The document discusses taxonomies of vocabulary learning strategies for EFL learners. It summarizes taxonomies proposed by Gu and Johnson (1996), Schmitt (1997), and Nation (2001) that classify strategies into categories like metacognitive, cognitive, memory, and activation. The strategies include guessing meanings from context, using dictionaries, repetition, imagery, and using new words in different contexts. The document aims to propose a framework for teaching vocabulary learning strategies to EFL students.
This document provides an introduction to a study on language learning strategies used by Japanese university students learning English. It begins by defining language learning strategies as conscious mental or behavioral actions taken by language learners to improve their learning. The document then discusses different frameworks for defining strategies and settles on a definition that strategies are behaviors or mental processes consciously used by learners to directly or indirectly facilitate language learning. Key features of strategies discussed are that they can make learning easier and contribute to acquisition, allow learner autonomy, and may be observable behaviors or mental processes. The study aims to examine patterns in strategy use among Japanese university English students and how this relates to their English proficiency levels.
Metacognition and second or foreign language learningJoyce Nguyen
This document summarizes a review of 33 studies published between 1999 and 2013 on the role of metacognition in second/foreign language learning. The review found that metacognitive interventions can promote language performance but evidence is mixed on their effectiveness in enhancing metacognitive awareness/strategy use. Several factors were also found to affect L2 learners' metacognition. The review expands understanding of metacognition's role in language learning and has implications for teaching practices and directions for future research.
Does applying vocabulary learning strategies vary based on gender the case of...Alexander Decker
1. The document examines differences in vocabulary learning strategies used by male and female Turkish EFL learners.
2. It analyzes data from a study that assessed the frequency of 44 vocabulary learning strategies, including psycholinguistic and metacognitive strategies, among undergraduate students.
3. The findings showed that female respondents reported slightly higher use of psycholinguistic strategies, metacognitive strategies, and overall strategy use compared to male respondents.
This study investigated the use of metacognitive language learning strategies by Bangladeshi English learners with different proficiency levels. The study found that students with low English proficiency use metacognitive strategies more frequently than students with high proficiency. Both low and high proficiency students were frequent users of metacognitive strategies. Specifically, 64% of low proficiency students were high users of metacognitive strategies while 38% of high proficiency students were also high users. The findings suggest that Bangladeshi learners of various proficiency levels are aware of metacognitive strategies.
Abstract
One of the objectives of teaching a foreign language is to enable the learners to become autonomous, that is the ability to continue learning the foreign language without the teachers’ assistance. Autonomous learners are learners who are responsible for their own learning. Thus, it is very important for the learners to learn and understand how to become autonomous learners. The present paper deals with the discussion of how to promote learners’ autonomy.
Key words: autonomous learner, learning theory, learning
strategy
The students language_learning_strategies_in_readsuyansah
This document discusses language learning strategies used by English Department students at Bung Hatta University in Indonesia. It finds that the students have a limited range of strategies and medium strategy use, especially in reading and speaking. The document outlines different classifications of learning strategies, including cognitive, metacognitive, social, and communication strategies. It also discusses factors that influence strategy choice, such as motivation, gender, cultural background, and task type. The document concludes that students would benefit from applying a wider variety of strategies and receiving more training from teachers in strategic learning.
This study traces three major shifts in TESOL methods from 1991 to 2006: 1) from communicative language teaching to task-based language teaching, 2) from method-based pedagogy to postmethod pedagogy, and 3) from systemic discovery to critical discourse. It analyzes these shifts, including the transition from CLT to TBLT due to problems with CLT like lack of authenticity in classrooms. It also examines the transition from method-based teaching to postmethod frameworks that emphasize local knowledge and teacher autonomy. Finally, it discusses the shift toward critical approaches that connect language to real-world issues.
The Nature of Approaches and Methods in Language LearningImtiaz Ahmad
Language Learning Process:
◼ Language learning is an active process that begins at birth and continues throughout
life. When a child learns a first language, we may say that the child learns the
language under natural conditions.
◼ Such a learning situation generally differs greatly from artificial ones, with the most
common one used in second language learning being the school classroom.
◼ A second language can be learned under natural conditions. For example, children
who are taken to live in foreign countries may learn a second language without
formal instructions by associating with speakers of the foreign language, e.g.
playmates, and household personnel.
◼ Students learn language as they use it to communicate their thoughts, feelings, and
experiences, establish relationships with family members and friends, and strive to
make sense and order of their world. Language Learning Methodology:
◼ Methodology informs teachers about different ways to organize teaching
practices. There are three levels of organization at the level of
methodology, namely, approach, method, and technique.
◼ In language teaching, in the general area of teaching methodology, people
talk about approaches, methods, and techniques.
◼ Language teaching involves approaches that lead to methods, methods
that are broken down into procedures, and procedures that are a collection
of techniques.
◼ Understanding how these concepts interrelate can help a teacher to know
the reasons behind their choices in how they choose to teach. Here I will
differentiate these three terms; approach, method, and technique in a
simple way.Approach:
◼ An approach is a way of looking at teaching and learning. Underlying any language
teaching approach is a theoretical view of what language is, and of how it can be
learnt. It gives rise to methods, the way of teaching something, which use classroom
activities or techniques to help learners to learn.
◼ An approach refers to the general assumptions about what language is and about
how learning a language occurs. It is a theory about language learning or even
a philosophy of how people learn in general.
◼ It represents the sum of our philosophy about both the theory of language and the
theory of learning. In other words, an approach to language teaching describes:
The nature of language,
How knowledge of a language is acquired?
And the conditions that promote language acquisition.
◼ Each of these philosophies encouraged the development of the mind in the way of a
muscle. Train the brain and a person would be able to do many different things.
◼ E.g. Watch and fellow teacher, Focus on student’s experiences
Method:
◼ In language learning and teaching method is a way of teaching a language which is
based on systematic and procedures, i.e. which is an application of views
on how a language is best taught and learned and a particular theory of language
and of language learning.
This document provides an introduction to a study on language learning strategies used by Japanese university students learning English. It begins by defining language learning strategies as conscious mental or behavioral actions taken by language learners to improve their learning. The document then discusses different frameworks for defining strategies and settles on a definition that strategies are behaviors or mental processes consciously used by learners to directly or indirectly facilitate language learning. Key features of strategies discussed are that they can make learning easier and contribute to acquisition, allow learner autonomy, and may be observable behaviors or mental processes. The study aims to examine patterns in strategy use among Japanese university English students and how this relates to their English proficiency levels.
Metacognition and second or foreign language learningJoyce Nguyen
This document summarizes a review of 33 studies published between 1999 and 2013 on the role of metacognition in second/foreign language learning. The review found that metacognitive interventions can promote language performance but evidence is mixed on their effectiveness in enhancing metacognitive awareness/strategy use. Several factors were also found to affect L2 learners' metacognition. The review expands understanding of metacognition's role in language learning and has implications for teaching practices and directions for future research.
Does applying vocabulary learning strategies vary based on gender the case of...Alexander Decker
1. The document examines differences in vocabulary learning strategies used by male and female Turkish EFL learners.
2. It analyzes data from a study that assessed the frequency of 44 vocabulary learning strategies, including psycholinguistic and metacognitive strategies, among undergraduate students.
3. The findings showed that female respondents reported slightly higher use of psycholinguistic strategies, metacognitive strategies, and overall strategy use compared to male respondents.
