Earth's Interior and Origin
Introduction: the questions to be answered
• We live on the surface of a sphere (with a 4000-
mile radius) made mostly of rock that revolves
around the sun.
• How did scientists determine what is inside the
Earth even though we can’t directly sample
much of it?
• More specifically, there are a number of
questions to be answered.
1) Is the Earth made from the same material
from its surface to its center (e.g., like a
solid rubber ball)? Or is it made from layers
of different composition, as baseball is?
2) If the Earth has layers, what are those
layers made from chemically and how do we
know that?
3) Is the entire earth solid, or is there evidence
that materials found within Earth are in
different physical states (i.e., liquid and
gas)?
Here are the answers:
The Earth has both different chemical and physical
zones within it
• The Earth has zones in it that are made from
different chemicals (i.e., chemical zones).
• The Earth also has zones in it that differ in
their physical state (i.e., physical zones).
I. Chemical Zones
• Evidence from earthquake (seismic) waves
indicates that the earth has three different
chemical zones within it.
• The crust is an outer thin layer. It varies in
thickness from 7 to 30 miles.
• The mantle, a middle zone, is far thicker,
starting at a depth of around 20 miles (the base
of the crust) and going to a depth of 1800 miles.
• The core the large center zone. It extends from
the base of the mantle (1800 miles below the
surface) to the Earth’s center at about 4000 miles
below the surface.
How do we know these chemical zones exist?
• Seismic waves bounce back (reflect) to the
surface (like an echo off of a canyon wall)
when they encounter the boundary between
different materials:
• If the velocity of the earthquake wave is
known (and it is), then the time it takes for
the wave to travel from the earthquake’s
focus (origin point) to the boundary and
back to the surface indicates how far the
boundary is from the surface (i.e., its depth).
• The calculation is a simple one: velocity x
time = distance (e.g., miles/hour x hours
travelling = miles travelled)
The evidence from seismic waves that tells
scientists:
1) That there are two boundaries in the Earth
that separate it into three different zones, the
crust, mantle, and core.
2) How thick each of the three zones is.
3) That these zones are very different
chemically from each other because the
reflection of waves from the boundaries
between them is very strong.
How do scientists determine the composition of
each of these zones?
A. The chemical composition of the crust
• There are two different types of crust.
• Crust that underlies the continents is
thicker than that the underlies the ocean
floor.
• Continental crust also has a different
composition than oceanic ...
Earth can be divided into layers based on both chemical composition and physical properties. Chemically, Earth consists of a crust, mantle, and core. The crust is the outermost solid layer and is made up of silicates and aluminum. Below the crust is the mantle, made of hotter, denser rock rich in magnesium and iron. At the center is the core, mostly iron and nickel. Physically, Earth comprises the lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesosphere, outer core, and inner core, with the lithosphere forming the rigid outer plates and the inner core the solid center.
This document provides information about Earth's interior structure and composition. It is divided into three main layers: a thin crust, a thick mantle comprising most of Earth's volume, and an inner core. Each layer has distinct properties revealed through seismic wave analysis and drilling. The crust and upper mantle form the rigid lithosphere, underlain by a plastic asthenosphere and then a solid mesosphere before reaching the liquid outer core surrounding the inner solid core. Major seismic discontinuities at the crust-mantle boundary and core-mantle boundary were discovered in the early 20th century and provide evidence for Earth's layered internal structure.
The document summarizes the internal structure and composition of the Earth. It describes how seismic waves provide evidence about the Earth's layers, including a solid crust and mantle, liquid outer core, and solid inner core. The mantle convection of tectonic plates helps explain observations of seafloor spreading, mountain and trench formation, and patterns of earthquakes at plate boundaries.
Earth and it's property management companies that time of yearjasten4
The document discusses the four major layers that make up the structure of the Earth - the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. Each layer has distinct characteristics. The crust is the outermost solid layer, while the mantle below is also solid rock but hotter. Below this is the liquid outer core consisting of iron and nickel. The inner core is the deepest layer and is solid due to extreme pressure.
AS Level Physical Geography - Rocks and WeatheringArm Punyathorn
The earth's surface is an ever-changing entity. With the forces of weather and climate and tectonic variability, the rocks and minerals that make up the earth are always changing in size, shape and forms - a fascinating, ancient, never-ending process.
The document provides an overview of a geography lesson on the interior of the Earth. It discusses various sources of evidence for the Earth's internal structure, including theories of the planet's origin, density and pressure measurements, temperature observations, and analysis of seismic wave behavior. Seismology is identified as the primary source of information, with discussion of how P, S, and L waves change speed and behavior when passing through the core, mantle, and crust.
Earth's internal heat comes from three main sources:
1) The accretion of dust and gas particles during the Earth's formation released gravitational potential energy and caused internal heating.
2) Radioactive decay of elements in the Earth's core and mantle, such as uranium and potassium, continues to generate heat.
3) Frictional heating from convection currents in the mantle also contributes to the Earth's internal heat. Seismic waves have allowed scientists to indirectly learn about the Earth's layered structure despite only drilling about 7 miles deep.
Earth can be divided into layers based on both chemical composition and physical properties. Chemically, Earth consists of a crust, mantle, and core. The crust is the outermost solid layer and is made up of silicates and aluminum. Below the crust is the mantle, made of hotter, denser rock rich in magnesium and iron. At the center is the core, mostly iron and nickel. Physically, Earth comprises the lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesosphere, outer core, and inner core, with the lithosphere forming the rigid outer plates and the inner core the solid center.
This document provides information about Earth's interior structure and composition. It is divided into three main layers: a thin crust, a thick mantle comprising most of Earth's volume, and an inner core. Each layer has distinct properties revealed through seismic wave analysis and drilling. The crust and upper mantle form the rigid lithosphere, underlain by a plastic asthenosphere and then a solid mesosphere before reaching the liquid outer core surrounding the inner solid core. Major seismic discontinuities at the crust-mantle boundary and core-mantle boundary were discovered in the early 20th century and provide evidence for Earth's layered internal structure.
The document summarizes the internal structure and composition of the Earth. It describes how seismic waves provide evidence about the Earth's layers, including a solid crust and mantle, liquid outer core, and solid inner core. The mantle convection of tectonic plates helps explain observations of seafloor spreading, mountain and trench formation, and patterns of earthquakes at plate boundaries.
Earth and it's property management companies that time of yearjasten4
The document discusses the four major layers that make up the structure of the Earth - the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. Each layer has distinct characteristics. The crust is the outermost solid layer, while the mantle below is also solid rock but hotter. Below this is the liquid outer core consisting of iron and nickel. The inner core is the deepest layer and is solid due to extreme pressure.
AS Level Physical Geography - Rocks and WeatheringArm Punyathorn
The earth's surface is an ever-changing entity. With the forces of weather and climate and tectonic variability, the rocks and minerals that make up the earth are always changing in size, shape and forms - a fascinating, ancient, never-ending process.
The document provides an overview of a geography lesson on the interior of the Earth. It discusses various sources of evidence for the Earth's internal structure, including theories of the planet's origin, density and pressure measurements, temperature observations, and analysis of seismic wave behavior. Seismology is identified as the primary source of information, with discussion of how P, S, and L waves change speed and behavior when passing through the core, mantle, and crust.
Earth's internal heat comes from three main sources:
1) The accretion of dust and gas particles during the Earth's formation released gravitational potential energy and caused internal heating.
2) Radioactive decay of elements in the Earth's core and mantle, such as uranium and potassium, continues to generate heat.
3) Frictional heating from convection currents in the mantle also contributes to the Earth's internal heat. Seismic waves have allowed scientists to indirectly learn about the Earth's layered structure despite only drilling about 7 miles deep.
Geologists have learned about Earth's interior structure using two main types of evidence: direct evidence from rock samples drilled or erupted from depths over 100 km, and indirect evidence from seismic waves generated by earthquakes. The seismic data reveals Earth has three main layers - an outer crust, a hot solid mantle below it nearly 3000 km thick, and an inner core made of solid metal surrounded by a liquid outer core. The deeper one goes, the higher the temperature and pressure rise.
The document summarizes the layers that make up the Earth. It is divided into four main layers from outer to inner: the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. The crust is the topmost layer and thinnest, varying in thickness from 5-100km. Below is the mantle, the largest layer making up 80% of the Earth's volume. Within the mantle are the lithosphere and asthenosphere. The outer core is liquid, while the inner core is solid iron and nickel, and is the source of Earth's magnetic field. Scientists study seismic waves to determine the composition of each layer without being able to directly observe or drill to the deep interior.
Geology is the study of the Earth, including its composition, structure, physical properties, and history. Physical geology examines the materials and processes that shape the Earth, while historical geology examines the origin and evolution of the planet over time. A key theory in geology is plate tectonics, which proposes that the Earth's crust is composed of plates that move relative to one another.
Layers of the Earth and its Composition.pptxRowelEngreso3
The document describes the three main layers of the Earth - crust, mantle, and core. It explains that the crust is the thinnest layer and is divided into tectonic plates that move due to convection currents in the mantle. The mantle, which is the largest layer, flows slowly due to these convection currents caused by hot material rising and cool material sinking. Temperature, density and pressure all increase with depth in the Earth. The core is the center-most layer and has a solid inner core surrounded by a liquid outer core.
Geologists have learned about Earth's interior structure using two main types of evidence: direct evidence from rock samples and indirect evidence from seismic waves. Rock samples provide clues about deep Earth conditions, as drills can reach over 12km deep and some rocks are blasted from over 100km deep. Seismic waves from earthquakes reveal the planet's structure based on their speed and paths through different layers. Geologists have determined Earth has three main layers - the crust, mantle, and core - which vary in size, composition, temperature, and pressure and surround each other like onion layers.
The document describes the four main layers of Earth: crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. The crust is the thinnest layer and is divided into continental and oceanic crust. Below the crust is the mantle, which makes up over 80% of Earth's volume and is composed of iron-rich rock. Within the mantle are the lithosphere and asthenosphere layers. The outer core is liquid, while the inner core is solid due to extreme pressure. Seismic waves have helped scientists determine the composition of Earth's layers.
The document describes the three main layers of the Earth - crust, mantle, and core. The crust is the thinnest layer and is composed of two types, continental and oceanic. Continental crust is thicker and less dense than oceanic crust. The mantle, which is the largest layer, is composed of hot dense rock and drives the movement of tectonic plates via convection currents. The core is the center of the Earth and has a solid inner core surrounded by a liquid outer core. Temperature, density, and pressure all increase with depth in the Earth.
The document discusses the origin and evolution of the universe, Earth, and life over billions of years according to scientific theories. It describes how the universe began with the Big Bang around 14 billion years ago, then galaxies, stars, and planetary systems formed. Around 4.5 billion years ago, Earth formed from accretion in our solar system. Early life emerged around 3.8 billion years ago, evolving into complex organisms over time. The document provides timelines of these cosmic and biological events from the birth of the universe to the present.
