DNA contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all living organisms. It is made up of nucleotides containing nitrogen bases and a sugar-phosphate backbone. RNA acts as a messenger to transfer information from DNA to the sites of protein production. There are three main types of RNA - messenger RNA carries copies of instructions from DNA to the ribosomes, transfer RNA matches codons to amino acids during protein production, and ribosomal RNA is a component of ribosomes. DNA is copied through semiconservative replication to provide each new cell with an identical genome.
The nucleus controls cell activities through DNA. James Watson and Francis Crick established that DNA has a double helix structure like a twisted ladder, with bases on the rungs and alternating sugar and phosphate molecules on the sides. Messenger RNA carries copies of DNA instructions from the nucleus to direct protein production in the cell.
The document summarizes key aspects of chromosome structure and behavior during cell division. It describes how DNA is wrapped around histone proteins to form chromatin and nucleosomes. It explains that centromeres attach to spindle fibers and pull chromosomes during cell division, while telomeres are repetitive DNA sequences at chromosome ends. The document also outlines the differences between mitosis, which produces two identical daughter cells, and meiosis, which involves two cell divisions to generate four haploid gametes through homologous chromosome pairing and independent assortment.
Biology 10 nal paper 1&2 chemestry of life cell division mar 12Galaxia Mercury
The document provides instructions and content for a biology exam consisting of two papers to be taken on March 15, 2012. Paper I contains 20 multiple choice questions testing concepts in biology. Paper II contains 8 questions in various formats assessing topics such as DNA structure and replication, protein synthesis, and cell division. Students are instructed to answer all questions in the spaces provided using pen only and clear handwriting. The document also provides the scoring rubrics for each paper based on the total number of points earned.
Presentazione Seminario a Trento 5/5/12giorgioponti
Video presentation by Giorgio Ponti at the Seminar by ITT Buonarroti / Provincia Autonoma di Trento (Italy) on "Education, Technology, Environments" / Video presentazione sul tema "La nuova architettura educativa innovativa ed intelligente" al Seminario ITT Buonarroti / Provincia Autonoma di Trento sul tema "Didattica, Tecnologie, Ambienti)
This document provides information about DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis. It describes the key components and double helix structure of DNA, including that it is made of nucleotides containing deoxyribose, phosphate groups, and one of four nitrogen bases (A, T, C, or G). The bases pair up in a specific way between strands. RNA is similar but contains ribose and uracil instead of thymine. DNA is transcribed into mRNA in the nucleus, then mRNA directs protein synthesis on ribosomes by matching codons to transfer RNA and amino acids. Mutations can occur through changes in the DNA sequence.
Horizontal gene transfer involves the transfer of genetic material between organisms without them being offspring. It is common in bacteria and archaea through processes like conjugation, transduction, and transformation. Horizontal gene transfer in eukaryotes is not well understood and occurs less frequently due to sexual reproduction and multicellularity, though it can still happen in some unicellular eukaryotes. About 8% of the human genome originated from viruses through horizontal gene transfer. Horizontal gene transfer complicates evolutionary hypotheses based on vertical descent from a common ancestor by allowing genes to transfer between different species, domains, and kingdoms, fostering new evolutionary changes and representing life as a "web" rather than a tree.
This document provides an overview of recombinant DNA technology. It defines recombinant DNA technology as procedures that allow DNA from different species to be isolated, cut, and spliced together to form new recombinant molecules. The key steps described are using restriction enzymes to cut DNA at specific sites, inserting genes into bacterial plasmids, transforming bacteria, replicating the recombinant DNA as the bacteria divide, and collecting the amplified genes. Applications discussed include producing insulin, vaccines, human growth hormones, diagnosing infectious diseases, developing novel crop varieties, and industrial strain improvement.
The document discusses the chromosomal basis of inheritance. It explains that genes are located on chromosomes and Mendel's hereditary factors were genes. It describes how Morgan's experiments with fruit flies provided evidence that supported the chromosome theory of inheritance. His findings showed that genes have specific loci on chromosomes and that chromosomes segregate and assort independently during meiosis, accounting for Mendel's laws. The document also discusses sex linkage, with genes on the X chromosome being X-linked and exhibiting unique inheritance patterns. It describes how linked genes on the same chromosome tend to be inherited together but can sometimes be separated through genetic recombination via crossing over during meiosis.
