THE POWER POINT PRESENTATION OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE EAR (SENSE OF HEARING) IS JUST TO EQUIP READERS WITH SOME BASIC UNDERSTANDING ON THE ORGAN.
HOW IT OPERATES AND CONNECTED TO THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM IN ORDER TO PERCEIVE SOUND AND AID IN BALANCE.
External ear,tympanic membrane and auditory tube Dr.N.Mugunthan.M.S.,mgmcri1234
External ear,tympanic membrane and auditory tube - Lecture by Dr.N.Mugunthan.M.S.,Associate Professor, Mahatma Gandhi Medical College & Research Institute, Pondicherry,
Sri Balaji Vidyapeeth University.
External ear,tympanic membrane and auditory tube Dr.N.Mugunthan.M.S.,mgmcri1234
External ear,tympanic membrane and auditory tube - Lecture by Dr.N.Mugunthan.M.S.,Associate Professor, Mahatma Gandhi Medical College & Research Institute, Pondicherry,
Sri Balaji Vidyapeeth University.
This presentation explains the working of the ear... It is best for medical students.. It includes all the key points necessary for an exam too... So this presentation can also be used as a notes for your exams...
This presentation explains the working of the ear... It is best for medical students.. It includes all the key points necessary for an exam too... So this presentation can also be used as a notes for your exams...
The surgical importance of the ear lies in addressing various conditions affecting hearing, balance, and overall ear health. Otolaryngologists (ear, nose, and throat specialists) often perform surgical procedures to treat a range of ear-related issues. Understanding the surgical importance of the ear is essential for otolaryngologists and surgeons specializing in ear, nose, and throat (ENT) procedures. These surgeries aim to treat various ear conditions, improve hearing, and enhance overall ear health.
Human ear, organ of hearing and equilibrium that detects and analyzes sound by transduction (or the conversion of sound waves into electrochemical impulses) and maintains the sense of balance (equilibrium).
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Alongside the 77th World Health Assembly in Geneva on 28 May 2024, we launched the second version of our Index, allowing us to track progress and give new insights into what needs to be done to keep populations healthier for longer.
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Dr Karin Tegmark Wisell, Director General, Public Health Agency of Sweden
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Growing Prevalence of Lifestyle Diseases
The rising incidence of lifestyle diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer is a major trend driving the clinical trials market in India. These conditions necessitate the development and testing of new treatment methods, creating a robust demand for clinical trials. The increasing burden of these diseases highlights the need for innovative therapies and underscores the importance of India as a key player in global clinical research.
Defecation
Normal defecation begins with movement in the left colon, moving stool toward the anus. When stool reaches the rectum, the distention causes relaxation of the internal sphincter and an awareness of the need to defecate. At the time of defecation, the external sphincter relaxes, and abdominal muscles contract, increasing intrarectal pressure and forcing the stool out
The Valsalva maneuver exerts pressure to expel faeces through a voluntary contraction of the abdominal muscles while maintaining forced expiration against a closed airway. Patients with cardiovascular disease, glaucoma, increased intracranial pressure, or a new surgical wound are at greater risk for cardiac dysrhythmias and elevated blood pressure with the Valsalva maneuver and need to avoid straining to pass the stool.
Normal defecation is painless, resulting in passage of soft, formed stool
CONSTIPATION
Constipation is a symptom, not a disease. Improper diet, reduced fluid intake, lack of exercise, and certain medications can cause constipation. For example, patients receiving opiates for pain after surgery often require a stool softener or laxative to prevent constipation. The signs of constipation include infrequent bowel movements (less than every 3 days), difficulty passing stools, excessive straining, inability to defecate at will, and hard feaces
IMPACTION
Fecal impaction results from unrelieved constipation. It is a collection of hardened feces wedged in the rectum that a person cannot expel. In cases of severe impaction the mass extends up into the sigmoid colon.
DIARRHEA
Diarrhea is an increase in the number of stools and the passage of liquid, unformed feces. It is associated with disorders affecting digestion, absorption, and secretion in the GI tract. Intestinal contents pass through the small and large intestine too quickly to allow for the usual absorption of fluid and nutrients. Irritation within the colon results in increased mucus secretion. As a result, feces become watery, and the patient is unable to control the urge to defecate. Normally an anal bag is safe and effective in long-term treatment of patients with fecal incontinence at home, in hospice, or in the hospital. Fecal incontinence is expensive and a potentially dangerous condition in terms of contamination and risk of skin ulceration
HEMORRHOIDS
Hemorrhoids are dilated, engorged veins in the lining of the rectum. They are either external or internal.