The document describes the three main layers of the Earth - crust, mantle, and core. The crust is the thinnest layer and is broken into tectonic plates that move atop the mantle. The mantle, made of hot dense rock, flows via convection currents which cause plate movement at the asthenosphere. Temperature, density and pressure all increase with depth in the Earth. The core is the center-most layer and hottest part of Earth.
This document provides information about the Earth and the formation of the solar system. It discusses how the Earth is uniquely suited to support life due to factors like its distance from the sun, size, atmosphere, and rotation. It describes how elements are formed through nuclear fusion and radioactive decay. Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe. The solar system formed from a rotating cloud of gas and dust that condensed due to gravity to form the sun and planets. The Earth differentiated into layers with different compositions - an iron-nickel core, silicate mantle, and crust made of less dense elements.
The document summarizes the structure and composition of the Earth's main layers. It discusses that the Earth has an inner core, outer core, mantle, and crust. The crust varies in thickness and composition, with continental crust being thicker than oceanic crust. The mantle, made of solid hot rock, transfers heat via conduction and convection. The core is dense metal, mostly iron, and produces Earth's magnetic field through convection in the liquid outer core. Scientists determine this structure through geophysical surveys, seismic data, and properties of meteorites.
1. The document describes the structure of the Earth, which is divided into four main layers - the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core.
2. The crust and upper mantle make up tectonic plates that slowly move and interact with each other, influencing volcanic and earthquake activity.
3. Tectonic plates are driven by convection currents in the hot, liquid mantle and influence volcanoes and earthquakes through processes like plate collisions and divergent boundaries.
The document summarizes the nebular hypothesis theory of solar system formation. It explains that:
1) The solar system formed from the gravitational collapse of a giant interstellar gas cloud 4.5 billion years ago.
2) As the cloud contracted, conservation of angular momentum caused it to flatten into a disk with orderly planetary motion.
3) Variations in temperature caused the inner, rocky planets and outer, gaseous planets to form.
The Earth's crust is divided into 12 major tectonic plates that are constantly moving due to convection currents in the underlying mantle. There are three main types of plate boundaries - divergent where plates move apart, convergent where they collide, and transform where they slide past each other. Plate tectonics explains global patterns of volcanic and earthquake activity which predominantly occur at plate boundaries as the plates interact, collide and subduct.
Geology is the study of the Earth, including its composition, structure, physical properties, history, and the processes that act on it. The Earth formed around 4.5 billion years ago from the solar nebula. It differentiated into a solid crust and mantle, and a liquid outer core and solid inner core due to gravity and radioactive heating. The Earth has since undergone significant internal and external changes. The atmosphere formed from gases released from volcanoes, and the oceans formed as water accumulated on the cooling surface. Life emerged on Earth around 3.5 billion years ago. The lithosphere is divided into tectonic plates that move over the mantle due to convection currents in the upper mantle. The biosphere interacts with and alters
This document provides information about the formation and composition of planet Earth and the solar system. It discusses:
1) How Earth is uniquely suited to support life due to factors like its distance from the sun, size, atmosphere, and rotation.
2) The processes that led to the formation of elements, including nuclear fusion and radioactive decay. Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe.
3) How the Earth differentiated into layers with different compositions - a crust, mantle, and core. The crust also differentiates into continental and oceanic crust with different thicknesses, densities, and compositions.
This document summarizes the internal structure of Earth based on seismic wave studies. It describes the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. The crust is thinner under oceans than continents and consists of less dense granite and more dense basalt. There is a sharp boundary between the crust and mantle. The mantle is divided into upper and lower sections. The outer core is liquid while the inner core is solid. Plate tectonics involves rigid lithospheric plates floating on the mantle that move and interact at boundaries.
The document summarizes key aspects of the Earth's formation and structure. It describes how the Earth formed from meteorites millions of years ago. It then details the development of the moon through a collision with Mars. It also outlines the Earth's rotation, which causes day and night, and its revolution around the sun, which causes seasons. Finally, it provides an overview of the Earth's layered structure, including the inner and outer core, mantle, crust, and how tectonic plates shape the continents.
This document summarizes key components and concepts about the structure of the solar system:
- The solar system consists of the Sun, eight planets, dwarf planets, asteroids, comets, and other small bodies. The Sun contains over 99% of the solar system's mass.
- The inner terrestrial planets are rocky, while the outer gas giants are large planets composed primarily of hydrogen and helium. An asteroid belt exists between Mars and Jupiter.
- Factors like a planet's mass, distance from the Sun, composition, and atmospheric properties help determine its environment and surface conditions. Larger planets retain heat and atmospheres better than smaller ones.
- Techniques like radioactive dating indicate the solar system formed
This is a Team Assignment. I have attached what another student on t.docxEvonCanales257
This is a Team Assignment. I have attached what another student on the team's paper. She would like set up that way. She wants to just add to what she started in APA format. The team part that ONLY needs to be answered and to be added to the attached paper is in
BOLD "Person #4"
I think 400 words or less should be enough to make that student happy for Person #4 part. The Topic is the
Research
the U.S. Supreme Court case,
Miranda vs. Arizona,
paying particular attention to the transcript of the oral arguements.
For this assignment I was thinking of the break down of our portions. I have as follows:
Person 1:
Briefly describe the facts of the case.
Introduction
Person 2:
When was the case argued?
Which lawyers argued the case for each side?
Conclusion
Person 3:
Summarize the arguments of counsel regarding self-incrimination.
Person 4:
Why is the case significant with respect to the right to counsel and self-incrimination?
.
this is about databases questions , maybe i miss copy some option D,.docxEvonCanales257
this is about databases questions , maybe i miss copy some option D, if ABC there are all incorrecct please type D after that question thank you
Suppose that a PRODUCT table contains two attributes, PROD_CODE and VEND_CODE. Those two attributes have values of ABC, 125, DEF, 124, GHI, 124, and JKL, 123, respectively. The VENDOR table contains a single attribute, VEND_CODE, with values 123, 124, 125, and 126, respectively. (The VEND_CODE attribute in the PRODUCT table is a foreign key to the VEND_CODE in the VENDOR table.) Given that information, what would be the query output for a INTERSECT query based on these two tables?
[removed]
a. The query output will be: 125,124,123,126
[removed]
b. The query output will be: 123
[removed]
c. The query output will be: 125,124,124,123,123,124,125,126
[removed]
d. The query output will be: 123,124,125
What is the difference between UNION and UNION ALL?
[removed]
a. A UNION ALL operator will yield all rows of both relations, including duplicates
[removed]
b. UNION yields unique rows
[removed]
c. UNION eliminates duplicates rows
[removed]
d. All of these choices are correct.
A(n) ______________ is a block of PL/SQL code that is automatically invoked by the DBMS upon the occurrence of a data manipulation event (INSERT, UPDATE or DELETE.)
[removed]
a. stored procedure
[removed]
b. trigger
[removed]
c. view
[removed]
d. function
__________________ means that the relations yield attributes with identical names and compatible data types.
[removed]
a. duplicated
[removed]
b. Set comparable
[removed]
c. Union compatible
[removed]
d. compatible-oriented
Which of the following a parts of the definition of a trigger?
[removed]
a. The triggering level
[removed]
b. The triggering action
[removed]
c. The triggering timing
[removed]
d. All of these choices are correct.
Which of the following relational set operators does NOT require that the relations are union-compatible?
[removed]
a. INTERSECT
[removed]
b. PROJECT
[removed]
c. MINUS
[removed]
d. UNION
Suppose that you have two tables, EMPLOYEE and EMPLOYEE_1. The EMPLOYEE table contains the records for three employees: Alice Cordoza, John Cretchakov, and Anne McDonald. The EMPLOYEE_1 table contains the records for employees John Cretchakov and Mary Chen. Given that information, what is the query output for the INTERSECT query?
[removed]
a. The query output will be: John Cretchakov and Mary Chen
[removed]
b. The query output will be: Alice Cordoza, John Cretchakov, Anne McDonald and Mary Chen
[removed]
c. The query output will be: John Cretchakov
[removed]
d. The query output will be: Alice Cordoza, John Cretchakov, Anne McDonald, John Cretchakov and Mary Chen
A _____________________ is a join that performs a relational product (or Cartesian product) of two tables.
[removed]
a. CROSS JOIN
[removed]
b. DUPLICATE JOIN
[removed]
c. OUTER JOIN
[removed]
d. INNER JOIN
What Oracle function should you use to calculate the number of days between t.
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Geologists have learned about Earth's interior structure using two main types of evidence: direct evidence from rock samples drilled or erupted from depths over 100 km, and indirect evidence from seismic waves generated by earthquakes. The seismic data reveals Earth has three main layers - an outer crust, a hot solid mantle below it nearly 3000 km thick, and an inner core made of solid metal surrounded by a liquid outer core. The deeper one goes, the higher the temperature and pressure rise.
The document summarizes the layers that make up the Earth. It is divided into four main layers from outer to inner: the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. The crust is the topmost layer and thinnest, varying in thickness from 5-100km. Below is the mantle, the largest layer making up 80% of the Earth's volume. Within the mantle are the lithosphere and asthenosphere. The outer core is liquid, while the inner core is solid iron and nickel, and is the source of Earth's magnetic field. Scientists study seismic waves to determine the composition of each layer without being able to directly observe or drill to the deep interior.
Geology is the study of the Earth, including its composition, structure, physical properties, and history. Physical geology examines the materials and processes that shape the Earth, while historical geology examines the origin and evolution of the planet over time. A key theory in geology is plate tectonics, which proposes that the Earth's crust is composed of plates that move relative to one another.
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The document describes the three main layers of the Earth - crust, mantle, and core. It explains that the crust is the thinnest layer and is divided into tectonic plates that move due to convection currents in the mantle. The mantle, which is the largest layer, flows slowly due to these convection currents caused by hot material rising and cool material sinking. Temperature, density and pressure all increase with depth in the Earth. The core is the center-most layer and has a solid inner core surrounded by a liquid outer core.
Geologists have learned about Earth's interior structure using two main types of evidence: direct evidence from rock samples and indirect evidence from seismic waves. Rock samples provide clues about deep Earth conditions, as drills can reach over 12km deep and some rocks are blasted from over 100km deep. Seismic waves from earthquakes reveal the planet's structure based on their speed and paths through different layers. Geologists have determined Earth has three main layers - the crust, mantle, and core - which vary in size, composition, temperature, and pressure and surround each other like onion layers.
The document describes the four main layers of Earth: crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. The crust is the thinnest layer and is divided into continental and oceanic crust. Below the crust is the mantle, which makes up over 80% of Earth's volume and is composed of iron-rich rock. Within the mantle are the lithosphere and asthenosphere layers. The outer core is liquid, while the inner core is solid due to extreme pressure. Seismic waves have helped scientists determine the composition of Earth's layers.
The document describes the three main layers of the Earth - crust, mantle, and core. The crust is the thinnest layer and is composed of two types, continental and oceanic. Continental crust is thicker and less dense than oceanic crust. The mantle, which is the largest layer, is composed of hot dense rock and drives the movement of tectonic plates via convection currents. The core is the center of the Earth and has a solid inner core surrounded by a liquid outer core. Temperature, density, and pressure all increase with depth in the Earth.