The nucleus controls cell activities through DNA. James Watson and Francis Crick established that DNA has a double helix structure like a twisted ladder, with bases on the rungs and alternating sugar and phosphate molecules on the sides. Messenger RNA carries copies of DNA instructions from the nucleus to direct protein production in the cell.
The document summarizes key aspects of chromosome structure and behavior during cell division. It describes how DNA is wrapped around histone proteins to form chromatin and nucleosomes. It explains that centromeres attach to spindle fibers and pull chromosomes during cell division, while telomeres are repetitive DNA sequences at chromosome ends. The document also outlines the differences between mitosis, which produces two identical daughter cells, and meiosis, which involves two cell divisions to generate four haploid gametes through homologous chromosome pairing and independent assortment.
Biology 10 nal paper 1&2 chemestry of life cell division mar 12Galaxia Mercury
The document provides instructions and content for a biology exam consisting of two papers to be taken on March 15, 2012. Paper I contains 20 multiple choice questions testing concepts in biology. Paper II contains 8 questions in various formats assessing topics such as DNA structure and replication, protein synthesis, and cell division. Students are instructed to answer all questions in the spaces provided using pen only and clear handwriting. The document also provides the scoring rubrics for each paper based on the total number of points earned.
Presentazione Seminario a Trento 5/5/12giorgioponti
Video presentation by Giorgio Ponti at the Seminar by ITT Buonarroti / Provincia Autonoma di Trento (Italy) on "Education, Technology, Environments" / Video presentazione sul tema "La nuova architettura educativa innovativa ed intelligente" al Seminario ITT Buonarroti / Provincia Autonoma di Trento sul tema "Didattica, Tecnologie, Ambienti)
This document provides information about DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis. It describes the key components and double helix structure of DNA, including that it is made of nucleotides containing deoxyribose, phosphate groups, and one of four nitrogen bases (A, T, C, or G). The bases pair up in a specific way between strands. RNA is similar but contains ribose and uracil instead of thymine. DNA is transcribed into mRNA in the nucleus, then mRNA directs protein synthesis on ribosomes by matching codons to transfer RNA and amino acids. Mutations can occur through changes in the DNA sequence.
Horizontal gene transfer involves the transfer of genetic material between organisms without them being offspring. It is common in bacteria and archaea through processes like conjugation, transduction, and transformation. Horizontal gene transfer in eukaryotes is not well understood and occurs less frequently due to sexual reproduction and multicellularity, though it can still happen in some unicellular eukaryotes. About 8% of the human genome originated from viruses through horizontal gene transfer. Horizontal gene transfer complicates evolutionary hypotheses based on vertical descent from a common ancestor by allowing genes to transfer between different species, domains, and kingdoms, fostering new evolutionary changes and representing life as a "web" rather than a tree.
This document provides an overview of recombinant DNA technology. It defines recombinant DNA technology as procedures that allow DNA from different species to be isolated, cut, and spliced together to form new recombinant molecules. The key steps described are using restriction enzymes to cut DNA at specific sites, inserting genes into bacterial plasmids, transforming bacteria, replicating the recombinant DNA as the bacteria divide, and collecting the amplified genes. Applications discussed include producing insulin, vaccines, human growth hormones, diagnosing infectious diseases, developing novel crop varieties, and industrial strain improvement.
The document discusses the chromosomal basis of inheritance. It explains that genes are located on chromosomes and Mendel's hereditary factors were genes. It describes how Morgan's experiments with fruit flies provided evidence that supported the chromosome theory of inheritance. His findings showed that genes have specific loci on chromosomes and that chromosomes segregate and assort independently during meiosis, accounting for Mendel's laws. The document also discusses sex linkage, with genes on the X chromosome being X-linked and exhibiting unique inheritance patterns. It describes how linked genes on the same chromosome tend to be inherited together but can sometimes be separated through genetic recombination via crossing over during meiosis.