FLATULENCE
As gas accumulates in the lumen of the intestines, the bowel wall stretches and distends (flatulence). It is a common cause of abdominal fullness, pain, and cramping. Normally intestinal gas escapes through the mouth (belching) or the anus (passing of flatus)
FECAL INCONTINENCE
Fecal incontinence is the inability to control passage of feces and gas from the anus. Incontinence harms a patient’s body image
PREPARATION AND GIVING OF LAXATIVESACCORDING TO POTTER AND PERRY,
An enema is the instillation of a solution into the rectum and sig
Antibiotic Stewardship by Anushri Srivastava.pptxAnushriSrivastav
Stewardship is the act of taking good care of something.
Antimicrobial stewardship is a coordinated program that promotes the appropriate use of antimicrobials (including antibiotics), improves patient outcomes, reduces microbial resistance, and decreases the spread of infections caused by multidrug-resistant organisms.
WHO launched the Global Antimicrobial Resistance and Use Surveillance System (GLASS) in 2015 to fill knowledge gaps and inform strategies at all levels.
ACCORDING TO apic.org,
Antimicrobial stewardship is a coordinated program that promotes the appropriate use of antimicrobials (including antibiotics), improves patient outcomes, reduces microbial resistance, and decreases the spread of infections caused by multidrug-resistant organisms.
ACCORDING TO pewtrusts.org,
Antibiotic stewardship refers to efforts in doctors’ offices, hospitals, long term care facilities, and other health care settings to ensure that antibiotics are used only when necessary and appropriate
According to WHO,
Antimicrobial stewardship is a systematic approach to educate and support health care professionals to follow evidence-based guidelines for prescribing and administering antimicrobials
In 1996, John McGowan and Dale Gerding first applied the term antimicrobial stewardship, where they suggested a causal association between antimicrobial agent use and resistance. They also focused on the urgency of large-scale controlled trials of antimicrobial-use regulation employing sophisticated epidemiologic methods, molecular typing, and precise resistance mechanism analysis.
Antimicrobial Stewardship(AMS) refers to the optimal selection, dosing, and duration of antimicrobial treatment resulting in the best clinical outcome with minimal side effects to the patients and minimal impact on subsequent resistance.
According to the 2019 report, in the US, more than 2.8 million antibiotic-resistant infections occur each year, and more than 35000 people die. In addition to this, it also mentioned that 223,900 cases of Clostridoides difficile occurred in 2017, of which 12800 people died. The report did not include viruses or parasites
VISION
Being proactive
Supporting optimal animal and human health
Exploring ways to reduce overall use of antimicrobials
Using the drugs that prevent and treat disease by killing microscopic organisms in a responsible way
GOAL
to prevent the generation and spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Doing so will preserve the effectiveness of these drugs in animals and humans for years to come.
being to preserve human and animal health and the effectiveness of antimicrobial medications.
to implement a multidisciplinary approach in assembling a stewardship team to include an infectious disease physician, a clinical pharmacist with infectious diseases training, infection preventionist, and a close collaboration with the staff in the clinical microbiology laboratory
to prevent antimicrobial overuse, misuse and abuse.
to minimize the developme
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2. INTRODUCTION
The ear is the organ of hearing (Hearing is the ability to perceive
sounds). It is an engineering marvel because its sensory receptors can
transduce sound
vibrations with amplitudes as small as the diameter of an atom of gold
(0.3 nm) into electrical signals 1000 times faster than photoreceptors
can respond to light. The ear also contains receptors for equilibrium,
the sense that helps you maintain your balance and be aware of your
orientation in space.
3. INTRO CONT’
• The ear is supplied by the 8th cranial nerve, i.e. the cochlear part of
the vestibulocochlear nerve which is stimulated by vibrations caused
by sound waves.
• With the exception of the auricle(pinna), the structures that form the
ear are encased within the petrous portion of the temporal bone.
4. GENERAL OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lecture, students should be able to acquire
knowledge and have the understanding on the anatomy and physiology
of the Ear.
5. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lecture learners should be able to: -
• Describe the structures of the Ear.
• Explain the physiology of hearing.
• State the role of sense of hearing in balance.
