This presentation discusses inequity with reference to the sustainable development goals. Case studies of girls' early childhood development (ECD) experience from Peru are discussed. The presentation outlines a number of recommendations for what works for girls' ECD.

1. Early Childhood Development
and Girls
Reading Pack
Dr Jo Ailwood
The University of Newcastle, Australia

2. Defining Early Childhood Development
• Early childhood development spans from
conception through to 8 years old.
• It is inter-sectorial, including
– Early learning & education
– nutrition
– WASH
– Health
– Social protection & community

3. The SDGs and ECD
SDG 4 aims to ‘ensure inclusive and quality
education for all and promote lifelong learning’
A key target within SDG4 is ensuring ‘that all
girls and boys have access to quality early
childhood development, care and preprimary
education so that they are ready for primary
education.’ (UN, 2015)

4. ECD, girls & inequity
• Girls and boys are born into different cultural,
social and physical worlds.
• It is often the intersection of multiple issues
that creates inequitable life experiences for
girls. For example, growing up in a low-income
country + being a girl + being the eldest sibling
can equate to a significant level of inequity for
a girls’ life experiences and chances.

5. ECD, girls & inequity
• As ECD is inter-sectorial and the cause of
inequities for girls are intersectional, to
understand girls’ experiences a holistic
approach is required.

6. ECD, girls & inequity
• In the Asia-Pacific region ‘boy preference results
in more under-five deaths of girls due to poor
care, aborting the female feotus and killing new
born girls’ (UNESCO, 2007). UNGEI (2010) report
on the ‘missing girl’ phenomenon across Asian
countries where son preference is strong.
• In Nepal, gender discrimination means that girls
are more likely to be fed less, receive less heath
care and have fewer chances to play (Save the
Children, 2003)

7. ECD, girls & inequity
• Nutritional deficits in the critical early years of
development have long term effects on girls life
chances and can translate to poor health during
child bearing age, contributing to low birth
weight in the next generation. (Yousafzai et al,
2013).
• However, Behrman & colleagues (2009) found
that nutritional supplements for girls under 7
years had positive long-term and
intergenerational effects.

8. ECD, girls & inequity
• The links between health and education are
illustrated in India, where ‘a preschool health
programme in Delhi increased average school
participation by 7.7% for girls and 3.2% for
boys’ (Prpich, Zimanyi & Curtis, 2007)

9. ECD, girls & inequity
• Socially & culturally, at home and at school,
adults tend to respond differently to girls and to
boys (Bosch, 2001; UNGEI, 2010).
• For example, lower expectations of girls can
translate to fewer girls being enrolled in ECD
programmes or at primary school, especially in
rural areas.
• For example, UNGEI (2010) report that boy
preference in rural China seems to reduce girls’
access to experiences which support school
readiness.

10. ECD, girls & inequity
• However, there is international evidence that
girls who transition into primary schooling
from pre-school or other early childhood
educational context are more likely to begin
school at the usual school starting age (about
6 years) and are more likely to continue and
be successful. (UNEGI, 2010; Arnold et al,
2007; Ames, Rojas & Portugal, 2010)

11. Case studies from Peru
(Ames Rojas & Portugal, 2010)
• Carmen lives in rural Peru. For Carmen, the
major barrier is access to an ECD site due to
her geographical location. Her parents are
unwilling to allow their young daughter to
walk unaccompanied along a major road to
and from the closest pre-school.

12. Case studies from Peru
(Ames Rojas & Portugal, 2010)
• Cecilia is growing up in an urban context in
Peru. While there is a pre-school close by, for
Cecilia the barrier to her participation is cost.
As the youngest sibling, Cecilia’s parents
struggle to find the money to pay for school
fees, uniforms, books and other school
necessities.

13. Case studies from Peru
(Ames Rojas & Portugal, 2010)
• In the cases of both Carmen and Cecilia, the
level of physical punishment witnessed and/or
received had a negative impact on their early
schooling experiences and wellbeing.