The document discusses the origin and evolution of the universe, Earth, and life over billions of years according to scientific theories. It describes how the universe began with the Big Bang around 14 billion years ago, then galaxies, stars, and planetary systems formed. Around 4.5 billion years ago, Earth formed from accretion in our solar system. Early life emerged around 3.8 billion years ago, evolving into complex organisms over time. The document provides timelines of these cosmic and biological events from the birth of the universe to the present.
The document describes the three main layers of the Earth - crust, mantle, and core. The crust is the thinnest layer and is broken into tectonic plates that move atop the mantle. The mantle, made of hot dense rock, flows via convection currents which cause plate movement at the asthenosphere. Temperature, density and pressure all increase with depth in the Earth. The core is the center-most layer and hottest part of Earth.
This document provides information about the Earth and the formation of the solar system. It discusses how the Earth is uniquely suited to support life due to factors like its distance from the sun, size, atmosphere, and rotation. It describes how elements are formed through nuclear fusion and radioactive decay. Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe. The solar system formed from a rotating cloud of gas and dust that condensed due to gravity to form the sun and planets. The Earth differentiated into layers with different compositions - an iron-nickel core, silicate mantle, and crust made of less dense elements.
The document summarizes the structure and composition of the Earth's main layers. It discusses that the Earth has an inner core, outer core, mantle, and crust. The crust varies in thickness and composition, with continental crust being thicker than oceanic crust. The mantle, made of solid hot rock, transfers heat via conduction and convection. The core is dense metal, mostly iron, and produces Earth's magnetic field through convection in the liquid outer core. Scientists determine this structure through geophysical surveys, seismic data, and properties of meteorites.
1. The document describes the structure of the Earth, which is divided into four main layers - the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core.
2. The crust and upper mantle make up tectonic plates that slowly move and interact with each other, influencing volcanic and earthquake activity.
3. Tectonic plates are driven by convection currents in the hot, liquid mantle and influence volcanoes and earthquakes through processes like plate collisions and divergent boundaries.
The document summarizes the nebular hypothesis theory of solar system formation. It explains that:
1) The solar system formed from the gravitational collapse of a giant interstellar gas cloud 4.5 billion years ago.
2) As the cloud contracted, conservation of angular momentum caused it to flatten into a disk with orderly planetary motion.
3) Variations in temperature caused the inner, rocky planets and outer, gaseous planets to form.
The Earth's crust is divided into 12 major tectonic plates that are constantly moving due to convection currents in the underlying mantle. There are three main types of plate boundaries - divergent where plates move apart, convergent where they collide, and transform where they slide past each other. Plate tectonics explains global patterns of volcanic and earthquake activity which predominantly occur at plate boundaries as the plates interact, collide and subduct.
Geology is the study of the Earth, including its composition, structure, physical properties, history, and the processes that act on it. The Earth formed around 4.5 billion years ago from the solar nebula. It differentiated into a solid crust and mantle, and a liquid outer core and solid inner core due to gravity and radioactive heating. The Earth has since undergone significant internal and external changes. The atmosphere formed from gases released from volcanoes, and the oceans formed as water accumulated on the cooling surface. Life emerged on Earth around 3.5 billion years ago. The lithosphere is divided into tectonic plates that move over the mantle due to convection currents in the upper mantle. The biosphere interacts with and alters
This document provides information about the formation and composition of planet Earth and the solar system. It discusses:
1) How Earth is uniquely suited to support life due to factors like its distance from the sun, size, atmosphere, and rotation.
2) The processes that led to the formation of elements, including nuclear fusion and radioactive decay. Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe.
3) How the Earth differentiated into layers with different compositions - a crust, mantle, and core. The crust also differentiates into continental and oceanic crust with different thicknesses, densities, and compositions.
This document summarizes the internal structure of Earth based on seismic wave studies. It describes the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. The crust is thinner under oceans than continents and consists of less dense granite and more dense basalt. There is a sharp boundary between the crust and mantle. The mantle is divided into upper and lower sections. The outer core is liquid while the inner core is solid. Plate tectonics involves rigid lithospheric plates floating on the mantle that move and interact at boundaries.
The document summarizes key aspects of the Earth's formation and structure. It describes how the Earth formed from meteorites millions of years ago. It then details the development of the moon through a collision with Mars. It also outlines the Earth's rotation, which causes day and night, and its revolution around the sun, which causes seasons. Finally, it provides an overview of the Earth's layered structure, including the inner and outer core, mantle, crust, and how tectonic plates shape the continents.
This document summarizes key components and concepts about the structure of the solar system:
- The solar system consists of the Sun, eight planets, dwarf planets, asteroids, comets, and other small bodies. The Sun contains over 99% of the solar system's mass.
- The inner terrestrial planets are rocky, while the outer gas giants are large planets composed primarily of hydrogen and helium. An asteroid belt exists between Mars and Jupiter.
- Factors like a planet's mass, distance from the Sun, composition, and atmospheric properties help determine its environment and surface conditions. Larger planets retain heat and atmospheres better than smaller ones.
- Techniques like radioactive dating indicate the solar system formed
Similar to Earths Interior and Origin Introduction the question (20)
This is a Team Assignment. I have attached what another student on t.docxEvonCanales257
This is a Team Assignment. I have attached what another student on the team's paper. She would like set up that way. She wants to just add to what she started in APA format. The team part that ONLY needs to be answered and to be added to the attached paper is in
BOLD "Person #4"
I think 400 words or less should be enough to make that student happy for Person #4 part. The Topic is the
Research
the U.S. Supreme Court case,
Miranda vs. Arizona,
paying particular attention to the transcript of the oral arguements.
For this assignment I was thinking of the break down of our portions. I have as follows:
Person 1:
Briefly describe the facts of the case.
Introduction
Person 2:
When was the case argued?
Which lawyers argued the case for each side?
Conclusion
Person 3:
Summarize the arguments of counsel regarding self-incrimination.
Person 4:
Why is the case significant with respect to the right to counsel and self-incrimination?
.
this is about databases questions , maybe i miss copy some option D,.docxEvonCanales257
this is about databases questions , maybe i miss copy some option D, if ABC there are all incorrecct please type D after that question thank you
Suppose that a PRODUCT table contains two attributes, PROD_CODE and VEND_CODE. Those two attributes have values of ABC, 125, DEF, 124, GHI, 124, and JKL, 123, respectively. The VENDOR table contains a single attribute, VEND_CODE, with values 123, 124, 125, and 126, respectively. (The VEND_CODE attribute in the PRODUCT table is a foreign key to the VEND_CODE in the VENDOR table.) Given that information, what would be the query output for a INTERSECT query based on these two tables?
[removed]
a. The query output will be: 125,124,123,126
[removed]
b. The query output will be: 123
[removed]
c. The query output will be: 125,124,124,123,123,124,125,126
[removed]
d. The query output will be: 123,124,125
What is the difference between UNION and UNION ALL?
[removed]
a. A UNION ALL operator will yield all rows of both relations, including duplicates
[removed]
b. UNION yields unique rows
[removed]
c. UNION eliminates duplicates rows
[removed]
d. All of these choices are correct.
A(n) ______________ is a block of PL/SQL code that is automatically invoked by the DBMS upon the occurrence of a data manipulation event (INSERT, UPDATE or DELETE.)
[removed]
a. stored procedure
[removed]
b. trigger
[removed]
c. view
[removed]
d. function
__________________ means that the relations yield attributes with identical names and compatible data types.
[removed]
a. duplicated
[removed]
b. Set comparable
[removed]
c. Union compatible
[removed]
d. compatible-oriented
Which of the following a parts of the definition of a trigger?
[removed]
a. The triggering level
[removed]
b. The triggering action
[removed]
c. The triggering timing
[removed]
d. All of these choices are correct.
Which of the following relational set operators does NOT require that the relations are union-compatible?
[removed]
a. INTERSECT
[removed]
b. PROJECT
[removed]
c. MINUS
[removed]
d. UNION
Suppose that you have two tables, EMPLOYEE and EMPLOYEE_1. The EMPLOYEE table contains the records for three employees: Alice Cordoza, John Cretchakov, and Anne McDonald. The EMPLOYEE_1 table contains the records for employees John Cretchakov and Mary Chen. Given that information, what is the query output for the INTERSECT query?
[removed]
a. The query output will be: John Cretchakov and Mary Chen
[removed]
b. The query output will be: Alice Cordoza, John Cretchakov, Anne McDonald and Mary Chen
[removed]
c. The query output will be: John Cretchakov
[removed]
d. The query output will be: Alice Cordoza, John Cretchakov, Anne McDonald, John Cretchakov and Mary Chen
A _____________________ is a join that performs a relational product (or Cartesian product) of two tables.
[removed]
a. CROSS JOIN
[removed]
b. DUPLICATE JOIN
[removed]
c. OUTER JOIN
[removed]
d. INNER JOIN
What Oracle function should you use to calculate the number of days between t.
This is a summary of White Teeth by Zadie Smith, analyze a short pas.docxEvonCanales257
This is a summary of White Teeth by Zadie Smith, analyze a short passage from the book, cite , quote, include details. What patterns do you see? What details?
Find any passage from the book White Teeth to write on, have the passage written at the top and then write the analysis after it.
.
This is a repetition of the first What Am I assignment, in which yo.docxEvonCanales257
This is a repetition of the first What Am I? assignment, in which you should indicate your current position in regards to the nature of consciousness (are you a materialist, an idealist, or a dualist?), but this time you need to say something about the phenomenological aspect of consciousness. How do you account for the nature of the conscious experiences people report (especially if you are a materialist) and how do you account for the nature of the effects of behavioral rituals, like meditation or hypnosis (especially if you are a dualist or an idealist)?
.
This is a persuasive presentation on your Communication Audit Report.docxEvonCanales257
This is a persuasive presentation on your Communication Audit Report findings. Please be sure you have an attention getter, overview of the presentation information, introduction to your topic, its importance, discuss each question on the survey and/or list of interview questions, include a visual aid, and persuasive closing.
This Presentation is on your Communication Audit Report data.
Please do the following:
Stand during your Presentation; dress in business attire
Use an Attention Getter
State your Topic (data from ______ Company)
State your Name
Share two/three comments from journal articles (author, date, name of journal)
Share demographic data (males/females, titles, length of time with Company)
Share data from remaining questions (put two/three questions in graphic form—table/pie chart)
State your Summary
State your Conclusions (enumerate/number them)
State your Recommendations (enumerate/number them)
.
This is a flow chart of an existing project. It should be about .docxEvonCanales257
This is a flow chart of an existing project. It should be about my project and nothing else! (so ne refrences) I attached my project paper and also attached an example of the flow chart. The flow chart should look like the example.
FOLLOW ALL OF THE FOLLOWING POINTS:
you will explore the architecture of your intended multimedia project. Create a preliminary flowchart of the flow of content in your project. Include every page the user will interact with and a clear architecture of the flow of all pages or screens.
Research your multimedia project and create a preliminary flowchart for your concept. You can create your flowchart using a wide variety of software applications, including Adobe Photoshop, Adobe Illustrator, Microsoft Word, Microsoft Visio, or Microsoft PowerPoint.
