretions.
•Discuss the function of the hormones secreted by anterior and posterior pituitary gland.
•Briefly discuss the structure, function & hormones of the following glands
•Thyroid
•Para Thyroid
•Pineal
•Adrenal
•Pancreas
Endocrine System
2. Endocrine System
•Circulating or local hormones of the endocrine system contribute to homeostasis by regulating the activity and growth of
target cells in your body.
•Hormones also regulate your metabolism.
Endocrine System
3. Hypothalamus
•The hypothalamus is part of the brain.
•It receives messages from all over the body and keeps the body balanced by sending out messages to the Nervous System
via the brain.
• It also sends out hormone messages to the pituitary gland and helps to regulate the control of thirst and hunger.
Hypothalamus
•The hypothalamus is the link between the endocrine and nervous systems.
•The hypothalamus produces releasing and inhibiting hormones, which stop and start the production of other hormones
throughout the body.
Pituitary Gland
4. Pituitary Gland
•Pituitary gland or hypophysis
•It is also known as master endocrine gland
•Pea shaped structure
•It secrete several hormones that control other endocrine glands
•Pituitary gland it self has a master the hypothalamus
•It lies in pituary fossa of sella tunica of the sphenoid bone
•It attached with stalk
•It has two lobes
Anterior lobe Adnophypophyses
Five hormones released
1. Somatotrophs Human growth (hGh)
2. Throtrophs Thyroid stimulating hormone(TSH )
3. Gonadotrophs Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
4. Lactotrophs Prolactin (PRL)
5. Corticortrophs Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Human growth hormone and insulin like growth factor
•Somatotropin secrete human growth hormone
•Human growth hormone in turn stimulates several tissue to secrete insulin like growth and regulate aspect of metabolism
•hGH is most plentiful hormone
•IGFs cause cells to grow and multiply by accelerating protein synthesis
5. •IGF also decrease the break down of protein
Thyroid stimulating Hormone
•Thyrotrophs secrete thyroid stimulating hormone TSH
•TSH control the secretions and other activities of the thyroid gland
Follicle stimulating hormone FSH
•Gonadotrophs secrete two hormones FSH and LH
•Both act on the gonads
•They stimulate secretion of estrogen and progesterone and the maturation of oocytes in the ovaries
•They stimulate sperm production and secretion of testesrone in the testes
Lactotrophs
•Secrete prolactin (PRL) which initiate milk production in the mammary glands.
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
•Corticotrophs secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone which is stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids such
as cortisol
•Some corticotrophs remnants of the pars intermedia also secrete melanocytes stimulating hormones (MSH)
Posterior lobe Neurohyphophses
•Two parts
•Pars nervosa large tubular portion
•Infundibulum
•10,000 terminal is called pituictyes
6. •Two hormones released
1.Antidiuretic hormone ADH
2.Oxytocin
Antidiuretic hormone ADH
•Anti = Against
•Diuretic = Increased urine production
•Also called vasopressin
•Vaso = Blood
•Pressure = Press
Oxytocin
Ok, se TO-sin; okytoc
•Oxytocin = Quick after birth
7. Mechanism of Action of Hormone (protein and steroids)
Thyroid gland
•Butterfly shape
•Located just inferior to larynx
•Two lobes
•Right lobe
•Left lobe
•Connected by isthmus
•Normal mass 30g
•It receive 80-120ml of blood/ minute
9. •Produces calcitonin
•Calcitonin regulate calcium homeostasis
•Regulating the rate at which your body uses calories (energy)
•Slowing down or speeding up your heart rate
•Raising or lowering your body temperature
•Influencing the speed at which food moves through your digestive tract
Parathyroid glands
•Embedded in posterior surface of the lateral lobes of the thyroid gland.
•Para means beside.
•Weight 40g.
•Chief cells are more numerous cells.
•Chief cells produce parathyroid hormone PTH
•Parathyroid hormone is also called parathorme
•Function major regulate of levels of calcium magnesium and phosphate
•Oxyphil cells unknown function
•Release of calcium by bones into the bloodstream
•Absorption of calcium from food by the intestines
•Conservation of calcium by the kidneys
•Stimulates cells in the kidney to transforms weaker forms of vitamin D into the form that is strongest at absorbing calcium
from the intestines
10. Adrenal gland
•Supra renal gland
•2 gland located on top of kidney superior to each kidneys
•3.5-5cm height
•Two parts
•Adrenal medulla
•Adrenal cortex
12. Thymus gland
•Located behind sternum between lungs
•Major role in immunity
•Hormones produces
•Thymosin
•Thymic lumoral factor THF
•Thymic factor TF
•Thymopoietin
•Function promote maturation of T cells
Thymus Gland
13. Pinal gland
•Pinecone shape
•Small endocrine gland
•Attached to roof of 3rd ventricle of brain at midline
•0.1-0.2g weight
•Gland consist of pinealocytes cells
•Physiological role is still unclear
•Produces melatonin
•Melatonin is thought to contribute to setting the body biological clock
•During sleep plasma level of melatonin increase and then decline plasma level before awakening
References
•Tortora J.G, Derkison, B. principle of Anatomy and physiology (11th Ed) USA john Willey & Sons, inc