This study investigated the use of metacognitive language learning strategies by Bangladeshi English learners with different proficiency levels. The study found that students with low English proficiency use metacognitive strategies more frequently than students with high proficiency. Both low and high proficiency students were frequent users of metacognitive strategies. Specifically, 64% of low proficiency students were high users of metacognitive strategies while 38% of high proficiency students were also high users. The findings suggest that Bangladeshi learners of various proficiency levels are aware of metacognitive strategies.
Abstract
One of the objectives of teaching a foreign language is to enable the learners to become autonomous, that is the ability to continue learning the foreign language without the teachers’ assistance. Autonomous learners are learners who are responsible for their own learning. Thus, it is very important for the learners to learn and understand how to become autonomous learners. The present paper deals with the discussion of how to promote learners’ autonomy.
Key words: autonomous learner, learning theory, learning
strategy
The students language_learning_strategies_in_readsuyansah
This document discusses language learning strategies used by English Department students at Bung Hatta University in Indonesia. It finds that the students have a limited range of strategies and medium strategy use, especially in reading and speaking. The document outlines different classifications of learning strategies, including cognitive, metacognitive, social, and communication strategies. It also discusses factors that influence strategy choice, such as motivation, gender, cultural background, and task type. The document concludes that students would benefit from applying a wider variety of strategies and receiving more training from teachers in strategic learning.
This study traces three major shifts in TESOL methods from 1991 to 2006: 1) from communicative language teaching to task-based language teaching, 2) from method-based pedagogy to postmethod pedagogy, and 3) from systemic discovery to critical discourse. It analyzes these shifts, including the transition from CLT to TBLT due to problems with CLT like lack of authenticity in classrooms. It also examines the transition from method-based teaching to postmethod frameworks that emphasize local knowledge and teacher autonomy. Finally, it discusses the shift toward critical approaches that connect language to real-world issues.
The Nature of Approaches and Methods in Language LearningImtiaz Ahmad
Language Learning Process:
◼ Language learning is an active process that begins at birth and continues throughout
life. When a child learns a first language, we may say that the child learns the
language under natural conditions.
◼ Such a learning situation generally differs greatly from artificial ones, with the most
common one used in second language learning being the school classroom.
◼ A second language can be learned under natural conditions. For example, children
who are taken to live in foreign countries may learn a second language without
formal instructions by associating with speakers of the foreign language, e.g.
playmates, and household personnel.
◼ Students learn language as they use it to communicate their thoughts, feelings, and
experiences, establish relationships with family members and friends, and strive to
make sense and order of their world. Language Learning Methodology:
◼ Methodology informs teachers about different ways to organize teaching
practices. There are three levels of organization at the level of
methodology, namely, approach, method, and technique.
◼ In language teaching, in the general area of teaching methodology, people
talk about approaches, methods, and techniques.
◼ Language teaching involves approaches that lead to methods, methods
that are broken down into procedures, and procedures that are a collection
of techniques.
◼ Understanding how these concepts interrelate can help a teacher to know
the reasons behind their choices in how they choose to teach. Here I will
differentiate these three terms; approach, method, and technique in a
simple way.Approach:
◼ An approach is a way of looking at teaching and learning. Underlying any language
teaching approach is a theoretical view of what language is, and of how it can be
learnt. It gives rise to methods, the way of teaching something, which use classroom
activities or techniques to help learners to learn.
◼ An approach refers to the general assumptions about what language is and about
how learning a language occurs. It is a theory about language learning or even
a philosophy of how people learn in general.
◼ It represents the sum of our philosophy about both the theory of language and the
theory of learning. In other words, an approach to language teaching describes:
The nature of language,
How knowledge of a language is acquired?
And the conditions that promote language acquisition.
◼ Each of these philosophies encouraged the development of the mind in the way of a
muscle. Train the brain and a person would be able to do many different things.
◼ E.g. Watch and fellow teacher, Focus on student’s experiences
Method:
◼ In language learning and teaching method is a way of teaching a language which is
based on systematic and procedures, i.e. which is an application of views
on how a language is best taught and learned and a particular theory of language
and of language learning.
This document discusses the post-method approach to teaching English as a foreign language. It begins by providing background on post-method and defining it as moving beyond a single prescribed method. The key characteristics of post-method are described as being constructivist and process-oriented rather than positivist and product-focused. The document then outlines the strategic framework of post-method, which includes maximizing learning opportunities and ensuring social relevance among other strategies. It concludes that post-method is a pedagogy that allows teachers to effectively combine strategies for optimal language instruction.
The document discusses the postmethod era in language teaching. It begins by contrasting modernism and postmodernism, noting that postmodernism rejects notions of objectivity, universal truths, and the idea that one theory can explain everything. It then discusses three models of postmethod pedagogy: Stern's 3D model, Allwright's exploratory practice framework, and Kumaravadivelu's strategic framework involving macrostrategies and microstrategies. The document outlines characteristics of postmethod teachers, curricula, teacher education programs, and learners. It also discusses problems and facilitating factors in implementing postmethod approaches.
This document discusses different language learning approaches and methods. It begins by defining key terms like approaches, strategies, methods, techniques and models. It explains that a learning approach is a teacher's view of the learning process, and can be student-centered or teacher-centered. Learning strategies are activities to achieve learning goals, while methods are concrete ways of implementing strategies. Techniques are how teachers carry out methods. A learning model combines approaches, strategies, methods and techniques.
The document then discusses formal and functional approaches. Formal approaches are traditional and assume language learning is routine. Methods include grammar-translation and reading. Functional approaches emphasize direct contact with native language users. Related methods are discussed in more detail, including direct method,
Related literature (bsed 4 b) ls and rcsApplus Velosi
The document discusses various frameworks for classifying language learning strategies proposed by researchers. It describes frameworks proposed by Oxford (1990), Rubin (1987), Stern (1992), and O'Malley et al. (1985) that categorize strategies as cognitive, metacognitive, socioaffective, communication, social, affective, and management strategies. It also discusses the importance of reading comprehension strategies and defines reading as an active process that requires integrating memory and constructing meaning.
A study of the role of rote learning in vocabulary learningiqbal vidianto
This study investigated the role of rote learning (RL) in vocabulary learning strategies (VLSs) of Burmese English as a foreign language (EFL) students. The researchers collected data through questionnaires with 100 Burmese EFL students and interviews with teachers. The results showed that RL strategies were used more than other memory strategies by Burmese students, who felt RL was effective not only initially but also at higher stages of English vocabulary learning. Creating mental linkages was also a main strategy used along with RL. The findings suggest RL will continue to be applied by Burmese learners due to cultural/educational background factors, the EFL environment, traditional learning habits, national exam demands, and not exploring
This document discusses the role of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) and Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) courses in internationalizing universities. It defines ESP and CLIL, noting that while they have differences in focus, they are based on common assumptions. The document advocates for CLIL courses in universities to respond to needs for internationalization and standardization across Europe. It analyzes the need to improve internationalization in Romanian universities, such as through increasing foreign language programs and language skills. Solutions proposed include collaboration between language and content specialists, as well as support for students and teachers through programs like Erasmus+.
This document discusses key factors in second language acquisition. It addresses three main questions: what L2 learners come to know, how they acquire knowledge, and why some are more successful than others. It describes interlanguage as the unique linguistic system L2 learners develop that draws on their L1 but is also different. Success depends on various factors, including learner characteristics beyond a teacher's control like age, gender, and language aptitude, as well as factors teachers can influence, such as learning styles, learner strategies, and motivation.