Uterine inversion is a rare complication where the uterine fundus descends into the uterine cavity and sometimes even outside the woman's body. Risk factors include mismanagement of the third stage of labor, strong traction on the umbilical cord, uterine anomalies, and previous uterine inversion. Signs and symptoms include hemorrhage, severe abdominal pain, and shock. Management includes oxytocic drugs, antibiotics, manual reduction techniques like the O'Sullivan hydrostatic method, or surgery if needed.
Cord prolapse is when the umbilical cord descends through the cervix alongside or past the presenting fetal part, especially with ruptured membranes. Risk factors include prematurity, polyhydramnios, abnormal
This document summarizes key information about chromosomes. It defines chromosomes as carriers of genetic information visible during cell division. It describes the differences between prokaryote and eukaryote chromosomes. It discusses chromosome number, size, and types (autosomes and sex chromosomes). It explains cell division processes like meiosis and fertilization. It provides examples of human chromosomal abnormalities including both numerical disorders like Down syndrome and structural disorders. It describes chromosome structure and banding patterns used to identify chromosomes. It concludes with references for further reading.
Chromosomes contain an organism's genetic material and come in different structures depending on the organism. Bacteria typically have a single circular chromosome while eukaryotes have multiple linear chromosomes in the nucleus. Genetic material is highly compacted through various mechanisms to fit inside cells. In eukaryotes, DNA is wrapped around histone proteins to form nucleosomes, which further compact to form a 30nm fiber and loop domains that attach to a nuclear matrix, compacting the DNA over 1000-fold to fit in the nucleus.
1. Viral genomes contain DNA or RNA and are packaged into capsids through assembly processes. Bacterial chromosomes contain genes and other sequences compacted by looping and supercoiling.
2. Eukaryotic chromosomes vary greatly in size and contain genes and other sequences. Their DNA must be highly compacted to fit in the nucleus.
3. Eukaryotic DNA wraps around histone proteins to form nucleosomes, which further compact to form chromatin fibers and loop domains anchored to the nuclear matrix. Additional compaction occurs during cell division through condensin and cohesin proteins.
The document provides information on the structure of DNA and RNA. It discusses how DNA was discovered to have a double helix structure by Watson and Crick in 1953 based on prior work by scientists like Franklin, Wilkins, Chargaff and Pauling. It describes the key components of DNA including the sugar-phosphate backbone, nitrogenous bases, and how the bases pair up in the double helix structure. It also discusses different DNA structures like A, B and Z-DNA and how DNA packages into nucleosomes and chromosomes. For RNA, it notes that it is similar to DNA but contains the sugar ribose and base uracil instead of thymine.
Cell division occurs through mitosis and meiosis and leads to growth, repair, asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction. Mitosis involves prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase and results in two identical daughter cells. Uncontrolled mitosis can lead to cancer due to genetic mutations. Cloning uses cell division to produce genetically identical copies of organisms and has applications in microbes, plants and animals.
This document contains a biology review covering several key topics:
1. It defines the seven characteristics of life and provides examples of living and non-living objects.
2. It compares and contrasts plant and animal cells, identifying their different organelles.
3. It describes the processes of photosynthesis and cellular respiration, including the organelles where they occur.
The document summarizes key concepts for a Chapter 12 test on genetics and DNA, including:
1) Griffith's experiment which discovered DNA as the genetic material by transforming harmless bacteria into deadly bacteria.
2) Avery, Hershey and Chase's experiments which further demonstrated DNA's role in heredity and viral infection.
3) Watson and Crick's discovery of DNA's double helix structure.
4) Chargaff's rules about DNA base pairing.
Recombinant DNA technology involves combining DNA from different sources by using restriction enzymes and plasmids. This allows scientists to [1] cure or treat diseases by introducing therapeutic genes into organisms, [2] genetically modify foods, and [3] better understand genetics. Bacteria are commonly used because they reproduce quickly and it is easy to introduce foreign DNA. The process involves isolating genes, cutting DNA with restriction enzymes, combining DNA fragments, and inserting the new recombinant DNA into bacteria. This can be used to produce human insulin in E. coli for diabetes treatment.