The flowchart should demonstrate the architectural flow of your entire project. Include every page the user will interact with.
Keep your project simple. Your flowchart should show 5 to 7 pages (windows) in the website for your course project.
Briefly describe the navigation structure and functionality of your project on the same page as the flowchart. Discuss how the global navigation and any supplemental navigation will work in your project. Remember to discuss the text navigation in the footer that mirrors your global navigation, should it be utilized.
.
This is a history library paper.The library paper should be double.docxEvonCanales257
This is a history library paper.
The library paper should be double space . Students are expected to use at least a total of 10 academic references (reference journal articles or books) in their papers.
The paper will be graded based on 5 criteria: content, language/clarity, references, organization and completeness.
This is what the library paper is about or the question we need to answer
" After considering the history of the Muslim world in the period between the early fifteenth and early twentieth centuries, which particular events, processes, and/or encounters would you deem overall the most enduring and most defining? "
.
This is a Discussion post onlyGlobalization may have.docxEvonCanales257
********This is a Discussion post only******
Globalization may have considerable beneficial and detrimental effects on various countries. Using what you've learned from this module share your thoughts on the economic and political impact of globalization on the Russian economy.
Add information about today current events on this topic
Please see additional document attached for additional readings
Only two paragraphs required, APA, with intext citation
.
This is a criminal justice homeworkThe topic is Actus Reus and Men.docxEvonCanales257
This is a criminal justice homework
The topic is Actus Reus and Mens Rea
Be sure to talk about both, explaining the differences and what each of them mean.
APA format 4 to 5 pages long
No Wikipedia!
Sources must be cited in the reference page and throughout the paper
Have a discussion section (or paragraph) interpreting and explaining the results.
.
This is a combined interview and short research paper. You are fir.docxEvonCanales257
This is a combined interview and short research paper. You are first required to interview a health care worker and ask them to identify and discuss solutions to a perceived health care issue in their field. Then, you will research and discuss this issue and proposed solutions.
The paper should be at least 850 words. Use APA or MLA Style for your paper format. For assistance with this, reference the
Citation Style Guide
developed for the Stafford Library.
Part I: Interview
This portion of Paper 1 will be a written report based on your interview of an individual who works in the health care system. (This person could be a direct caregiver, such as a physician, nurse, therapist, dentist, pharmacist, or chiropractor, or it could be someone who works as a medical secretary, hospital administrator, or in medical billing.) This interview can be accomplished either in person or by phone.
Clearly state the worker’s job description, the type of facility or organization in which he or she works, a summary of his or her training and experience, whether her or she performs administrative duties or are involved in finances, and whether he or she provides direct patient care or works closely with other care professionals.
Elicit this individual’s overall perceptions of and general satisfaction with our current health care system and the facility where they work. Ask him or her to identify a key issue or concern, either with our health care system or in his or her particular setting, and the solutions this worker would propose to address this particular issue.
Interview part is done
Alanna Falk is a Medical office manager for an endocrinologist.
She has a bachelor’s degree in business administration and is a trained medical assistant for over twenty years.
She has direct contact with the three providers in her office as well as the patients on a daily basis.
She performs the administrative aspect of the office and fills in where needed.
Overall she enjoys her office but at times feel that it is overwhelming with the amount of patients and being her doctor is one of two in the area for this specialty.
One problem that she is having is getting the patients to get onboard with the use of technology to simplify and reduce the amount of time spent filling paperwork out to include the cost in staff printing, ink and filing space. This often delays the patients getting in the back office to see the physicians on time even after they are checked in on time and it throws the whole schedule off for the day.
She would like to go paperless as possible and being that their scheduling team gets their information for the most part over the phone she would like to utilize tablets or a computer program that will help them become more efficient in the practice and maintain patient privacy.
Part II: Discussion
Elaborate and discuss the health care issue identified by your interviewee, demonstrating your understanding of both the problem raised and their prop.
This is a 250 word minimum forum post. How do different types o.docxEvonCanales257
This is a 250 word minimum forum post.
How do different types of cultures impact HRIS implementation and acceptance? What are some of legal and regulatory issues that were discussed in our reading material this week that could impact HRIS? Provide an overview of one of the regulations discussed in our reading material. What was the purpose of the regulation? Are there HRIS systems that could help with compliance of these regulations? (Search the Internet for software and post links here). Lastly, what are some of the future technologies discussed in our reading material? Are any of these being offered right now? Again, this will require you to research for software that fits future trends. Discuss your finding with each other and how they relate to our reading material this week.
References
Torres, T. (2004). E-Human Resources Management
.
Hershey
,
PA
: ICI Global
Gueutal, H. (2005). The Brave New World of EHR
.
Hoboken
,
NJ
: Wiley
.
This homework is for the outline ONLY of a research paper. The outli.docxEvonCanales257
This homework is for the outline ONLY of a research paper. The outline will be submitted first and later on in the course the final essay will be submitted, therefore the same person that does the outline will also do the essay. In this way, the person would be familiar with the assignment. The outline should follow this template: http://www2.ivcc.edu/rambo/eng1001/outline.htm
The topic shall be chosen from the following list:
allure of scent
androgyny
Attachment theory
beauty pageants
behaviorism
bipolar disorder
birth order
body modification
borderline personality disorder
bullies
child prodigies
communication differences - male/female
complaining behavior
concept of self
coping c.a.t. program
corporal punishment
cross-dressing
cults
cyberbullying
deja vu
developmental psychology
dreams
family therapy
fear of flying
guilt
hirsuit--attractive?
histrionic personality disorder
how music affects learning
humor
id
Indigo children
jealousy
laughter
megalomania
memory
mind-body connection
mindfulness
multiple personalities
occultism
optimism/pessimism
peer pressure
phobias
postnatal (postpartum) depression
private vs. public self
psychology of music
"retail therapy" / "shopaholism"
resilience
revenge
rumors
sadism
self esteem
senses & the psyche
short-term memory
sibling rivalry
sleeping disorders
social anxiety disorder
somnambulism
stereotyping
subliminal advertising
super-ego
twins
visual perception
.
this homework for reaserch methods class I have choose my topic for .docxEvonCanales257
this homework for reaserch methods class I have choose my topic for the introdiction of study I will upload my paper, and the instrctor of how u do the survey qustion, also example of a good work is attached, so then u will know how to do it.
Use the Table from the Colloquium Study that links: Hypotheses, Variable Definition, and Measures (Survey Questions) as a model.
NOTE: You do NOT have to develop a Likert scale questions (unless one makes sense for your study).
Develop your own version of this for at least 2-3 survey questions or interview questions YOU will ask for you Draft and Final Research Design assignment.
In other words, and just to be clear, pick a question that would work for you. The Likert scale question below is just an example of a question I used to measure one variable. You need to pick a question that will work for you - it will measure your variables in your hypotheses.
If you don’t want to mess with formatting a table for this assignment (keep in mind you may want to for your Draft and Final Research Design assignment) you can just do it bulleted, for example:
Hypotheses: Policy actors within a coalition will show substantial consensus on deep core and policy core beliefs, less so on secondary aspects.
Concept Definition: Deep core beliefs: “General normative and ontological assumptions about human nature…the proper role of government vs. markets in general…” (Sabatier and Weible 2007).
Measures (Survey Questions):
“How liberal or conservative do you consider yourself to be on fiscal policy?” (Likert scale 1-5): 1) strongly disagree, 2) disagree, 3) neutral, 4) agree, 5) strongly agree
“How liberal or conservative do you consider yourself to be on social policy?” (Likert scale 1-5): 1) strongly disagree, 2) disagree, 3) neutral, 4) agree, 5) strongly agree
Table 3: Chapter Three Hypotheses, Key Variables / Concepts, and Measures
RQ3: What role do coalition membership and organizational affiliation have in shaping policy actor and coalition members’ belief change and reinforcement in a local and state level energy and climate policy subsystem?
Hypotheses
Key Variable / Concept & Definition
Measures:
Survey Questions
(Typically agree / disagree likert scale 1-5)
H1. Policy actors within a coalition will show substantial consensus on deep core and policy core beliefs, less so on secondary aspects.
1. Advocacy coalitions & Coalition affiliation
“A group of legislators, agency officials, interest group leaders, and researchers with similar policy core beliefs who share resources and “engage in a nontrivial degree of coordination” (Sabatier and Weible 2007 p.196)
2: Deep core beliefs
“General normative and ontological assumptions about human nature...the proper role of government vs. markets in general...” (Sabatier and Weible 2007).
1: Responses to survey questions, which are already collected, pertaining to deep core, policy core, and secondary beliefs will determine which advocacy coalition respondents are .
This is a business information System project (at least 3 pages AP.docxEvonCanales257
This is a business information System project (at least 3 pages APA format)
A retention MIS (management Information System) for colleges to track and retain students. 1)
Introduction (describes the business and its objectives)
2) Statement of Problem or /Business Opportunity.
.
This is a 2 part assignment. You did the last one now we need to.docxEvonCanales257
This is a 2 part assignment. You did the last one now we need to do an outline and then the final draft. I have copied the last assignment we did and enclosed the abstract for part one. If it needs to be changed then please change this. I need this by Sunday afternoon.
Assignment 2: Identifying Themes
For this assignment, you will develop a Title page, Abstract, and a References page. Articulate your main research/focal question as the opening for your paper. Be sure it is specific, researchable, and important to the field. Then go on to list a detailed outline of the body of the paper, (including all headings and subheadings). Be sure to format your entire paper, including the headings and subheadings according to APA style.
Also include ten references with this outline.
Abstract
The Relation between Heredity and Suicidal Behavior has many different experiments to use as examples. Some say that most individuals inherit the suicidal behavior and other does not. This paper will examine different experiments on the outcome of this topic and what might be influenced by genes that might run in a family. Then again there are the other factors that might show the influence of other suicidal behaviors. The outcome will provide different articles that will provide information on the behavior characteristics of suicidal behavior and what the interpersonal psychology theory of suicidal behavior just might be.
Assignment 2: LASA 1: Writing a Brief Draft
The Relation between Heredity and Suicidal Behavior
Patricia Vela
Dr.: Edith Nolan
Writing in Psychology | PSY250 A02
21 June 2017
The Relation between Heredity and Suicidal Behavior
Introduction
The paper will focus on examining the relation between heredity and suicidal behavior and also look into the interpersonal psychology theory of suicidal behavior.
The paper will seek to affirm that suicidal behavior is influenced by genes that run in the family lineage and as such it could be inherited. Various theories can be used to explain the relationship between hereditary and suicidal behavior.
One these theories are Interpersonal psychology theory of suicidal behavior.
This theory provides
that, acquired capability, belongingness and burdensome are the 3 main determinants of suicidal behavior.
The paper will also provide articles review on the interpersonal psychology theory of suicidal behavior.
The Research questions
This paper is guided by the research question; what does the research show about the relation between heredity and suicidal behavior. This will help in formulating the best research methods and topics for the study.