A critical review of recent trends in second language syllabus design and cur...Ehsan Abbaspour
To date, numerous books and research articles have focused on the notion of syllabus design
and curriculum development. Nevertheless, very few works have had an inclusive and concise
look upon the issue. This paper is an account of current trends on syllabus design and
curriculum development in Second Language Acquisition in the recent past decades. This is
hopefully intended to offer a descriptive and critical interpretation of the existing syllabuses in
the domain of language learning and teaching. After a brief introductory remark on
curriculum and syllabus types, 13 of the most prominent syllabuses in SLA will be elaborated
on separately. In pursuit of doing so, definition, rationale, merits, and drawbacks attributed to
each syllabus will be touched upon. Although the emergence of some of these syllabi
coincides with each other, while presenting them, it has been tried to follow a roughly
chronological order of their emergence.
This document discusses the shift from method-based to post-method pedagogy in teaching English as a second language. It provides an agenda for a class that includes initial thoughts on readings, group work discussing articles on the topic, and principles of post-method teaching. Student responses are included that discuss issues like the need to understand student backgrounds and experiences, periods of awareness and awakening in language teaching approaches, problems with communicative language teaching methods, and the constant evolution of theories. The class will discuss shifts from CLT to task-based and systemic discovery to critical discourse approaches. Key aspects of post-method pedagogy are developing teachers' sense of what works based on their context rather than set methods and focusing on local
This document provides an agenda and summaries for an English teaching methods course. The agenda includes discussions on developing critical awareness in language education, Pennycook's concept of postmethod pedagogy, and chapters from Kumaravadivelu and Hall. Key topics covered include critiques of traditional SLA approaches and methods, the political nature of language and education, and characteristics of postmethod pedagogy including its emphasis on particularity, practicality, and teacher autonomy. Students are assigned readings and presentations for the next class.
This document discusses the relationship between method and post-method approaches in language teaching. It defines method in three ways: as a smorgasbord of ideas, as a fixed prescription, and as organizing principles. Post-method emerged from criticisms of methods as too prescriptive but also drew from communicative language teaching and postmodern thinking. Some see post-method as replacing method, while others view their relationship dialectically. The document examines arguments for and against both approaches, concluding that together they can liberate teaching practices by balancing coherence and local responsiveness.
5 factors affecting language learning strategies (lls)Salma Razak
The document discusses 5 key factors that influence language learning strategies:
1. Motivation - Highly motivated students use more strategies. Motivation can be intrinsic or extrinsic.
2. Gender - Some studies found females use more strategies while others found no significant difference.
3. Proficiency level - More proficient learners use a wider variety of strategies, especially metacognitive and social strategies.
4. Socioeconomic status - Learners from wealthier backgrounds can access more resources and native speakers to support their language learning.
5. Age - Younger learners may develop fluency faster while older learners grasp grammar concepts more quickly. Both age groups use different strategies effectively.
This document discusses differing views on language teaching and the need for methods. It summarizes Swan's critique that methods constrain teaching too much and divert attention from the linguistic elements. Swan argues that to be effective, teaching must return to focusing on specific linguistic problems and making better use of existing methodological resources. The document also discusses the post-method condition and Swan's view that it lacks focus on selecting and integrating priority language elements and risks losing sight of the language being taught through an overemphasis on activities.
This study examines the language learning strategies used by Russian university students in a TEFL program. The researchers administered a strategy inventory to first-year students and fourth-year students to compare their strategy use and evaluate the effectiveness of the TEFL program. Overall, both groups reported high to medium use of all strategy categories. However, fourth-year students showed a more nuanced understanding of strategy priorities. The findings can help curriculum designers refine the TEFL program focus and instructors make informed decisions about strategy instruction.
Text 9 teaching_vocabulary_to_advanced_studentsjarosalestorres
This document discusses strategies for teaching vocabulary to advanced English language learners. It emphasizes helping students broaden their productive vocabulary through activities that encourage independent word learning and use. Key recommendations include grouping vocabulary by topic to facilitate memorization, using dictionaries and context clues to discover word meanings, and providing opportunities for students to practice using new vocabulary in meaningful ways. The goal is to enable lifelong independent vocabulary expansion beyond the classroom.
A syllabus is defined by various scholars as specifying the content and objectives of what is to be learned, the sequencing of learning, and as a framework for carrying out learning activities. There are two main types of syllabuses: Type A focuses on predetermined content and objectives, while Type B takes a more experiential approach that immerses learners in real communication. Syllabuses can also be categorized based on their content, including structural, situational, notional/functional, skill-based, and task-based syllabuses.
This document summarizes principles of materials design for language teaching. It discusses six principles identified by David Nunan, including linking materials to curriculum goals, using authentic texts and tasks, stimulating interaction, allowing focus on language forms, developing learning skills, and applying skills outside class. It also outlines 16 principles by Brian Tomlinson, such as achieving impact, helping learners feel at ease, developing confidence, and perceiving relevance. The document contrasts authentic materials produced for genuine communication versus created materials designed for language learners. It provides examples of authentic materials like radio broadcasts and definitions from various scholars.
The present study was an effort to investigate strategies mostly used in learning speaking, which covered direct strategies and indirect strategies. To this end, 60 students from two different high schools in a city in Indonesia, in which 30 students for each school participated this study. In collecting the data, this study used close-ended questionnaires with Strategy Inventory Language Learner (SILL) consisting of 39 items, which were analyzed by using a scoring system. The results of the study showed that students of both schools generally used the same and different learning strategies. The same learning strategies used by the students of both schools were organizing and evaluating learning, referring to metacognitive or indirect strategies. Meanwhile, the different learning strategies used by the students of both schools occurred on five strategies at a medium level. From the six types of learning strategies, as indicated in this study, the most popular learning strategies which were used by students of both schools were organizing and evaluating learning.
This document summarizes a study on the speaking strategies used by students studying for a Bachelor's degree in English Language Teaching (ELT) at five public universities in Mexico. The study found that the most commonly used strategies were asking for repetition, using paraphrases or synonyms for unknown words, and asking for clarification of the message. While students used a wide variety of strategies, they tended to select strategies based on their English proficiency level. The document discusses research on language learning strategies and the importance of teaching speaking strategies to help students communicate effectively in English.
This document discusses language learning strategies for EFL/ESL learners. It begins by defining language learning strategies as the conscious steps used by language learners to acquire, store, retain and use new information. Several scholars are then discussed who have categorized language learning strategies in similar ways. O'Malley categorized strategies as metacognitive, cognitive, and socioaffective. Rubin categorized them as learning strategies, communication strategies, and social strategies. Oxford divided them into direct and indirect strategies, while Stern discussed management/planning, cognitive, communicative-experiential, interpersonal, and affective strategies. The document provides an overview of different frameworks for understanding the types of strategies used by language learners.
This document discusses a study on vocabulary learning strategies used by Malaysian students at the German-Malaysian Institute. The study found that students saw vocabulary as important but primarily relied on discovery strategies like dictionaries and asking others rather than more effective cognitive strategies. As a result, students had limited vocabulary sizes. The study aims to help teaching approaches better support students' vocabulary learning and improve English proficiency.
This document discusses the post-method approach to teaching English as a foreign language. It begins by providing background on post-method and defining it as moving beyond a single prescribed method. The key characteristics of post-method are described as being constructivist and process-oriented rather than positivist and product-focused. The document then outlines the strategic framework of post-method, which includes maximizing learning opportunities and ensuring social relevance among other strategies. It concludes that post-method is a pedagogy that allows teachers to effectively combine strategies for optimal language instruction.