6. STRUCTURE
The ear is divided into three distinct parts:
•outer ear
•middle ear(tympanic cavity)
•inner ear.
10. STRUCTURE CONT’
(1) AURICLE/ PINNA
• It is flap of elastic cartilage
• It is covered by skin
• Rim of auricle is called HELIX
• Inferior portion is called LOBULE.
• Plays important role in localization of sound
• It opens into External Auditory Canal
11.
12. STRUCTURE CONT’
(2) EXTERNAL AUDITORY CANAL/ EXTERNAL AUDITORY MEATUS
• Curved tube, extends from pinna to ear drum.
• 2.5 cm long
• Near the external opening the external auditory canal contains a few
hairs and ceruminous glands.
• Ceruminous glands secrete the cerumen (ear wax)
• Combination of hairs and cerumen helps prevent dust and foreign
objects from entering the ear.
13. STRUCTURE CONT’
(3) TYMPANIC MEMBRANE/ EAR DRUM
• External auditory canal ends at the TYMPANIC MEMBRANE also
known as ear drum.
• It is a thin, semitransparent portion between external auditory canal
and middle ear.
• It is covered by epidermis
• Lined by simple cuboidal epithelium
14. STRUCTURE CONT’
(B) MIDDLE EAR
Middle ear is small, air filled cavity in temporal bone. It is lined by
epithelium. The middle ear is separated from external ear by ear drum.
It is separated from the inner ear by the oval window.
The structures of middle ear are:
• Auditory ossicles
• Oval window
• Eustachian tube
16. STRUCTURE CONT’
(1) AUDITORY OSSICLES:
These are the smallest three bones of the body connected by synovial
joints. These are malleus (Hammer), incus (Anvil), Stapes (Stirrup)
17. STRUCTURES CONT’
(A) MALLEUS:
• Word malleus is latin for hammer.
• It is the first bone of the middle ear.
• The handle of malleus is attached with internal surface of eardrum.
• Head of malleus is attached with the body of incus.
• The primary function of the malleus is to transmit sound waves or
vibrations from the eardrum to the incus.
18. STRUCTURE CONT’
• (B) INCUS (ANVIL)
• It is a second bone located in between the malleus and the stapes.
• The incus transmits vibrations from the malleus to the stapes
19. STRUCTURES CONT’
(C) STAPES
• Stapes is the third final bone of the middle ear.
• It is the smallest and lightest bone of the human body.
• The stapes connects to the incus on the outward side and to the oval
window.
• The primary function of the stapes is to transmit sound waves from
the incus to the membrane of the inner ear.
• The base or footplate of stapes fits into oval window.
20.
21. STRUCTURE CONT’
(2) OVAL WINDOW:
• It is a membrane-covered opening that leads from the middle ear to
the vestibule of the inner ear.
• The oval window is the intersection of the middle ear with the inner
ear and is directly contracted by the Stapes;
• By the time vibrations reach the oval window, they have been
amplified over 10 times from what they were when they contacted
the tympanic membrane.
22.
23.
24. STRUCTURE CONT’
(3) EUSTACHIAN TUBE
• The middle ear is an air-filled space.
• It consists of both bone and hyaline cartilage.
• This runs from the middle ear to the naso-pharynx behind the nose.
25. • It is normally closed at pharyngeal end.
• During swallowing, chewing and yawing it opens.
• It helps maintaining equal air pressure on the two sides of eardrum.
• If pressure disturbed hinders clear and normal hearing.
26.
27. STRUCTURE CONT’
INNER EAR:
• It is also called as labyrinth
• There are two main divisions of labyrinth: -
• Outer bony labyrinth: is a series of cavities in the temporal bone. It is
divided into three regions: Semicircular canals; vestibule; cochlea. Bony
labyrinth is lined with periosteum and contains fluid PERILYMPH which
is similar to CSF.
28. • Inner membranous labyrinth: It is series of sacs and tubes inside of
bony labyrinth. Membranous labyrinth is lined with epithelium. It
contains endolymph. The level of potassium ions is high in endolymph.
Potassium ions generates the auditory signals. Membranous labyrinth
consists of two sacs (Utricle, saccule).
29.
30.
31. STRUCTURE CONT’
OUTER BONY LABYRINTH
(i) SEMICIRCULAR CANALS
• They are named: Anterior semicircular canals; posterior semicircular
canals; lateral semicircular canals.
• Anterior and posterior are vertically oriented.