Cloning involves creating an exact genetic copy of an organism, with all of its DNA being identical. Genetic modification involves altering the genes of an organism using biotechnology, usually targeting one or a few specific genes to change a trait. While cloning aims to replicate an organism entirely, genetic modification allows targeted changes to traits through gene addition or replacement. The document discusses how scientists in Jurassic Park cloned dinosaurs using ancient DNA preserved in amber, but had to use frog DNA to fill in missing segments, showing how cloning and genetic modification techniques can be combined.
DNA contains the genetic instructions that determine traits in all living things. It exists as a double helix structure held together by hydrogen bonds between complementary nucleotide base pairs of adenine and thymine or guanine and cytosine. This double helix structure allows DNA to replicate, or make copies of itself, and also allows information to be transcribed into RNA and translated into proteins. Mutations in DNA can lead to genetic disorders or cancer if they disrupt these critical functions of DNA.
This lesson plan explores the structure and function of DNA through building a 3D model and extracting DNA from cheek cells. Students first create a DNA model using candy and toothpicks to represent nucleotides and base pairing. Next, they purify DNA from their own cheek cells using a kit. The extraction involves breaking open cells, precipitating DNA with alcohol and salt, and visualizing the extracted DNA. The lesson aims to give students hands-on experience visualizing key characteristics of DNA.
This document provides information about Science Prof Online, a free science education website that offers various educational resources including virtual science classrooms, PowerPoints, articles, and images. It details the types of materials available on the site such as practice questions, review questions, lecture PowerPoints, video tutorials, and course syllabi. The document explains that images and PowerPoints on the site can be viewed and downloaded in different formats for various purposes. It also provides contact information for the creators of Science Prof Online.
The Experts: We have personally interviewed two well-known experts, Antoine Danchin and Markus Schmidt to gather their opinions about every aspect of Synthetic Biology. They have also filled our survey so you can compare your answers to theirs, how close are your ideas to the ones of the experts?
The document summarizes several classic experiments that helped identify DNA as the genetic material:
1) Griffith's experiment showed that live bacteria could transform non-virulent bacteria into virulent ones, suggesting the transfer of a "transforming principle."
2) Avery, MacLeod and McCarty purified components from transformed bacteria and found that only DNA could induce transformation, demonstrating that DNA is the genetic material.
3) Hershey and Chase used bacteriophages labeled with radioactive sulfur or phosphorus to track entry into bacteria, finding that only DNA, not protein, entered the cells.
The document discusses the history of discoveries that led to determining the structure of DNA. It describes Griffith's experiments in the 1920s showing bacteria could be transformed, suggesting DNA carries genetic information. Avery later showed DNA was the molecule responsible for transformation. Chargaff discovered rules for base pairing in DNA. Rosalind Franklin's X-ray crystallography photos, especially Photo 51, provided data like DNA being a double helix that Watson and Crick used to model the DNA structure in 1953, with two strands coiled around each other and bases on each strand complementary and bonded to the other.
The Discovery of DNA Essay
DNA EXTRACTION Essay
DNA Essay
DNA Essay example
DNA Essay
Dna Replication Essay
Dna Replication Essay examples
Dna Essay
DNA Profiling Essay example
Dna And Sequence Of Dna Essay
Essay On DNA Discoveries
DNA Forensic Essay
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Dna And Protein Synthesis Essay
Dna Discovery Essay
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The document summarizes the activities and tents at a science summer camp called "Bodies Camp". The camp focuses on topics related to biology including DNA, genetics, mutations, and parasites. Some of the tents described are the DNA tent, Pedigree tent, Mutations are Everywhere tent, and Parasites tent. The DNA tent allows campers to do hands-on activities about building DNA, transcription, and decoding. The Parasites tent contains videos, worksheets, photos about parasites and students can earn a badge for participating.
This document summarizes four key milestones in the development of DNA technologies:
1. The first use of electrophoresis to separate hydrolyzed RNA molecules, laying the foundation for techniques to analyze nucleic acids.