Article review
Article 1
In the International
Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology
a meta-analysis research paper on the Brain-derived neurotrophic factor gene in suicidal behavior is presented. This is a meta-analysis work that looks into the brain-derived neurotrophic factor gene in suicidal behavior. The analysis links the BDNF (brain deriv.
This hoework assignment course is named Operations Management.The .docxEvonCanales257
This hoework assignment course is named Operations Management.
The warehouse manager asked you to create an example inventory list for his staff. The inventory list is a comprehensive chart that lists all of the company’s internal resources: equipment, machines, technology, furniture, office supplies, etc.
.
This handout helps explain your class project. Your task is to d.docxEvonCanales257
This handout helps explain your class project. Your task is to develop a creative project that demonstrates/comments on one of the social psychological phenomena we have covered in class (attitudes, attitude change, conformity, obedience, compliance). I encourage to you to scan through the chapters and explore different social theories, concepts, famous experiments, etc. Find some area of social psychology you have an interest in and further explore that area (i.e. Milgram’s experiment, cognitive dissonance, implicit bias, altruism, Prisoner’s Dilemma, etc). Projects that bring together multiple phenomena are especially encouraged.
You should use any artistic medium you wish (photography, video, graphic design, prose, poetry, electronic art/design, visual art, etc). The goal is to have you merge your creative side with your scholarly side and integrate social psychology into your everyday life.
PROPOSAL (Due 9/10): Please submit a
1-2 page paper describing your project in detail. Address the medium you will be using, the phenomena you will be examining and the general concept of the project. You may
submit HERE in canvas your proposal early to get a jump start on the project.
.
This for my reflection paper 1-2 pagesIt is due Friday at midnigh.docxEvonCanales257
This for my reflection paper 1-2 pages
It is due Friday at midnight
Here is what needs to be in the reflection paper
It needs to have my own learning styles throughout this course:
Which those are just pretty
•Not waiting til the last minute for my readings each week
•asking questions
•Group discussions
Understanding the Christian Worldview for me
• we all need to look through our spiritual goggles in life
•understanding the fundamental purpose in the world we live in
•understanding the use to make sense of our world
•Worldview is what we presuppose
Personal development
•improve awareness & indenting
•become more proactive
•become more confident
•release the past
Professional Development
• plan,plan,plan& prepare
• allow choices
•Attend to my environment
•celebrate
.
This first briefing should be an introduction to your AOI(Area of In.docxEvonCanales257
This first briefing should be an introduction to your AOI(Area of Interest). I'm Looking for basic information; govt system, population, social system, religion(s), economics [imports and exports], and a map. After that, I want to know what is my AOI known for? Plus, any notable current events. This should be one page, two page maximum 300 words, double spaced, size 14 font.
.
This discussion will allow you to examine several different prev.docxEvonCanales257
This discussion will allow you to examine several different preventive guidelines related to men's health. Please include at least three scholarly sources within your initial post.
Topic 1: Colorectal Cancer Screening
A 47-year-old man presents to your clinic for a routine physical. He considers himself to be “fairly healthy” and doesn’t routinely go to the doctor. His last physical was five years ago. In reviewing his chart, you see that his BMI is 30, he exercises twice a week at the local gym, and he does not take any medication. Part of your discussion during today’s visit is about screening for colorectal cancers. He did endorse some constipation in the review of systems. He noted an uncle in his family history who was diagnosed at age 54 with colon cancer. You begin to talk about colorectal screening, and the patient interrupts you and tells you that he is only 47 and that he should not have to worry about it until he is 50.
What are the recommendations and source(s) for the colorectal cancer screening test?
The patient thinks he does not have to worry about “being screened” until age 50. Is he correct? Why or why not? What age would you recommend screening for this patient and why? Does his family history come into play here?
What age would you recommend screening for this patient and why? Does his family history come into play here?
What are the screening options for this patient, and which would you recommend? Why?
Discussion Question Rubric
Note:
Scholarly resources are defined as evidence-based practice, peer-reviewed journals; textbook (do not rely solely on your textbook as a reference); and National Standard Guidelines. Review assignment instructions, as this will provide any additional requirements that are not specifically listed on the rubric.
Discussion Question Rubric – 100 PointsCriteriaExemplary
Exceeds ExpectationsAdvanced
Meets ExpectationsIntermediate
Needs ImprovementNovice
InadequateTotal PointsQuality of Initial PostProvides clear examples supported by course content and references.
Cites three or more references, using at least one new scholarly resource that was not provided in the course materials.
All instruction requirements noted.
40 points
Components are accurate and thoroughly represented, with explanations and application of knowledge to include evidence-based practice, ethics, theory, and/or role. Synthesizes course content using course materials and scholarly resources to support importantpoints.
Meets all requirements within the discussion instructions.
Cites two references.
35 points
Components are accurate and mostly represented primarily with definitions and summarization. Ideas may be overstated, with minimal contribution to the subject matter. Minimal application to evidence-based practice, theory, or role development. Synthesis of course content is present but missing depth and/or development.
Is missing one component/requirement of the discussion instructions.
Cit.
How to Fix the Import Error in the Odoo 17Celine George
An import error occurs when a program fails to import a module or library, disrupting its execution. In languages like Python, this issue arises when the specified module cannot be found or accessed, hindering the program's functionality. Resolving import errors is crucial for maintaining smooth software operation and uninterrupted development processes.
This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
A wound is a break in the integrity of the skin or tissues, which may be associated with disruption of the structure and function.
Healing is the body’s response to injury in an attempt to restore normal structure and functions.
Healing can occur in two ways: Regeneration and Repair
There are 4 phases of wound healing: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. This document also describes the mechanism of wound healing. Factors that affect healing include infection, uncontrolled diabetes, poor nutrition, age, anemia, the presence of foreign bodies, etc.
Complications of wound healing like infection, hyperpigmentation of scar, contractures, and keloid formation.
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryCeline George
In this slide, we'll explore how to set up warehouses and locations in Odoo 17 Inventory. This will help us manage our stock effectively, track inventory levels, and streamline warehouse operations.
Reimagining Your Library Space: How to Increase the Vibes in Your Library No ...Diana Rendina
Librarians are leading the way in creating future-ready citizens – now we need to update our spaces to match. In this session, attendees will get inspiration for transforming their library spaces. You’ll learn how to survey students and patrons, create a focus group, and use design thinking to brainstorm ideas for your space. We’ll discuss budget friendly ways to change your space as well as how to find funding. No matter where you’re at, you’ll find ideas for reimagining your space in this session.
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
Beyond Degrees - Empowering the Workforce in the Context of Skills-First.pptxEduSkills OECD
Iván Bornacelly, Policy Analyst at the OECD Centre for Skills, OECD, presents at the webinar 'Tackling job market gaps with a skills-first approach' on 12 June 2024
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
Earths Interior and Origin Introduction the question
1. Earth's Interior and Origin
Introduction: the questions to be answered
• We live on the surface of a sphere (with a 4000-
mile radius) made mostly of rock that revolves
around the sun.
• How did scientists determine what is inside the
Earth even though we can’t directly sample
much of it?
• More specifically, there are a number of
questions to be answered.
1) Is the Earth made from the same material
from its surface to its center (e.g., like a
solid rubber ball)? Or is it made from layers
of different composition, as baseball is?
2) If the Earth has layers, what are those
layers made from chemically and how do we
2. know that?
3) Is the entire earth solid, or is there evidence
that materials found within Earth are in
different physical states (i.e., liquid and
gas)?
Here are the answers:
The Earth has both different chemical and physical
zones within it
• The Earth has zones in it that are made from
different chemicals (i.e., chemical zones).
• The Earth also has zones in it that differ in
their physical state (i.e., physical zones).
I. Chemical Zones
• Evidence from earthquake (seismic) waves
3. indicates that the earth has three different
chemical zones within it.
• The crust is an outer thin layer. It varies in
thickness from 7 to 30 miles.
• The mantle, a middle zone, is far thicker,
starting at a depth of around 20 miles (the base
of the crust) and going to a depth of 1800 miles.
• The core the large center zone. It extends from
the base of the mantle (1800 miles below the
surface) to the Earth’s center at about 4000 miles
below the surface.
How do we know these chemical zones exist?
• Seismic waves bounce back (reflect) to the
surface (like an echo off of a canyon wall)
when they encounter the boundary between
different materials:
• If the velocity of the earthquake wave is
known (and it is), then the time it takes for
the wave to travel from the earthquake’s
4. focus (origin point) to the boundary and
back to the surface indicates how far the
boundary is from the surface (i.e., its depth).
• The calculation is a simple one: velocity x
time = distance (e.g., miles/hour x hours
travelling = miles travelled)
The evidence from seismic waves that tells
scientists:
1) That there are two boundaries in the Earth
that separate it into three different zones, the
crust, mantle, and core.
2) How thick each of the three zones is.
3) That these zones are very different
chemically from each other because the
reflection of waves from the boundaries
between them is very strong.
How do scientists determine the composition of
each of these zones?
A. The chemical composition of the crust
• There are two different types of crust.
• Crust that underlies the continents is
5. thicker than that the underlies the ocean
floor.
• Continental crust also has a different
composition than oceanic crust:
• Continental crust is made mostly from
granite and granite-like rocks.
• Oceanic crust is made mostly of
basalt.
How do we know the chemical composition
of the continental and oceanic crust?
• Direct sampling of continental crust –
easy
• Direct sampling of ocean crust –
doable
B. The chemical composition of the mantle
6. • Humans have never been able to drill
through the Earth’s crust to directly
sample pieces of the mantle (although
three different countries attempted to).
• The technological challenges proved to be
too great.
• But scientists have, however, put together
indirect evidence of different types to
reliably determine the mantle’s chemical
composition.
1) Mantle Xenoliths
• When melted rock rises towards the
surface, it sometimes breaks off solid
pieces of the surrounding rock.
• These pieces later appear as rock
fragments included in the igneous rock
(i.e., the rock formed by cooling and
solidification of the melt) called
xenoliths.
• Sometimes mantle xenoliths are found.
7. • Mantle xenoliths found in this way are
typically made from a roughly 50-50
mixture of two minerals, olivine and
pyroxene. (See the photo above.)
• Because these xenoliths represent
pieces of mantle brought up through
volcanoes, it is reasonable to assume
that the mantle is made up of olivine
and pyroxene.
2) Ophiolite Complexes
• Mountain-sized body that is made of
several different rock layers.
• Typically found in mountain ranges.
8. • Compare this to the modern ocean
floor.
• What can we assume about the
composition of the mantle from
ophiolites and why?
• Because the evidence from mantle
xenoliths and ophiolite complexes
both indicate that the mantle is
made from olivine and pyroxene,
scientists are confident that is the
mantle’s composition
3) Seismic Velocities
• Seismic waves travel at different
velocities through different materials
• Scientists can therefore test the
theory that the mantle is made from
olivine and pyroxene in lab
experiments.
9. 4. An analogy to meteorites
• The sun and the planets of our solar
system are believed to have formed at
the same time (4.55 Billion years ago)
from the same material.
• The planets closest to the sun
(Mercury, Venus, and Mars) resemble
the Earth.