• Lateral is horizontally oriented.
• They contain cristae, site of hair cells, maintain static equilibrium.
• AMPULE: one end of each canal is swollen enlargement is called AMPULA.
32. STRUCTURE CONT’
(ii) VESTIBULE:
• It is the central part. Lies between cochlear in front and semicircular
canal behind.
• It contains utricles and saccule which are part of membranous
labyrinth.
• The walls of both saccule and utricle contain small thickened region
called MACULA.
33. • Contains receptor for static equilibrium
• Maintains poster and balance
• Maculae contains two types of cells
• -Hair cells
• -Supporting cells
34. STRUCTURE CONT’
(iii) COCHLEA
• It is a snail shaped, bony spiral canal.
• It is divided into three channels:-
• Cochlear duct
• Scala vestibule
• Scala tampani
35.
36.
37. STRUCTURE CONT’
Organ of CORTI
• It is also known as spiral organ
• It is a coiled sheet of epithelial cells, with two main cells:-
• Supporting cells
• Hair cells
• There are two groups of hair cells
• Inner hair cells
• Outer hair cells
38. STRUCTURE CONT’
• It consists of neurons called HAIR CELLS; their axons form CN VIII.
• The stapes is attached to the OVAL WINDOW, and vibrations cause
the perilymph to vibrate; the hair cells here transmit this vibration.
• Therefore, the HAIR CELLS in this region are receptors for HEARING.
39. • The VESTIBULAR COCHLEAR NERVE, which takes the signals to the
brain.
• Therefore, the cochlea is where the hearing receptors are located, so
the cochlea is responsible for all of the hearing of sounds.
• However, the ear does more than just hear; it is also responsible for
balance and equilibrium.
40. PHYSIOLOGY OF HEARING
• Auricle/ pinna directs sound waves into external auditory canal.
• When sound waves strike eardrum that cause eardrum to vibrate.
• The central area of EAR drum is connected to malleus which starts to
vibrate. The vibration is transmitted from malleus to incus then to
stapes.
• As a stapes moves back and forth it pushes the membrane of oval
window in and out.
41. PHYSIOLOGY CONT’
• The movements of the oval window sets-up fluid pressure waves in
the perilymph.
• Then the vibrations are transmitted to “organ of corti” through
perilymph and endolymph.
• From the organ of corti, the impulses (produced by vibrations) are
carried to brain through 8th cranial nerve to auditory centers of brain
which is present in temporal lobe.
42.
43. BALANCE
VESTIBULAR SYSTEM
• This system regulates balance.
• It is also within the inner ear.
• SEMI-CIRCULAR CANALS (Three of them, all in different planes)
determine movement in three planes.
• Within each semi-circular canal is endolymph and hair cells, which
connect to nerves that go to the cerebellum.
44. BALANCE
UTRICLE AND SACCULE
• Attached to the semi-circular canals are two joined structures called
the UTRICLE and the SACCULE.
• These also contain HAIR CELLS and ENDOLYMPH.
45. • Within the endolymph here are OTOLITHS (“ear rocks”) which are
calcium deposits.
• When you stand perfectly upright, these otoliths fall directly down
and bend the HAIR CELLS, in this region are receptors for equilibrium
and the OTOLITHS are an essential component of this process.
49. SUMMARY
• The ear is the sense organ of hearing. It is divided in three parts;
outer ear, middle ear and inner ear. The outer ear has the pinna
(outer part), the auditory canal and ear drum (tympanic membrane).
• The middle ear has the auditory bones (malleus, incus and stapes),
Eustachian tube and oval window.
50. • The inner ear has the outer bony labyrinth and inner membranous
labyrinth.
• The physiology of hearing is achieved by vibrations which are
transmitted to the “organ of cort” through perilymph and endolymph
from the outer and middle ear. Then the impulses are transmitted to
the brain for interpretation. The sense of hearing also plays a role in
balance through the vestibular system.
51. REFERENCES
• A.M.Agur & A.F.Dalley, (2013), Grants Atlas of Anatomy, 13th Ed,
Lippincott Williams & wilkins.
• Vlerie C. Scanlon, Tina Sauders, (2007), Essentials of Anatomy and
Physiology, 5th Ed, F.A. Davis company.
• Waugh.A & Grant. A, (2009),Ross and Wilson: Anatomy and
physiology in Health and Illness, 11th Edition, Churchill Livingston.