The document discusses the postmethod era in language teaching. It begins by contrasting modernism and postmodernism, noting that postmodernism rejects notions of objectivity, universal truths, and the idea that one theory can explain everything. It then discusses three models of postmethod pedagogy: Stern's 3D model, Allwright's exploratory practice framework, and Kumaravadivelu's strategic framework involving macrostrategies and microstrategies. The document outlines characteristics of postmethod teachers, curricula, teacher education programs, and learners. It also discusses problems and facilitating factors in implementing postmethod approaches.
This document discusses different language learning approaches and methods. It begins by defining key terms like approaches, strategies, methods, techniques and models. It explains that a learning approach is a teacher's view of the learning process, and can be student-centered or teacher-centered. Learning strategies are activities to achieve learning goals, while methods are concrete ways of implementing strategies. Techniques are how teachers carry out methods. A learning model combines approaches, strategies, methods and techniques.
The document then discusses formal and functional approaches. Formal approaches are traditional and assume language learning is routine. Methods include grammar-translation and reading. Functional approaches emphasize direct contact with native language users. Related methods are discussed in more detail, including direct method,
Related literature (bsed 4 b) ls and rcsApplus Velosi
The document discusses various frameworks for classifying language learning strategies proposed by researchers. It describes frameworks proposed by Oxford (1990), Rubin (1987), Stern (1992), and O'Malley et al. (1985) that categorize strategies as cognitive, metacognitive, socioaffective, communication, social, affective, and management strategies. It also discusses the importance of reading comprehension strategies and defines reading as an active process that requires integrating memory and constructing meaning.
A study of the role of rote learning in vocabulary learningiqbal vidianto
This study investigated the role of rote learning (RL) in vocabulary learning strategies (VLSs) of Burmese English as a foreign language (EFL) students. The researchers collected data through questionnaires with 100 Burmese EFL students and interviews with teachers. The results showed that RL strategies were used more than other memory strategies by Burmese students, who felt RL was effective not only initially but also at higher stages of English vocabulary learning. Creating mental linkages was also a main strategy used along with RL. The findings suggest RL will continue to be applied by Burmese learners due to cultural/educational background factors, the EFL environment, traditional learning habits, national exam demands, and not exploring
This document discusses the role of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) and Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) courses in internationalizing universities. It defines ESP and CLIL, noting that while they have differences in focus, they are based on common assumptions. The document advocates for CLIL courses in universities to respond to needs for internationalization and standardization across Europe. It analyzes the need to improve internationalization in Romanian universities, such as through increasing foreign language programs and language skills. Solutions proposed include collaboration between language and content specialists, as well as support for students and teachers through programs like Erasmus+.
This document discusses key factors in second language acquisition. It addresses three main questions: what L2 learners come to know, how they acquire knowledge, and why some are more successful than others. It describes interlanguage as the unique linguistic system L2 learners develop that draws on their L1 but is also different. Success depends on various factors, including learner characteristics beyond a teacher's control like age, gender, and language aptitude, as well as factors teachers can influence, such as learning styles, learner strategies, and motivation.
A critical review of recent trends in second language syllabus design and cur...Ehsan Abbaspour
To date, numerous books and research articles have focused on the notion of syllabus design
and curriculum development. Nevertheless, very few works have had an inclusive and concise
look upon the issue. This paper is an account of current trends on syllabus design and
curriculum development in Second Language Acquisition in the recent past decades. This is
hopefully intended to offer a descriptive and critical interpretation of the existing syllabuses in
the domain of language learning and teaching. After a brief introductory remark on
curriculum and syllabus types, 13 of the most prominent syllabuses in SLA will be elaborated
on separately. In pursuit of doing so, definition, rationale, merits, and drawbacks attributed to
each syllabus will be touched upon. Although the emergence of some of these syllabi
coincides with each other, while presenting them, it has been tried to follow a roughly
chronological order of their emergence.
This document discusses the shift from method-based to post-method pedagogy in teaching English as a second language. It provides an agenda for a class that includes initial thoughts on readings, group work discussing articles on the topic, and principles of post-method teaching. Student responses are included that discuss issues like the need to understand student backgrounds and experiences, periods of awareness and awakening in language teaching approaches, problems with communicative language teaching methods, and the constant evolution of theories. The class will discuss shifts from CLT to task-based and systemic discovery to critical discourse approaches. Key aspects of post-method pedagogy are developing teachers' sense of what works based on their context rather than set methods and focusing on local
This document provides an agenda and summaries for an English teaching methods course. The agenda includes discussions on developing critical awareness in language education, Pennycook's concept of postmethod pedagogy, and chapters from Kumaravadivelu and Hall. Key topics covered include critiques of traditional SLA approaches and methods, the political nature of language and education, and characteristics of postmethod pedagogy including its emphasis on particularity, practicality, and teacher autonomy. Students are assigned readings and presentations for the next class.
This document discusses the relationship between method and post-method approaches in language teaching. It defines method in three ways: as a smorgasbord of ideas, as a fixed prescription, and as organizing principles. Post-method emerged from criticisms of methods as too prescriptive but also drew from communicative language teaching and postmodern thinking. Some see post-method as replacing method, while others view their relationship dialectically. The document examines arguments for and against both approaches, concluding that together they can liberate teaching practices by balancing coherence and local responsiveness.
5 factors affecting language learning strategies (lls)Salma Razak
The document discusses 5 key factors that influence language learning strategies:
1. Motivation - Highly motivated students use more strategies. Motivation can be intrinsic or extrinsic.
2. Gender - Some studies found females use more strategies while others found no significant difference.
3. Proficiency level - More proficient learners use a wider variety of strategies, especially metacognitive and social strategies.
4. Socioeconomic status - Learners from wealthier backgrounds can access more resources and native speakers to support their language learning.
5. Age - Younger learners may develop fluency faster while older learners grasp grammar concepts more quickly. Both age groups use different strategies effectively.
This document discusses differing views on language teaching and the need for methods. It summarizes Swan's critique that methods constrain teaching too much and divert attention from the linguistic elements. Swan argues that to be effective, teaching must return to focusing on specific linguistic problems and making better use of existing methodological resources. The document also discusses the post-method condition and Swan's view that it lacks focus on selecting and integrating priority language elements and risks losing sight of the language being taught through an overemphasis on activities.
This study examines the language learning strategies used by Russian university students in a TEFL program. The researchers administered a strategy inventory to first-year students and fourth-year students to compare their strategy use and evaluate the effectiveness of the TEFL program. Overall, both groups reported high to medium use of all strategy categories. However, fourth-year students showed a more nuanced understanding of strategy priorities. The findings can help curriculum designers refine the TEFL program focus and instructors make informed decisions about strategy instruction.
Text 9 teaching_vocabulary_to_advanced_studentsjarosalestorres
This document discusses strategies for teaching vocabulary to advanced English language learners. It emphasizes helping students broaden their productive vocabulary through activities that encourage independent word learning and use. Key recommendations include grouping vocabulary by topic to facilitate memorization, using dictionaries and context clues to discover word meanings, and providing opportunities for students to practice using new vocabulary in meaningful ways. The goal is to enable lifelong independent vocabulary expansion beyond the classroom.