• Those farther away (Jupiter, Saturn
etc.) are mostly big spheres of frozen
gases.
• The asteroid belt is a zone between
Jupiter and Mars.
• It contains rock debris believed to be
formed when Earth-like planets
collided with each other.
• Many meteorites originate in the
asteroid belt and provide a clue to the
Earth’s interior.
10. • Many meteorites are basaltic, like the
Earth’s oceanic crust.
• Many meteorites are made from
olivine and pyroxene, consistent with
the previously discussed evidence for
the composition of the mantle.
C. The chemical composition of the core
• No known geologic process has brought a
sample of the core form its location at the
Earth’s center to the surface (unlike for
the mantle).
• Our knowledge of the core is all from
monitoring its effects
1) Gravity as a Clue to the Core’s
Composition
Gravity is the natural force of attraction
that exists between all matter.
• The more mass something has, the
greater its force of attraction it has.
• A large object has more mass than a
smaller object made of the same
material, so it exerts a greater force
11. of gravity.
• The Earth, because it is so big, is the
main force of gravity in our
environment. (That’s why things
fall towards the ground.)
• But objects of the same size can also
differ in their gravitational pull.
• For example, gold is denser (i.e., has
more mass for its size) than
Styrofoam, so it exhibits a greater
force of gravity than does a piece of
Styrofoam the same size.
The Earth’s gravity:
• The Earth’s force of gravity can be
measured, providing a clue to its
interior.
• That measurement allows us to
calculate the overall mass of the
Earth. (You can loosely think of the
mass of the Earth as its weight.)
12. • I’ll leave the details of that
calculation to a course in physics.
How to determine the core’s mass:
• The total mass of the earth is the
sum of the mass of its crust, mantle
and core.
Earth’s total mass = mass of
the crust + mass of the mantle
+ mass of the core.
• Based on the evidence that I described
previously, scientists already know
three terms of the equation, shown in
red.
• Knowing three of the four terms
allows us to calculate the only
unknown, the mass of the core (in
black).
• The mass of the core is an important
clue to what the core is made from
because we also know the size of the
core (based on seismic reflections).
• Dividing the mass of the core that we
13. just calculated by the volume of the
core gives us the core’s density
(mass/volume = density).
• The density of a substance is an
inherent property. For example, a
block of Styrofoam weighs less than a
block of gold the same size (i.e., gold
has a greater density than Styrofoam).
• The density of the core as calculated
by the method above is more like that
of metals, rather than the rocks that
make up the mantle and the core.
But which metal is it? How would
you narrow your search?
• Using your (correct) reasoning
method, scientists believe that the
core is made from iron with a little
nickel mixed
2) Magnetism as a Clue to the Core’s
Composition
• Magnetism is an attractive force of
nature that exists between some
objects (e.g., a magnet and your steel
refrigerator).
14. • Magnetism can also be created by
electrical currents.
• The Earth has a magnetic force field
that surrounds it. That’s why compass
needles point to the North Pole.
• But the Earth’s magnetic field cannot
be due to magnetic material buried in
its interior.
• Electrical currents must be responsible
for the Earth’s magnetic field.
• But the rock in the crust and mantle
conduct electricity poorly.
• The core must be made of an electrical
conductor or else the Earth would not
have a magnetic field.
• That is consistent with the evidence
for the core’s composition based on
measuring its gravity.
15. II. Physical Zones of the Earth
• The Earth is not only divided into chemical
zones (i.e., the crust, mantle and core, which
have different chemical compositions from
each other).
• It also has zones within it that differ in their
physical state (i.e., physical zones).
• The chemical and physical zones are
superimposed on each other.
• The following diagram illustrates the chemical
zones on the left half and the physical zones
on the right half.
Physical zones in the core:
• The inner core (dark green) is solid iron.
• The outer core (lighter green) is liquid (i.e.,
melted) iron.
Physical zones in the crust and mantle:
16. The lithosphere: It’s made of the entire crust
fused to a small portion of the upper
mantle; extends to a depth of about 100
miles; and is rigid and brittle.
The asthenosphere: It extends from the
bottom of the lithosphere (at 100 miles
deep) to a depth of about 250 miles; made
entirely from semi-solid mantle material;
and can bend and flow.
The solid lower mantle (or mesosphere): It
extends from a depth of 250 miles to
1,800 miles deep (i.e., making it far
thicker than the asthenosphere), and is a
rigid and brittle solid.
.
How do scientists know that these physical
zones exist?
• The short answer is evidence from seismic
waves.
• Detecting the zones in the core:
P-waves arrive at the opposite side of the
Earth, S-waves do not.
P-waves energy reflects off of the
17. boundary between the outer liquid core
and the inner solid core.
Detecting the zones in the crust and mantle:
Both P-waves and S-waves move more
slowly through the asthenosphere.
1
Continental Drift
Introduction
• Continental drift, a theory postulating that
continents move across the surface of the globe the
same way boats drift through water.
• Alfred Wegner was the first to systematically
develop comprehensive evidence to support the
theory (in 1912 – 1929).
• Here’s his original figure showing his
reconstruction of drifting
18. • His story has many facets, including those that
interest psychologists, sociologists, historians etc.
2
Alfred Wegener’s evidence for continental drift
1) The jigsaw puzzle fit of the continents
3
2) The alignment of mountain belts
3) Climate anomalies
For example:
• Coal beds in Arctic islands
• Evidence of past continental glaciation in
Africa and South America
• Evaporites in temperate regions
4
19. 4) The alignment of climate zones
5) Evidence from glacial striations
• When glaciers slide downhill over land they
leave striations in the rock caused by pebbles
in the glacier that scratch the rock.
5
• Striations indicate the direction of the glacier’s
movement.
• The arrows on the map show the direction that
the glacier moved over land.
Why is the direction of glacial movement
in South America hard to explain if it
were always located where it is today?
How does a belief in continental drift
solve that problem?
20. 6
6) Fossil evidence
• Fossils are remnants of preexisting life
• Fossils of a freshwater dinosaur in Africa
looked identical to freshwater dinosaur fossils
in Africa.
• This helped support Wegener’s case.
Time for a Survey
Were you convinced by Alfred Wegener’s
evidence?
If so, imagine yourself in Wegener’s place
when you read the following views of him
and his theory by some prominent
scientists of his time:
• A paleontologist named E. W. Berry savaged the
continental drift theory as “a selective search . . .
ending in a state of auto-intoxication in which the
subjective idea becomes an objective fact,” a
critique that accused Wegener of indulging in both
onanism and mystification.
• The American geologist Bailey Willis called
continental drift a “fairy tale” that “encumbers the
literature and befogs the mind of fellow students.”
21. 7
• Philip Lake, a British geologist, accused Wegener
of “not seeking truth . . . blind to every fact and
argument that tells against it.”
• Rollin Chamberlin of the University of Chicago
questioned whether one could take Wegener
seriously and still call oneself a scientist. “If we
are to believe Wegener's hypothesis,” he averred,
“we must forget everything which has been
learned in the last seventy years and start all over
again.”
But let’s pretend you were a scientist in the US in
the period 1912 to 1955 and you merely stated that
Wegener’s ideas had some value. Here’s how one
author described how the scientific community in
the US would treat you:
“In the U.S. the reaction was particularly
strong; for an American geologist to express
sympathy for the idea of continental drift was
for him to risk his career”
(Alfred Wegener and the Hypothesis of Continental Drift
Author(s): by A. Hallam, Scientific American , Vol. 232,
22. 1975, pp. 88-97).
8
So, if the evidence that I presented above convinced
you that Wegener was correct, and you were living
in his time, you would have been
a) viewed as delusional and
b) had a hard time achieving a successful
career in science.
The broader context of Wegener’s story
• Many lessons can be learned from the story of how
Wegener developed his theory, how the scientific
community viewed it, and how Wegener was
treated.
• To be sure, Wegener’s critics were right about
some things: Wegener was wrong on major points
(e.g., how continents drifted).
• But the manner in which Wegener and his theory
were treated reveals a lot, not only about how the
23. scientific world operates, but also about human
nature in general.
9
Here are key points that you’ll find in accounts of
Wegener’s story:
• Some scientists were blinded by the prestige of
Wegener’s critics. Many people accepted
arguments from leaders in the field based more on
their reputations as leaders than on the evidence.
• The prestigious critics themselves were blinded by
their own reputations. They were so enamored of
their own theories, they failed to consider
reasonable alternatives.
• There was an element of mob action in this. People
were flocking to the side of prestigious critics. Who
wants to be left behind as an outsider? Or who
wants their careers threatened?
• And as many mobs typically do, this mob resorted
to name-calling. That behavior scares people from
freely expressing themselves and impedes progress
in understanding any issue.
24. • Wegener’s ideas were dismissed partly because he
was viewed as an outsider. He was a generalist
trained in meteorology. People with expertise in
other fields, like geology, didn’t welcome the ideas
10
of someone they regarded as an untrained outsider.
So those ideas did not get a fair hearing.
Wegener’s experience is echoed in today’s world.
• For example, the link below describes an example
of a scientist (Roger Pielke Jr.) who was subjected
to a campaign against him by politicians,
journalists and academics.
https://www.dropbox.com/s/u8bq7cwz2vi27mn/My
%20Unhappy%20Life%20as%20a%20Climate%20H
eretic%20-%20WSJ.pdf?dl=0
• Although he believes “climate change is real and
that human emissions of greenhouse gases risk
justifying action,” he was called a climate denier.
• Why? Because he questioned the conclusion of
research studies linking global warming to
hurricane activity.
25. • The charge against him – climate denier – is as
powerful a weapon today as being labeled a drift-
believer was in Wegener’s day. Both charges could
ruin careers.
11
Take-away lessons for you from Wegener’s story
• Cede to the authority of evidence and logic. Don’t
believe someone just because they hold an
important or powerful position.
• Check your own assumptions frequently: maybe
your ideas don’t hold up to scrutiny.
• Avoid group-think: it’s easy to go along with the
crowd. But sometimes they’re wrong and a feeling
of wanting to belong trumps your own sound
thinking.
• Be open to others’ views, even if you strongly
object to them. We can learn much from the free
exchange of ideas. Rather than blocking speakers
from presenting their thoughts, or shouting them
down, hear them out. Maybe they have something
useful to say. And if you think not, present a more
26. persuasive counter-argument.
• Be tolerant: name-calling drives away people who
might have good ideas.
12
Evidence found in the 1950s and 1960s bolsters
the theory of drift
1) Paleomagnetism (meaning old magnetism)
• The Earth has a magnetic field that is generated
by electrical currents in its core.
• North and South Pole should always be
approximately lined up with the Earth’s spinning
axis.
• Certain rocks (e.g., igneous rock), get slightly
magnetized in the direction of the poles when
they form. This provides a record of the Earth’s
magnetism over time.
27. • Paleomagnetic evidence gathered in the 1950s
seem to show:
a) The poles moved to different latitudes over
time. (This is called apparent polar
wandering.)
b) There were two North and South Poles
13
• But the way the magnetic field is created means
that neither of these things is possible.