14. What works for girls’ ECD
• As has been pointed out, ECD is complex.
• Mitigating the inequities experienced by girls’
in ECD requires intervention on a number of
levels.

15. What works for girls’ ECD:
1. Families and communities
• Adult expectations and behaviours are key to
ECD experiences.
• Research from Nepal, Peru, Malawi and across
Asia illustrates the importance of supportive
communities.
1. First and foremost, families and communities
need clear, timely and relevant information
on the importance and value of ECD for girls.

16. What works for girls’ ECD:
2. Accessible and Affordable
• Having ECD programmes in place is only
effective if girls can access them, this is
especially so in rural and/or isolated locations.
2. Provision needs to be accessible and
affordable.

17. What works for girls’ ECD:
3. Training & support for staff
• Once a girl reaches an ECD site, they should
have consistent interactions with qualified
staff who have been trained in gender
sensitivity.
• Relationships between adults and children are
fundamental to the range of ECD provision,
3. The ongoing training and professional support
of ECD staff from all sectors is a vital component
of the ECD picture.

18. Gender Sensitivity
• Gender sensitivity requires engagement with
expectations for both girls and boys.
• Provision that is of value for girls is highly
likely to be of value for many boys too,
especially those also marginalied (e.g. Dalit
boys in the Nepal study, Save the Children
2003).

19. Conclusion
• If the effects of gendered expectations and
practices are to be ameliorated, then it is
necessary for men and women to work
together as families, communities and
educators. With this wide community support
early childhood development experiences for
all children can be positive, healthy and safe.

20. Suggested Readings
Ames, P., Rojas, V., & Portugal, T. (2010). Continuity and respect for
diversity: Strengthening early transitions in Peru. Working Paper
No.56, Studies in Early Childhood Transitions. The Hague, The
Netherlands: Bernard van Leer Foundation.
• http://www.bernardvanleer.org/Continuity-and-respect-for-
diversity-Strengthening-early-transitions-in-Peru
• Summary: This paper reports on findings from the Young Lives
research project. It explores the experiences of children
transitioning from pre-primary education to primary school
education in Peru. The researchers report on interviews with
children, parents, and teachers to provide a detailed account of the
wide variety of transition experiences. The case studies presented
illustrate the complexity and diversity of transition experiences
across Peru for young children and their families. The paper
concludes with recommendations for improving ECD in Peru.

21. Suggested Readings
Arnold, C. (2004). Positioning ECCD in the 21st Century. The
Coordinator’s Notebook: An International Resource for Early
Childhood Development. Consultative Group’s Annual
Consultation, Turkey, Istanbul.
• www.unicef.org/southafrica/SAF_resources_poseccd.pdf
• Summary: This paper makes a set of arguments for the
importance of ECD that are based around three key
themes: a) that ECD is central to children’s rights, b) that
ECD is a sound economic investment, and c) that ECD
provides solid foundations for children’s holistic
development. The paper refers to extensive evidence for
the benefits of ECD, provides useful case studies, and
explores some of the challenges the field continues to face.

22. Suggested Readings
Save the Children. (2003). What’s the Difference? An ECD
Impact Study From Nepal.
www.unicef.org/media/index_29686.html
• Summary: This paper reports on the impact of
participation in ECD for children in Nepal. The paper
reports that children who attended ECD showed
consistent gains in starting school, maintaining
attendance and engagement at school and success in
examinations. The paper reports that this success is
especially noticeable for girls and dalit children. The
paper also reports the gains made in educating parents
on the benefits of quality ECD and the parent’s growing
confidence in these benefits.

23. Suggested Reading
UNESCO (2007). Strong Foundations for Gender Equality
in Early Childhood Care and Education. Advocacy Brief.
UNESCO Bangkok.
• unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0016/001611/161195eo.p
df
• Summary: This advocacy brief explores the growing
need for quality ECD provision across Asia. The scale of
the need for ECD provision is illustrated by the fact that
in 2005, China had 84 million children between 0-4
years old, while India had 120 million. The paper goes
on to explore a range of issues regarding access and
quality in terms of gender.