A syllabus is defined by various scholars as specifying the content and objectives of what is to be learned, the sequencing of learning, and as a framework for carrying out learning activities. There are two main types of syllabuses: Type A focuses on predetermined content and objectives, while Type B takes a more experiential approach that immerses learners in real communication. Syllabuses can also be categorized based on their content, including structural, situational, notional/functional, skill-based, and task-based syllabuses.
This document summarizes principles of materials design for language teaching. It discusses six principles identified by David Nunan, including linking materials to curriculum goals, using authentic texts and tasks, stimulating interaction, allowing focus on language forms, developing learning skills, and applying skills outside class. It also outlines 16 principles by Brian Tomlinson, such as achieving impact, helping learners feel at ease, developing confidence, and perceiving relevance. The document contrasts authentic materials produced for genuine communication versus created materials designed for language learners. It provides examples of authentic materials like radio broadcasts and definitions from various scholars.
The present study was an effort to investigate strategies mostly used in learning speaking, which covered direct strategies and indirect strategies. To this end, 60 students from two different high schools in a city in Indonesia, in which 30 students for each school participated this study. In collecting the data, this study used close-ended questionnaires with Strategy Inventory Language Learner (SILL) consisting of 39 items, which were analyzed by using a scoring system. The results of the study showed that students of both schools generally used the same and different learning strategies. The same learning strategies used by the students of both schools were organizing and evaluating learning, referring to metacognitive or indirect strategies. Meanwhile, the different learning strategies used by the students of both schools occurred on five strategies at a medium level. From the six types of learning strategies, as indicated in this study, the most popular learning strategies which were used by students of both schools were organizing and evaluating learning.
This document summarizes a study on the speaking strategies used by students studying for a Bachelor's degree in English Language Teaching (ELT) at five public universities in Mexico. The study found that the most commonly used strategies were asking for repetition, using paraphrases or synonyms for unknown words, and asking for clarification of the message. While students used a wide variety of strategies, they tended to select strategies based on their English proficiency level. The document discusses research on language learning strategies and the importance of teaching speaking strategies to help students communicate effectively in English.
This document discusses language learning strategies for EFL/ESL learners. It begins by defining language learning strategies as the conscious steps used by language learners to acquire, store, retain and use new information. Several scholars are then discussed who have categorized language learning strategies in similar ways. O'Malley categorized strategies as metacognitive, cognitive, and socioaffective. Rubin categorized them as learning strategies, communication strategies, and social strategies. Oxford divided them into direct and indirect strategies, while Stern discussed management/planning, cognitive, communicative-experiential, interpersonal, and affective strategies. The document provides an overview of different frameworks for understanding the types of strategies used by language learners.
This document discusses a study on vocabulary learning strategies used by Malaysian students at the German-Malaysian Institute. The study found that students saw vocabulary as important but primarily relied on discovery strategies like dictionaries and asking others rather than more effective cognitive strategies. As a result, students had limited vocabulary sizes. The study aims to help teaching approaches better support students' vocabulary learning and improve English proficiency.
An Analysis Of Language Learning Strategies (Thesis)Michele Thomas
This document provides an introduction and background on language learning strategies. It discusses how the focus of second language acquisition research has shifted from the teacher to the learner and the learning process. It also summarizes some key literature on language learning strategies, including common classifications of strategies into cognitive, metacognitive and social categories. The document introduces the research topic of comparing language learning strategies used by different groups of learners, including college students, English teachers and office workers. It outlines the problem statement, significance, objectives and limitations of the study.
The students language_learning_strategies_in_readWardaDin1
This document discusses language learning strategies used by English Department students at a university in Indonesia. It finds that the students have a medium level of strategy use for speaking and reading in English. The document provides context on language learning strategies and defines them as specific actions, behaviors or techniques used consciously by learners. It also discusses characteristics of good language learners, including finding their own learning methods and using strategies for form, meaning, active involvement, metacognition, flexibility and confidence. The study aims to identify the types of strategies used by these students for speaking and reading in English.
This document discusses the origins and definitions of language learning strategies. It describes the concept of the "good language learner" from the 1970s, which identified seven characteristics including being a willing guesser and focusing on communication. Learning strategies are defined as conscious and goal-driven procedures that facilitate learning tasks. The document outlines different types of learning strategies, including cognitive, metacognitive, social, compensatory, and affective strategies. It also discusses the relationship between learning strategies and learning styles.
The document discusses strategies for teaching vocabulary in a second language classroom. It describes Nation's distinction between receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge. Vocabulary can be learned through oral/listening, written/reading skills, or direct instruction using strategies like grouping words and exploring meanings. Factors like word frequency, pronunciation, and contextualization affect acquisition. Useful exercises focus on meaning, form, and use. A well-designed course includes strands for meaning-focused input/output, language-focused learning, and fluency development. Effective teaching also recycles words, uses vocabulary tests, addresses word similarities, and teaches collocations.
The document discusses strategies for teaching vocabulary in a second language classroom. It describes Nation's distinction between receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge. Vocabulary can be learned through oral/listening, written/reading skills, or direct instruction using strategies like grouping words and exploring meanings. Factors like word frequency, pronunciation, and contextualization affect acquisition. Useful exercises focus on meaning, form, and use. A well-designed course includes strands for meaning-focused input/output, language-focused learning, and fluency development. Effective teaching also recycles words, uses vocabulary tests, addresses word similarities, and teaches collocations.
Extended version, dannae del campo gabriela quezada (1)dannaet
This document discusses strategies for teaching vocabulary in a second language classroom. It outlines two main aspects of knowing a word - receptive and productive knowledge. Receptive involves recognizing words during listening and reading, while productive involves using words when speaking and writing. Vocabulary can be learned through oral skills like listening and speaking, or written skills like reading and writing. Effective strategies include making associations between words, learning words in groups, and practicing pronunciation. Factors like word frequency, contextualization, and emotional response also impact vocabulary acquisition. The document recommends activities focused on meaning, form, and use of words, as well as principles for sequencing vocabulary instruction and ensuring opportunities for repeated exposure and practice.
The Effect of Vocabulary Knowledge on EFL Oral Competenceiosrjce
This document summarizes a study on the effect of vocabulary knowledge on EFL oral competence. The study surveyed 40 EFL teachers and 200 Moroccan high school students to understand their perceptions of students' speaking abilities and the role of vocabulary. Key findings included:
1) Both teachers and students identified vocabulary deficiency as the main factor limiting students' ability to speak English fluently.
2) Results from questionnaires and interviews showed that students struggled with not knowing how to convey meanings and not being able to find the exact English words they wanted.
3) Teachers also perceived speech anxiety and lack of vocabulary as major reasons for students' lack of fluency in speaking.
4) The study suggests that providing vocabulary
This document discusses language learning strategies. It begins by defining strategies as tools for developing communicative ability. Learning strategies are classified into cognitive, metacognitive, social and affective categories. The document recommends that teachers help students identify their preferred learning strategies through reflection activities. It describes a strategy training program involving tasks to stimulate focus on the learning process, context/environment, macroskills, and language systems. The goals are to increase student awareness of the learning process and encourage autonomous strategy use beyond the classroom. Overall, the document advocates for strategy-based instruction to improve student language learning.