• The theory of continental drift solves that
mystery.
2) Radiometric age dating
• Radiometric dating techniques were developed
for practical use in the late 1950s and early
1960s.
28. • A 1967 study using these techniques helped
confirm the continental drift theory.
14
1
Plate Tectonics
Introduction
• Wegener was wrong about the mechanism for
continental drift
• Clues from the ocean floor (from the 1940s
through 1960s) eventually led to the discovery of
the mechanism (plate tectonics).
• Over about 5 years, the scientific community
moved from ridiculing Wegener, to recognizing
his theory as correct.
29. Clues from the ocean floor
1) High heat flow at ocean ridges
2
2) Age and distribution of ocean sediment
The Evidence
3
3. Magnetic stripes on the ocean floor
• The Earth’s magnetic field periodically reverses
polarity.
• The field weakens over hundreds or thousands of
years and then rebuilds strength.
30. • Sometimes the field is rebuilt with the polarity
reversed compared to today’s status.
• If so, a compass needle would then point to the
South Pole, rather than the North Pole.
4
• Today’s orientation is called normal
magnetization. The opposite orientation is called
reverse magnetization.
• The magnetization of the rock that makes up the
ocean floor provides as a valuable clue to the
mechanism of plate tectonics.
*****************************************************
*******************************
The Evidence
31. 5
The three pieces of ocean floor evidence that I
described above (heat flow, sediment distribution,
and magnetic stripes) proved key in helping
scientists not only to understand how continents
drifted, but also how many other large-scale
features of the Earth were created.
That overarching theory, which I detail below, is
called ‘plate tectonics.”
Convection: the mechanism behind continental
drift
• In the 1960s, a number of scientists, using evidence
from the ocean floor, finally developed a plausible
theory of how continents drifted.
• That theory, called plate tectonics, also explained
many other features of the Earth.
• The driving force for continental drift the other
features is convection in the mantle.
Convection is the movement of heat that is due to the
movement of material.
• Hot air rising is an example of convection. The hot
air (because it is less dense than cold air) will rise
and carry the heat it contains with it.
32. 6
• This type of heat transfer typically creates
circulation (motion) in liquids and gases (e.g., in a
heated pot of soup.
• Winds are another example of convection.
7
A demonstration of convection, and defining a
convection cell
• Here is a video that shows convection in action:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b0Na_1xyodI
• It shows a reservoir filled with cooking oil
containing sprigs of the spice thyme (in order to
make circulation patterns in the oil more visible).
• Below is a still photo from the video that shows
you the circulation pattern that develops.
• The geometric pattern shown above by the arrows
33. outlines how the convecting fluid is moving. That
movement forms a geometric pattern called a
convection cell.
8
Convection in the asthenosphere: the driving force
• If you recall from the lesson about the Earth’s
interior, the asthenosphere is the physical zone
immediately below the lithosphere.
• A series of convection cells operating in the
asthenosphere move plates of lithosphere around
the surface, as shown in this generalized diagram.
• This is analogous to how simmering soup moves
pepper flakes around on its surface.
9
How plate tectonics explains features at the
Earth’s surface
34. Convection cells operating in the asthenosphere
explain many of the features of the Earth’s surface, as
the following examples demonstrate.
I. Features that occur as the result of convection
under continental lithosphere
Overview of convection under continental crust
10
Detailed view of convection under continental crust
• The features that develop
1) Normal faults
2) A rift valley
3) Volcanoes
35. 4) Earthquakes
In short, the theory of plate tectonics explains how
rift zones form and why they are associated with
normal faults, volcanoes, and earthquakes.
11
II. Continents drifting apart and an ocean floor
forming between them
A. The process
12
B. An Example
13
36. 14
III. Features that occur as the result of convection
under ocean lithosphere
15
• The features that occur include those that helped
scientists recognize convection was the driving
force for moving plates of lithosphere.
1) High heat flow at ocean ridges
The evidence
The explanation
16
37. 2) Age and distribution of ocean sediment
The evidence
The explanation
17
3) Magnetic stripes on the ocean floor
The evidence
The explanation
This video demonstrates the process:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YIAXiE8RedA
(The box in the lower left of the screen shows you the
change in the Earth’s polarity. The bands that form at
the ridge axis (above the rising melted rock, in red)
38. reflect the polarity at the time of their formation.)
18
IV. Features that occur at ocean trenches
• Recall from the earthquake discussion that
trenches are long narrow valleys on the ocean floor.
• Some parallel continental coastlines. Some parallel
island arcs (an arc-shaped chain of islands)
• Sea floor created at the trenches is pushed back
into the mantle at trenches
19
1) Features of “ocean-continent” trenches:
The Cascade Mountains are an example
39. 20
2) Features of “ocean-ocean” trenches:
In the case of the Lesser Antilles, these features form
because the Atlantic Ocean seafloor is being pushed
under the Caribbean seafloor.
21
V. How continents drift
• Although Wegener was right in his belief that
continents drifted, his model for how they drifted
was not plausible.
• The plate tectonic model, in contrast, provides a
plausible explanation for how continents drift.
40. 1
The Effect of Geologic Processes on Biologic
Evolution
Introduction
• Many geologic processes affect large regions of the
Earth.
• Some of these processes have affected the biologic
evolution of animal and plant species …
• …and can do so in the future.
Biologic evolution: the change in inherited traits in
animal and plant species that occurs over the course
of many generations.
Here’s how it works
• Physical characteristics vary among members of
any species, including humans.
• Note, for example, the range in adult heights,
hair curliness, skin color etc.
41. 2
• To demonstrate such variations, I’ll use a
“histogram”, a plot that shows how many data
points fall within each category across a range.
• This histogram shows the number of adults at
each height for both men and women:
• Notice the distribution pattern for both men and
women: there are many height values clustered
centrally, forming a peak.
• The center of the peak in each case represents the
average height.
• The curves taper off to the sides because the
farther a measured height is from average, the
less likely it is to occur.
• This pattern is called a “normal distribution” or
“normal curve” or “bell curve.”
3
42. • The normal curve for physical traits develops as
a result of random genetic mutations.
• Physical characteristics are largely encoded in
our genes and therefore can be passed down
from parents to children.
• For example, two tall parents are likely to have
tall children.
• But mutations in genes caused by damage to the
genes (by cosmic rays, chemicals etc.) or
copying errors during reproduction can cause
children to have different physical traits from the
parents.
• For example, two very tall parents could have a
short child.
• Even if all adults in the human race started out
with the same height (i.e., they are clones of each
other), random genetic mutations would result in
a normal distribution.
4
43. • This same process would also occur for every
human genetic trait (height, skin color, hair
curliness etc.).
This is the random element of evolution: the range
of traits that species exhibit is the result of random
changes in their genetic cells caused by cosmic rays,
chemicals, copying errors etc.).
5
Natural selection can cause systematic changes in
the traits of a population.
• Random genetic changes provide a variety of
characteristics within a species.
• The environment influences the characteristics of
species in a non-random way.
• Some characteristics help individuals of the
species survive longer and, therefore, reproduce
more: that shifts the gene pool over the course of
generations.
44. • As time goes by, these changes can be so large
that after many generations the animals or plants
that develop are so different from their ancestors
that they have become different species (i.e.,
they no longer look alike and can no longer
breed together).
• In other words, random genetic mutations
interacting with environmental pressures result
in the evolution of species.
6
The histogram below illustrates how a gene pool
shifts in response to some aspect of the environment.
Examples of processes that affect biologic
evolution
I. Continents drifting to different climate zones
• As continents drift across the globe, some
move from warmer to colder climates and
vice versa.
• Below is a sequence showing the movement
of continents over the last 139 million years.
45. 7
Note the movement of India (dark green) and
Antarctica (in orange).
8
• The changes in climate cause by continents
drifting to different climates zones can cause
1) Evolutionary changes in animals and
plants. Remember this from above?:
2) Extinction, for example, for Antarctica:
9
II. Continents colliding and separating
• Evolutionary changes can result from the
46. collisions and separations of continents even
without any change in climate.
• To see how that happens it is useful to
understand the relationship between the size of
an area and the number of species that can exist
in that area.
• The species-area relationship (SAR) states that
the number of species that live in an area
increases in a systematic way as the area
increases.
10
A. Continental collisions: decrease worldwide
species diversity. Here is a simplified example to
explain why that happens.
1. Before the collision:
47. 11
2. Immediately after the two continents collide:
12
3. The stable situation after the collision:
• The effect of continental collisions on diversity
can be illustrated by the example of the North
and South America connection that occurred
about 2.7 million years ago.
13
B. Continental separations: worldwide diversity
48. increases. Here is a simplified example to explain
why that happens.
1. Before the separation:
14
2. Immediately after separation:
15
3. The stable situation after separation:
49. 16
III. The mystery at Gubbio, Italy
A discovery made in Gubbio, Italy, in 1977
eventually revealed how a geologic process that
occurred 66 million years ago had a major impact
on the course of biologic evolution.
• Geologic time is divided into named periods
characterized by different fossil assemblages
• The boundary between two of these periods,
the Cretaceous and the Tertiary, divides
periods with very different life forms.
• This so-called K-T boundary marks a mass
extinction event at 66 million years ago.
17
• In 1980, Luis and Walter Alvarez (a father and son
50. team) were investigation rocks that spanned that
boundary in Gubbio, Italy.
A close-up:
18
• The transition in life forms was abrupt and sharp.
19
• The Alvarez team measured the chemical iridium
(in the hope of finding out how long the clay layer
took to accumulate).
• Instead of accomplishing that, to their surprise,
they discovered an iridium anomaly.
• The Alvarez team looked at K-T sites elsewhere in
the world and found the same iridium anomaly.
51. • They proposed a theory for the worldwide
extinctions and the iridium spike: a meteorite
impact.
20
• The scientific community was skeptical.
• Gradualism was a prevailing theory, there was not
crater large enough, etc.
• But over a decade evidence accumulated:
1) Osmium isotopes (1983)
2) Tsunami deposits the right age
3) Tektites the right age
4) Shocked quartz deposits
5) And in 1991, the smoking gun: a crater large
enough and the right age near Chicxulub,
Mexico. (93 miles wide, 12 miles deep).
52. 21
• This case reflects how resistant the scientific
community can be to new theories (as it was with
Wegener).
• It also provides these lessons.
o Science can test hypotheses about events that
happened long ago.
o Scientific ideas are tested with multiple lines of
evidence.
o Science relies on communication within a
diverse scientific community.
o The process of science is non-linear,
unpredictable, and ongoing.
o Science often investigates problems that require
collaboration from those in many different
53. disciplines.
22
IV. Magnetic reversals
• As you learned in previous lessons, the Earth’s
magnetic field occasionally reverses itself.
• During reversals, the Earth is no longer
shielded from cosmic and solar radiation
(which include particles such as electrons and
protons).
• Some evidence suggests that this can affect the
course of biologic evolution
23
A. The extinction of some radiolaria species
54. • Radiolaria are a group of microscopic one-
celled species that float in the surface waters
of the oceans. They have hard shells (usually
made of silica).