24. Suggested Reading
UNGEI (2010). In Focus: Gender and Early Childhood Care
and Development. Newsletter Issue No. 6.
www.ungei.org/news/files/newsletter_2010.10_FINAL2.p
df
• Summary: This newsletter presents brief summaries of
several projects from across Asian and Pacific nations.
These projects include investigations of culture and
gender in ECD, school transitions, access to ECD, and
literacy. The newsletter also includes some useful
resources, including an excellent advocacy video freely
available via YouTube.

25. Questions for discussion
1. What are the various kinds of intersectionality in
girls’ lives? How can/do these combine to
produce a range of positive and/or negative ECD
experiences and outcomes for girls?
2. Consider the importance of adults, e.g. parents
and teachers, on girls’ ECD experiences. How
can the importance of high quality ECD life
experiences for girls’ become a valued part of all
who work with children in their earliest years?

26. Questions for discussion
3. What are some of the key barriers to
accessing high quality ECD experiences for girls
and how can they be overcome? For example,
geographical location is a significant barrier to
accessing educational settings for girls, how can
this barrier be overcome?

27. References
Ames, P., Rojas, V., & Portugal, T. (2010). Continuity and respect for diversity: Strengthening early transitions in Peru.
Working Paper No.56, Studies in Early Childhood Transitions. The Hague, The Netherlands: Bernard van Leer
Foundation.
Arnold, C., Bartlett, K., Gowani, S., & Merali, R. (2007). Is everybody ready? Readiness, transition and continuity:
Reflections and moving forward. Working Paper No. 41. The Hague, The Netherlands: Bernard van Leer Foundation.
Behrman, J. R., Calderon, M., Preston, S., Hoddinott, R., & Stein, A. (2009). Nutritional supplementation of girls
influences the growth of their children: Prospective study in Guatemala. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 90, 1372-
9.
Bosch, A. (2001). Uncovering pathways for girls’ education: Gender equity and early childhood development. The
Society for International Development, 44(2), 41-46.
Munthali, A., Mvula, P. & Silo, L. (2014). Early childhood development: The role of community based childcare centres
in Malawi. SpringerPlus, 3:305.
Prpich, L., Zimanyi, L., & Curtis, L. (Eds.). (2007). Coordinators’ Notebook, No. 29. Consultative Group on Early Childhood
Care and Development.
Save the Children. (2003). What’s the Difference? An ECD Impact Study From Nepal.
United Nations (2015). Sustainable Development Goals. http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/
UNESCO (2007). Strong Foundations for Gender Equality in Early Childhood Care and Education. Advocacy Brief. UNESCO
Bangkok.
UNGEI (2010). In Focus: Gender and Early Childhood Care and Development. Newsletter Issue No. 6.
Woodhead, M., Bolton, L., Featherstone, I., & Robertson, P. (2014). Early Childhood Development: Delivering inter-
sectoral policies, programmes and services in low-resource settings. Brighton: HEART/DFID.
Yousafzai, Y., Yakoob, M., & Bhutta, Z. (2013). Nutrition approaches to early childhood development. In P. Britto, P. Engle
& C. Super (Eds.) Handbook of Early Childhood Development Research and Its Impact on Global Policy. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.

28. About the author
Dr Joanne Ailwood is Senior Lecturer in Early Childhood Education at
the University of Newcastle, Australia. In her research she reflects
upon the nuances and complexities of early childhood education and
care. Aspects of this work are historical and political, engaging in policy
analysis and investigating broader historical, social and cultural
contexts of families, women's paid work, care and childhood. More
recent aspects of Jo's research are focused on the care and education
relationship between parents and early childhood educators, including
their understandings of their relationships not only with each other as
adults, but also their place in the lives of the child/ren they care for.
Currently, Jo is working on a research and teacher training project
involving a rural school in Zimbabwe, together with Dr Stephanie
Bengtsson. This work in Zimbabwe is centred on school community
development, and examines how local expertise and capacity can be
harnessed to overcome the many challenges facing the Zimbabwean
education system today.