Assembling the Strategies for Learning Vocabularyijtsrd
This paper focuses on the vocabulary features and learning strategies for language learners. Through using wide range of vocabulary and effective strategies, learners are able to develop their vocabulary. Since the vocabulary knowledge is vital for all four language skills, listening, reading, speaking and writing, it is necessary to determine how they can tackle the text which they have never encountered. To be able to know and cope with a wide range of vocabulary, it is needed for learners to know effective strategies for learning vocabulary. Chaw Su Hlaing "Assembling the Strategies for Learning Vocabulary" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-5 , August 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd27954.pdfPaper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/english/27954/assembling-the-strategies-for-learning-vocabulary/chaw-su-hlaing
This document discusses developments in language learners' strategies. It covers defining learning strategies, classifying them, factors that influence strategy choice, relationships between strategies and language learning, and developments in strategy-based instruction. Key points include: learning strategies are techniques used by language learners to help acquisition and use; they have been classified into categories like cognitive, metacognitive, and social strategies; individual learner differences and task characteristics influence strategy use; and training learners in strategy use may help language development.
The document discusses language learning strategies and learner autonomy. It defines language learning strategies as steps consciously selected by learners to improve their second language learning or use. Strategies are classified into metacognitive, cognitive, social/affective categories. Research shows using appropriate strategies can improve language proficiency. The document advocates teaching strategies to learners and shifting control of learning to them, given the link between strategic competence, autonomy, and learning success.
Developing Learner Autonomy in an EFL context_3Ozma Siddiqui
This document discusses learner autonomy and strategies for developing it. It defines learner autonomy as taking charge of one's own learning. Fostering autonomy is important as it leads students to take more responsibility. Teachers can promote autonomy by shifting responsibility to learners and using learner-centered curricula. Effective learners strategically monitor comprehension, relate new information to prior knowledge, and make inferences. Teaching learning strategies and metacognitive awareness can improve autonomy. Models are provided for strategy instruction involving the teacher diagnosing, modeling, and students practicing, evaluating, and setting goals.
This document discusses language learning strategies. It defines strategies as techniques used by learners to acquire a language. Common strategies include repetition, analyzing language patterns, and using flashcards. The document outlines Rebecca Oxford's framework that categorizes strategies as direct, indirect, cognitive, metacognitive, affective, and social. It also discusses teaching strategies explicitly and researching the relationship between strategy use and language proficiency.
Language learning strategies are steps taken by language learners to help facilitate language acquisition. Research on language learning strategies began in the 1960s and strategies have been categorized in various ways since the 1970s. Common classifications of strategies include memory, cognitive, compensatory, metacognitive, and affective strategies. Memory strategies help with vocabulary and structure memorization while cognitive strategies help make connections between new and existing knowledge. Compensatory strategies help overcome gaps in knowledge and metacognitive strategies involve self-monitoring the learning process. Affective strategies help regulate emotions and motivation during language learning.
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Efl learner strategies for vocabulary learning
1. Novitas-ROYAL, Vol.: 1(2), pp.84-91. ISSN: 1307-4733
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LEARNING VOCABULARY IN EFL CONTEXTS THROUGH VOCABULARY
LEARNING STRATEGIES
Lotfi Ghazal∗
Abstract: Vocabulary learning is one of the major challenges foreign language learners face during the process
of learning a language. One way to alley the burden is to assist students in becoming independent learners during
the process of L2 vocabulary learning. This could be achieved through instructing learners to apply vocabulary
learning strategies as efficiently as possible. The main pursuit of the present article is to suggest a framework for
training EFL learners in vocabulary learning strategies. In so doing, an account of different taxonomies of
vocabulary learning strategies and a rationale for strategy training are presented.
Keywords: vocabulary, learning, strategy, style, training, independent learning
Özet: Yabancı dil öğrenirken, öğrencilerin karşılaştığı en büyük zorluklardan bir tanesi de kelime öğrenmektir.
Bu zorluğu aşabilme yöntemlerinden biri, öğrencileri dil öğrenme sürecinde bağımsız kılabilmektir. Bu da ancak
öğrencilere kelime öğrenme stratejilerini en etkin biçimde nasıl kullanabileceklerini öğretme ile mümkündür. Bu
çalışmanın amacı, İngilizceyi yabancı dil olarak öğrenen öğrencilere yönelik, kelime öğrenme stratejileri
eğitiminin genel bir çerçevesini çizmektir. Ayrıca, kelime öğrenme stratejilerine ait farklı sınıflandırmalar ve
strateji eğitiminin gerekliliğine dair sebepler sunulacaktır.
Anahtar Sözcükler: kelime, öğrenme, strateji, stil, eğitim, bağımsız öğrenme
1. INTRODUCTION
Vocabulary is central to language and is of great significance to language learners. Words are
the building blocks of a language since they label objects, actions, ideas without which people
cannot convey the intended meaning. The prominent role of vocabulary knowledge in second
or foreign language learning has been recently recognized by theorists and researchers in the
field. Accordingly, numerous types of approaches, techniques, exercises and practice have
been introduced into the field to teach vocabulary (Hatch & Brown, 1995). It has been
suggested that teaching vocabulary should not only consist of teaching specific words but also
aim at equipping learners with strategies necessary to expand their vocabulary knowledge
(Hulstjin, 1993, cited in Morin & Goebel, 2001).
Vocabulary learning strategies are one part of language learning strategies which in turn are
part of general learning strategies (Nation, 2001). Language learning strategies encourage
greater overall self-direction for learners. Self-directed learners are independent learners who
are capable of assuming responsibility for their own learning and gradually gaining
confidence, involvement and proficiency (Oxford, 1990). So is the case with vocabulary
learning strategies. Thus, students need training in vocabulary learning strategies they need
most. Research has shown that many learners do use more strategies to learn vocabulary
especially when compared to such integrated tasks such as listening and speaking. But they
are mostly inclined to use basic vocabulary learning strategies (Schmitt, 1997). This in turn
makes strategy instruction an essential part of any foreign or second language program.
∗
Islamic Azad University, ghazallot@yahoo.com/ Ghazal.lotfi@gmail.com
2. Novitas-ROYAL, Vol.: 1(2), pp.84-91. ISSN: 1307-4733
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Hence, based on the significance attributed to vocabulary learning strategies in the process of
vocabulary learning and enhancement, the present paper aims at proposing a framework for
vocabulary strategy instruction in English as a foreign language!)EFL) contexts. To this end,
a brief account of various taxonomies of vocabulary learning strategies and a rationale for
training students in vocabulary learning strategies are initially presented. Then, some required
considerations to be taken before initiating the strategy training as well as the techniques for
training EFL students in vocabulary learning strategies are presented. Finally, some
pedagogical implications are proposed for EFL teachers.
2. TAXONOMIES OF VOCABULARY LEARNING STRATEGIES
Word knowledge is an essential component of communicative competence (Seal, 1991), and
it is important for both production and comprehension in a foreign language. Knowing a word
involves knowing:
• a great deal about its general frequency of use, syntactic and situational limitations on
its use,
• its underlying form and the forms that can be derived from it,
• the network of its semantic features and,
• the various meanings associated with the item.
(Richards, 1976)
Knowing a word is also defined as knowing its spelling, pronunciation, collocations (i.e.
words it co-occurs with), and appropriateness (Nation, 1990). Therefore, lexical competence
is far more than the ability to define a given number of words and covers a wide range of
knowledge which in turn requires a variety of strategies to gain the knowledge. Foreign
language learners may then use various strategies to acquire the target language word
knowledge. Taking this into consideration, second and foreign language researchers have
made various attempts to classify vocabulary learning strategies employed by foreign and
second language learners (F&SLL). Instances of such classifications are the taxonomies
proposed by Gu and Johnson (1996), Schmitt (1997) and Nation (2001) which are briefly
discussed below.