• Evidence from deep-sea cores suggests that
the evolution of radiolaria may be affected
by magnetic reversals.
24
B. The extinction of large mammals
• Evidence suggests that this may have
affected the evolution of large mammal.
• A possible mechanism exists: UV exposure
55. 25
IV. Ice Ages
• The Earth experiences periods of colder
climate that allow for ice sheets (i.e., glaciers)
to expand.
• North America and Europe, experienced the
last one about 115,000 to 12,000 years ago.
• That Ice Age may have affected hominid
evolution.
• Neanderthals were a human-like species living
that existed from 400,000 years ago until
40,000 years ago in Europe.
26
• Neanderthals:
o made tools, clothing, and jewelry
o hunted and used fire created cave art
56. o buried their dead, sometimes with tools
• Modern humans:
o first evolved in Africa around 200,000
years ago;
o migrated to Europe around 45,000 years
ago;
o lived side by side with Neanderthals from
about 45,000 years ago until 40,000 years
ago, the date when Neanderthals went
extinct.
Why did the human species survive the glaciation
but Neanderthals did not?
That question is not settled, but the evidence suggests
a number of plausible explanations:
1) Cultural differences in a harsh environment
2) The harsh environment as the main cause
57. Rock Deformation
Introduction
• When rocks are subject to forces, they may
experience deformation (i.e., change their size or
shape).
• Under some circumstances the rock folds or
stretches. This is plastic deformation.
• Under other circumstances, the rock breaks. This is
brittle deformation.
Faults: an example of brittle deformation
• A fault is a fracture in rock along which the rocks
on either slide in opposite directions.
Types of faults
• Classified based on how the blocks of rock on
either side of the fault plane move relative to each
other.
58. • Different fault types are created when the forces
applied to the rock are different.
• Two common fault types are classified on the basis
of the relative movement of footwalls and hanging
walls
I. Normal Faults
• The hanging wall moves down relative to
the footwall.
• They are caused by tension (i.e., forces that
pull the rock in opposite directions).
Normal faults as evidence of processes:
• The existence of normal faults in a location
reveals that the rocks there have been pulled
apart.
• The 3700-mile long East African Rift Zone
(The Great Rift Valley) is an example.
59. • It is a series of connected valleys located in
the eastern part of Africa. They extend for
about 3,700.
• Its location is shown on this map:
• It’s so large feature that it can be seen from
space:
• The valley is formed by a series of normal
faults in which blocks of rock have moved
downward to form the valley, as illustrated
here:
• Here’s a photo of the valley taken in
Ethiopia:
60. • Because normal faults require tensional
forces this major feature must have been
created by extremely large tensional forces
pulling apart Africa:
• Scientists did not know what those forces
were for a long time.
• Luckily, you’ll just have to wait for a few
more lectures before I explain them to you.
II. Reverse Faults
• The hanging wall moves up relative to the
footwall.
• They are caused by compression (i.e., forces
that squeeze rock.
Here’s a photo of a reverse fault:
61. Reverse faults as evidence of processes:
• The existence of reverse faults in a location
reveals that the rocks there have been
squeezed.
• The Appalachian Mountains on North
America’s east coast are just one of many
examples.
• Reverse faults throughout the Appalachian
Mountains provide one line of evidence to
suggest that the mountain range formed by
enormous compressional forces.
III. Strike-Slips Faults
• Unlike normal and reverse faults, the fault
plane in a strike-slip fault is vertical (i.e.,
perpendicular to the surface).
• That means that there is no footwall and
hanging wall.
62. • Blocks of rock on the opposite sides of a
strike-slip fault do not move up or down.
Rather, they slide sideways along the
vertical fault plane:
• A strike-slip fault provides evidence of the
nature of the forces that created it, but a
discussion of that is beyond the scope of this
course.
• I have described this type of fault for one
reason. The only specific fault that a person
is likely to be able to name is the San
Andreas Fault in California and it is a 750-
mile long strike slip-fault.
• And here’s an aerial photo of the San
Andreas Fault. As you can see, its location is
clearly visible as a long straight valley at the
Earth’s surface.
63. Folds: an example of ductile deformation
• Under some conditions, rocks will bend rather than
break when compressional (squeezing) forces are
applied to them.
• This can result in originally horizontal layers of
rock (e.g., sedimentary rock) forming a wave like
pattern
• The arches (upward folds) are called anticlines
and the troughs (downward folds) are called
synclines.
• Here’s a photo of folded rock. These rocks were
originally horizontal, but were folded as the
result of being squeezed.
What factors determine whether a rock undergoes
faulting or folding?
1) Temperature
64. 2) Pressure
3) The rate at which the force is applied
• Rocks near the surface tend towards faulting,
unless the force is applied relatively slowly
• Rocks at depth tend to bend (or stretch, or flow)
1
Volcanoes
Introduction
A volcano is a mountain formed by the accumulation
of solidified lava and rock fragments around an
opening (vent) in the ground.
• Mount Fuji in Japan is an example:
• Volcanoes typically have craters at their
summits, for example, Mount Fuji’s:
65. 2
Why are parts of the Earth’s interior melted?
• The Earth gets hotter with depth.
• There are two sources of the Earth’s heat:
1) radioactive elements
2) heat remaining from the Earth’s formation
• The Earth’s pressure also increases with depth.
• The pressure increase tends to keep materials
solid
• The rock at some locations inside the Earth melt
because they are at the right combination of
pressure and temperature.
• Volcanoes are created when melted rock inside
the Earth rises towards the Earth’s surface and
escapes through vents.
Materials associated with Volcanoes
• Lava: melted rock forms at certain depths in the
Earth and rises to escape through vents as lava.
66. 3
• Gases: melted rock at depth (called magma)
contains gases dissolved in it that can escape
when the lava surfaces.
• Pyroclastic material: rock fragments of various
sizes that sometimes form during eruptions.
Volcanic ash, tiny rock particles, is an example
of a pyroclastic material.
Here’s an example of an ash cloud (in gray)
rising above an erupting volcano in Bali,
Indonesia:
4
Geographic distribution of volcanoes
• Volcanoes are found concentrated in certain
geographic areas (with some exceptions) as shown
below.
• The volcanic zones are largely the same as the
earthquake zones
67. Why? Later lectures will reveal that.
5
Types of volcanoes
Two main types of volcanoes exist:
I. Shield Volcanoes
• Broad, dome-shaped: The Hawaiian volcanoes
are examples.
Mauna Loa:
Notice that there is snow at its peak, although it
is in a tropical climate. This shows that its peak
reaches a great height.
6
• Produce lava and gases, but not very much
pyroclastic material:
• Do not tend to erupt explosively: In other
words, NOT THIS:
68. Santorini:
7
Note that people live on Santorini
Erupt frequently: One Hawaiian volcano has
been erupting continuously every few months
since 1983.
Have very low viscosity lava: It is so fluid that
it is common for shield lava to flow at 20 miles
per hour and can even get up to 60 miles per
hour (although rarely)
8
II. Composite Volcanoes
• Cone-shaped: Mount Vesuvius and Aetna in
Italy are examples. So are Mount Fuji in Japan,
and Mount Rainier near Seattle, Washington.
69. Mount Rainier:
• Produce lava, gases, and pyroclastic materials
(like volcanic ash): for example, of an erupting
composite volcano near Mexico City.
9
• Tend to erupt explosively: remember Santorini,
which erupted explosively in 1470 BCE:
Do not erupt frequently: there may be 100s or
1000s of years between eruptions.
Have very high viscosity lava: it may move as
little as inches or feet per hour
10
The reason why shield and composite volcanoes
70. have different characteristics
• The difference in lava viscosity between
shield and composite volcanoes accounts for
the differences in their:
1) Shape
2) Explosiveness
3) Production of pyroclastic material
4) Frequency of eruption
The reason why shield volcanoes have less
viscous lava than composite volcanoes
• They originate in different places and have
different chemical compositions.
• Shield volcano lava originates in the mantle.
• Composite volcano lava is created when
some of the crust is melted.
11
Volcanic hazards
71. • Volcanoes can harm people and property in a
variety of ways.
• But these dangers (or hazards) can often be
minimized by a variety of methods.
I. Lava flows
A. Damage caused
• Destroys structures.
For example, setting fire to wooden houses:
12
Or knocking down houses (as in Italy in 1944):
13
Or burying houses (as in Iceland, 1973):
• Less direct lava damage, for example:
72. 1) To harbors, as in Iceland 1973
14
2) To farmland:
B. Ways to mitigate damage from lava:
• Avoid valleys – despite all the advantages of
valleys
• Divert the lava
Such as this case in Italy:
15
• Freeze the lava
Here’s an example of that method in the
1973 Iceland eruption. (That wall of
advancing lava is 90-feet high.)
73. 16
II. Volcanic ash: damage caused and ways to
mitigate it
Ash falls: ash in rising plumes that eventually
settles to the ground gently (like
falling snow).
• A health hazard
17
• Structural damage
• The Jakarta Incident – would a plane
avoid crashing into volcanic mountains
The story of British Airways Flight 9 on
route from Malaysia to Australia in June
1982 is instructive.
74. 18
Imagine being aboard a commercial jet
and hearing this: “Ladies and gentlemen,
this is your captain speaking. We have a
small problem. All four engines have
stopped. We are doing our damnedest to
get them going again. I trust you are not in
too much distress.”
Car engines can be also be subject to
mechanical failure, as with jet engines.
• A global problem
In 1815, Tambora, a volcano in
Indonesia, erupted killed 10,000 people
near the volcano, and 80,000 people in
Europe and North America (10,000
miles away).
How?
19
Ash explosions
75. 20
For example, the ash explosion in
Martinique in 1902.
The pyroclastic flow travelled down the
mountain at about 100 miles per hour and at
about 800-degree Fahrenheit.
It killed all but a few of the 30,000 people in
the nearby town by scalding them to death.
Here are before and after views of a street in
that town:
Other than evacuating the area when
eruptions are expected, there is little that can
be done to mitigate this hazard. There are no
good defenses against a red-hot cloud of ash
and gas travelling at you at 100 miles an
hour or more.
21
III. Damage from volcanic gases
• Mostly water vapor and carbon dioxide
• But some gases are toxic, and some also
caustic.
76. • Even a non-toxic, non-caustic gas can be
deadly.
• A 1986 incident near Lake Nyos, in
Cameroon, Africa illustrates the danger.
22
• Mitigation includes
1) Warning systems
2) protective equipment
3) pressure release
IV. Volcanic mudflows (lahars)
• Rapid downslope movement of muddy water
made up of pyroclastic material and water.
• Composite volcanoes have all the right
conditions to create mudflows.
23
77. • In 1985, a small volcanic eruption of a volcano
in Colombia melted part of its snowcap. That
created a mudflow that that killed about
20,000 people.
• Mitigation includes
1) Zoning laws
2) Warning systems
3) Sediment traps
24
Predicting volcanic eruptions
• Unlike with earthquakes, volcanic eruptions can
be predicted very well.
• The prediction timescale allows for mitigation.
Advantages of living near a volcano
• Agriculture
• Geothermal energy