Gu and Johnson (1996) list second language (L2) vocabulary learning strategies as
metacognitive, cognitive, memory and activation strategies. Metacognitive strategies consist
of selective attention and self-initiation strategies. F&SLLs who employ selective attention
strategies know which words are important for them to learn and are essential for adequate
comprehension of a passage. Learners employing self-initiation strategies use a variety of
means to make the meaning of vocabulary items clear. Cognitive strategies in Gu and
Johnson’s taxonomy entail guessing strategies, skillful use of dictionaries and note-taking
strategies. Learners using guessing strategies draw upon their background knowledge and use
linguistic clues like grammatical structures of a sentence to guess the meaning of a word.
Memory strategies are classified into rehearsal and encoding categories. Word lists and
repetition are instances of rehearsal strategies. Encoding strategies encompass such strategies
as association, imagery, visual, auditory, semantic, and contextual encoding as well as word-
structure (i.e., analyzing a word in terms of prefixes, stems, and suffixes). Activation
strategies include those strategies through which the learners actually use new words in
different contexts. For instance, learners may set sentences using the words they have just
learned. All these suggested strategies can be summarized in a table as follows:
3. Novitas-ROYAL, Vol.: 1(2), pp.84-91. ISSN: 1307-4733
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Strategies
Metacognative Cognative Memory Activation
* Selective Attention:
Identifying essential
words for
comprehension
* Self-initiation:
Using a variety of
means to make the
meaning of words
clear
* Guessing:
Activating
background
knowledge, using
linguistic items
* Use of dictionaries
* Note-taking
*
Rehearsal:
Word lists,
repetition, etc.
* Encoding:
Association
(imagery, visual,
auditory, etc.)
* Using new words
in different contexts
A comprehensive inventory of vocabulary learning strategies is developed by Schmitt (1997).
He distinguishes the strategies into two groups: The ones to determine the meaning of new
words when encountered for the first time, and the ones to consolidate meaning when
encountered again. The former contains determination and social strategies and the latter
contains cognitive, metacognitive, memory and social strategies. Schmitt includes social
strategies in both categories since they can be used for both purposes. To Schmitt,
determination strategies are used when “learners are faced with discovering a new word’s
meaning without recourse to another person’s experience” (p. 205). Hence, learners try to
discover the meaning of a new word by guessing it with the help of context, structural
knowledge of language, and reference materials. For Schmitt, the second way to discover a
new meaning is through employing the social strategies of asking someone for help with the
unknown words. Beside the initial discovery of a word, learners need to employ a variety of
strategies to practise and retain vocabulary. Learners thus, use a variety of social, memory,
cognitive and metacognitive strategies to consolidate their vocabulary knowledge.
Cooperative group learning through which learners study and practice the meaning of new
words in a group is an instance of social strategies for consolidating a word Memory
strategies, traditionally known as Mnemonics, involve relating the word with some previously
learned knowledge by using some form of imagery or grouping. Cognitive strategies in this
taxonomy are similar to memory strategies but are not focused on manipulative mental
processing. They include repetition and using mechanical means such as word lists, flash
cards, and vocabulary notebooks to study words. Finally, metacognitive strategies in
Schmitt’s taxonomy are defined as strategies used by learners to control and evaluate their
own learning, by having an overview of the learning process in general. Testing oneself is an
instance of metacognitive strategies which provides “input to the effectiveness of one’s choice
of learning strategies, providing positive reinforcement if progress is being made or a signal to
switch strategies if it is not” (Schmitt, p.216).
In a more recent attempt, Nation (2001) proposes taxonomy of various vocabulary learning
strategies. The strategies in the taxonomy are divided into three general classes of ‘planning’,
‘source’ and ‘processes’, each of which is divided into a subset of key strategies. The
taxonomy separates different aspects of vocabulary knowledge (i.e., what is involved in
knowing a word). The first category (i.e., planning) involves deciding on where, how and how
often to focus attention on the vocabulary item. The strategies in this category are choosing
words, choosing aspects of word knowledge and choosing strategies as well as planning
repetition. The second category in Nation’s taxonomy involves getting information about the
word. This information may include all the aspects involved in knowing a word. It can come
4. Novitas-ROYAL, Vol.: 1(2), pp.84-91. ISSN: 1307-4733
87
from the word form itself, from the context, from a reference source like dictionaries or
glossaries and from analogies and connections with other languages. Process is the last
category in Nation’s (2001) taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies. It includes
establishing word knowledge through noticing, retrieving and generating strategies.
To Nation, noticing involves seeing the word item to be learned. Strategies at this level
include putting the word in a vocabulary notebook or list; putting the word onto a word card
and orally and visually repeating the word. He argues that although these strategies are all of
recording type, they are useful steps resulting in deeper processing of words. Retrieval
involves recalling the items met before. It contains recalling knowledge in the same way it
was originally stored. Generating strategies include “attaching new aspects of knowledge to
what is known through instantiation (i.e., visualizing examples of words), word analysis,
semantic mapping and using scales and grids (Nation, 2001, p. 222). Generating strategies
include rule-driven generation, as well; such as, creating context, collocations and sentences
containing the new word. Besides, the mnemonic strategies and using the word in different
context through four skills are also defined as generating strategies.
In general, although the taxonomies cited above may slightly differ in terms of strategies they
categorize, they all provide a list of widely applicable vocabulary learning strategies. There
are many words on which teachers may not be able to spend time within the class time limits.
Thus, if students are equipped with a number of the strategies mentioned in the taxonomies,
they can deal with these words on their own and as a result have access to a large number of
target language words.
3. A RATIONALE FOR VOCABULARY LEARNING STRATEGY TRAINING
It has been suggested that one way to accelerate the learning of a second or a foreign language
is to teach learners how to learn more efficiently and effectively. To this end, teachers are
recommended to train their students in different learning strategies. Learning strategies
instruction can help “EFL learners become better learners. In addition, skill in using learning
strategies assists students in becoming independent, confident learners (Chamot, 1999, p.1).
Research has also demonstrated that there is a relationship between strategy use and success
in second or foreign language learning. For instance, Cohen and Aphek (1981, cited in
Chamot, 2001) taught students of Hebrew to remember vocabulary items by making paired
mnemonic associations and found that those who made associations remembered vocabulary
more effectively than those who did not.
In another attempt, Sanaoui (1995) carried out a study to demonstrate the relationship
between vocabulary strategies use and success in acquiring and retaining vocabulary
items. The study demonstrated that adult learners of L2 vocabulary were likely to fall into
two categories: Those who adopted a structured approach to their learning and those who did
not. Learners in the first group took control of their vocabulary learning. They did not merely
rely on what the language course provided them with. They used their own initiative in
regularly creating opportunities for vocabulary learning by listening to the radio, watching
movies, reading and using self-study. They kept systematic record of vocabulary they learned
by using vocabulary notebooks and lists. They reviewed what they had done several times a
week. However, the learners in the second group who followed unstructured approach relied
mainly on course material. If they made lists of vocabulary items, they did not review them
and they occasionally lost them. Sanaoui concluded that students who had a structured
learning approach were more successful in retaining the vocabulary items taught in their
5. Novitas-ROYAL, Vol.: 1(2), pp.84-91. ISSN: 1307-4733
88
classrooms than learners who had an unstructured approach. The research suggests that
helping learners gain control over processes for managing their own lexis is an important task
in vocabulary learning and teaching in L2 classrooms.
Thus, going through the literature, one encounters empirical evidence that strategy use will
result in more effective vocabulary acquisition and recall among L2 learners. This, in turn
justifies why teachers should embark on strategy training. Moreover, the significance of
strategy training is pointed out even by scholars who believe that context is a major source of
vocabulary learning. These scholars have expressed their concern over how well students can
handle context on their own. Therefore, they have strongly emphasized the teaching of
specific learning strategies to students so that they can effectively learn from context (Coady,
1997).
4. SOME CONSIDERATIONS TO BE TAKEN PRIOR TO STRATEGY TRAINING
Before strategy training can be carried out, several issues need to be addressed: First, teachers
need to find out what strategies and in particular what combination of strategies should be
taught. Second, the learning strategies known and preferred by learners should be identified
and taken into account. Third, some learners may need to be convinced that strategy training
is to their own benefit (Ellis, 1994). Fourth, after deciding what strategies to give attention to,
teachers should decide how much time to spend on training the learners in strategy use, and
they should work out a syllabus for each strategy that covers the required knowledge and
provides enough independent practice (Nation, 2001). Fifth, when considering which
vocabulary learning strategies to recommend to students, teachers should notice not to take
strategies as inherently good. They should bear in mind that effectiveness depends on the
context in which strategies are used (Schmitt, 1997). The effectiveness with which learning
strategies can be both taught and used depends on such variables as “proficiency level, task,
language modality, background knowledge, context of learning, target language and learner
characteristics” (Chamot & Rubin, 1994). Finally, teachers should bear in mind that learners
need to understand the goal of each strategy and the conditions under which it works best.
Learners also need enough practice to feel confident and proficient in using strategies.
Therefore, teachers should provide ample time for strategy training (Nation, 2001). After
these issues are settled, teachers can adopt an appropriate framework for training students in
using vocabulary learning strategies. Below is an instance of such frameworks which seems to
fit the EFL context in Iran.
5. A FRAMEWORK FOR VOCABULARY LEARNING STRATEGY TRAINING
Recommending a fixed framework for strategy training does not seem to be tenable as it was
already pointed out that a number of variables like learners’ proficiency level, language
modality, task, text, etc. have an impact on the effectiveness of strategies that can be taught
and used. Thus, what follows is a series of options which EFL teachers can have access to but
need to sequence in an appropriate way to best fit their classroom context.
Teachers should decide which strategies to give attention to and how much time they need to
spend on training. In order to catch a glimpse of the strategies learners need and the ones they
are currently using, students should be asked to draw up a list of strategies they employ to
learn English words in small groups. They report their lists to the class. The students and the
teacher can then, collaboratively construct a list of strategies the learners employ. After this
brainstorming session, the teacher can decide what strategies learners lack and need
6. Novitas-ROYAL, Vol.: 1(2), pp.84-91. ISSN: 1307-4733
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most. The teacher should model the strategy for the learners. Then the steps in the strategy
should be practiced separately. Learners are asked to apply the strategy in pairs while helping
each other. They report back on the application of the steps. The teacher monitors and
provides feedback on learners’ control of the strategies. She or he also systematically tests
learners on strategy use and gives them feedback. Learners report on the difficulty and
success in using the strategy outside classroom and they ask for teachers’ help and advice on
their use of strategy (Nation, 2001).
Learners should be given opportunities to examine the effectiveness of their vocabulary
coping strategies. For instance, in activities like guessing from context, teachers can see what
learners do (Porte, 1988), and learners can assess how effectively they can apply the inferring
strategies they were taught. Moreover, teachers should be cognizant of the interaction
between learners’ awareness of their own learning style and their ability to take charge of
their own learning. Teachers have two options at their disposal to foster this interaction: They
can provide learners with opportunities to do different vocabulary exercises. This will in turn
expose them to different strategies, and learners will discover which one feels right for them.
Teachers can provide learners with questionnaires to help them gain insight into what
strategies are more suitable for them. The questionnaire might include such questions as “Do I
learn vocabulary more easily doing speaking activities with my classmates?, Am I
comfortable with analyzing word parts?, Does it work better for me to collect words on index
cards or make word lists?” (Sokmen, 1997, p. 256).
Teachers should also recognize that some typical vocabulary learning strategies such as using
notebooks, dictionary and expansion exercises like semantic mapping are highly beneficial
and could be introduced as early as possible. Learners can write the words they encounter on
their vocabulary notebook and add L2-L1 translation or other knowledge they gradually
acquire about the words such as collocations, semantic associations, frequency tallies, roots
and derivations. Learners can be reminded to go through their notebooks regularly in order to
add more information and rehearse what they already recorded. (Schmitt & Schmitt, 1995).
The vocabulary notebook could then serve as a valuable resource.
Semantic mapping is also a useful strategy that can be introduced to learners at any level of
proficiency. It involves drawing a diagram of the relationships between words according to
their use in a particular text. Semantic mapping has the effect of bringing relationships in a
text to consciousness for the purpose of deepening the understanding of a text and creating
associative networks for words. It is best introduced as a collaborative effort between the
teacher and the class (Stahl & Vancil, 1986, cited in Nation and Newton, 1997). Such a
diagram “visually shows how ideas fit together. This strategy incorporates a variety of
memory strategies like grouping, using imagery, associating and elaborating and it is
important for improving both memory and comprehension of new vocabulary items”(Oxford,
1990, p. 62). In a guided semantic mapping, learners work with the teacher to develop a
semantic map around a topic, the teacher deliberately introduces several target vocabulary
items and puts them on the map as well as elaborating on them with the learners who then use
the semantic map to do a piece of writing. If the writing is done in a group, a learner in the
group can be assigned to ensure that the target words are used (Nation, 2001).
In general, teachers need to decide what framework and strategies they should choose to focus
on based on their student’s needs, learning styles, proficiency level as well as the task’s
requirements. Thus, frameworks are not fixed and can vary from context to context.
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6. CONCLUSION AND PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS FOR EFL TEACHERS
In the present paper, it was argued that vocabulary is an important ingredient of language and
vocabulary learning is an essential part of second or foreign language learning. Language
learners need a wide array of target language words to be able to tackle successfully both
production and comprehension activities in the second or foreign language. One way to help
learners to enhance their knowledge of L2 vocabulary is through equipping learners with a
variety of vocabulary learning strategies. Different taxonomies have thus been proposed, and
some of which were discussed in the present paper. The significance attributed to vocabulary
learning strategies and to training students in those strategies they lack may have the
following implications for EFL teachers:
Teachers should think of ways to provide less successful learners with vocabulary learning
strategies. This should be done by making them aware of the need to become independent
learners by recognizing the strategies they possess and those they lack. Learner’s attention
should also be directed toward the strategies successful learners benefit from. EFL teachers
should make learners practice a wide range of vocabulary learning strategies ranging
from decontextualized and mechanical strategies to contextualized ones. This enables learners
to deal with any unknown vocabulary they may encounter both in and out of class context.
Teachers need to bear in mind that individual learners may vary on the basis of which
strategies they consider more useful and they apply more frequently. Thus, teachers may first
need to have an appraisal of learner’s belief regarding vocabulary learning strategies and then
try to help them gradually realize the value of other types of strategies.
To sum up, learning new vocabulary is a challenge to foreign language students but they can
overcome by having access to a variety of vocabulary learning strategies. Learners should
then be trained in strategies they lack. To this end, teachers should consider the learners’
willingness and readiness to receive trainings and think of the most appropriate way to
introduce the strategies.
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