2. The first construction of recombinant DNA molecules in vitro using restriction enzymes, DNA ligase, and bacterial plasmids, enabling new DNA technologies.
3. The development of fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) allowing detection and localization of specific DNA sequences within cells using fluorescently labeled probes.
4. The discovery of restriction enzymes that cut DNA at specific recognition sequences, enabling recombinant DNA techniques and genomic mapping. These discoveries transformed molecular biology.
Uterine inversion is a rare complication where the uterine fundus descends into the uterine cavity and sometimes even outside the woman's body. Risk factors include mismanagement of the third stage of labor, strong traction on the umbilical cord, uterine anomalies, and previous uterine inversion. Signs and symptoms include hemorrhage, severe abdominal pain, and shock. Management includes oxytocic drugs, antibiotics, manual reduction techniques like the O'Sullivan hydrostatic method, or surgery if needed.
Cord prolapse is when the umbilical cord descends through the cervix alongside or past the presenting fetal part, especially with ruptured membranes. Risk factors include prematurity, polyhydramnios, abnormal
This document summarizes key information about chromosomes. It defines chromosomes as carriers of genetic information visible during cell division. It describes the differences between prokaryote and eukaryote chromosomes. It discusses chromosome number, size, and types (autosomes and sex chromosomes). It explains cell division processes like meiosis and fertilization. It provides examples of human chromosomal abnormalities including both numerical disorders like Down syndrome and structural disorders. It describes chromosome structure and banding patterns used to identify chromosomes. It concludes with references for further reading.
Chromosomes contain an organism's genetic material and come in different structures depending on the organism. Bacteria typically have a single circular chromosome while eukaryotes have multiple linear chromosomes in the nucleus. Genetic material is highly compacted through various mechanisms to fit inside cells. In eukaryotes, DNA is wrapped around histone proteins to form nucleosomes, which further compact to form a 30nm fiber and loop domains that attach to a nuclear matrix, compacting the DNA over 1000-fold to fit in the nucleus.
1. Viral genomes contain DNA or RNA and are packaged into capsids through assembly processes. Bacterial chromosomes contain genes and other sequences compacted by looping and supercoiling.
2. Eukaryotic chromosomes vary greatly in size and contain genes and other sequences. Their DNA must be highly compacted to fit in the nucleus.
3. Eukaryotic DNA wraps around histone proteins to form nucleosomes, which further compact to form chromatin fibers and loop domains anchored to the nuclear matrix. Additional compaction occurs during cell division through condensin and cohesin proteins.
The document provides information on the structure of DNA and RNA. It discusses how DNA was discovered to have a double helix structure by Watson and Crick in 1953 based on prior work by scientists like Franklin, Wilkins, Chargaff and Pauling. It describes the key components of DNA including the sugar-phosphate backbone, nitrogenous bases, and how the bases pair up in the double helix structure. It also discusses different DNA structures like A, B and Z-DNA and how DNA packages into nucleosomes and chromosomes. For RNA, it notes that it is similar to DNA but contains the sugar ribose and base uracil instead of thymine.
Cell division occurs through mitosis and meiosis and leads to growth, repair, asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction. Mitosis involves prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase and results in two identical daughter cells. Uncontrolled mitosis can lead to cancer due to genetic mutations. Cloning uses cell division to produce genetically identical copies of organisms and has applications in microbes, plants and animals.
This document contains a biology review covering several key topics:
1. It defines the seven characteristics of life and provides examples of living and non-living objects.
2. It compares and contrasts plant and animal cells, identifying their different organelles.
3. It describes the processes of photosynthesis and cellular respiration, including the organelles where they occur.
The document summarizes key concepts for a Chapter 12 test on genetics and DNA, including:
1) Griffith's experiment which discovered DNA as the genetic material by transforming harmless bacteria into deadly bacteria.
2) Avery, Hershey and Chase's experiments which further demonstrated DNA's role in heredity and viral infection.
3) Watson and Crick's discovery of DNA's double helix structure.
4) Chargaff's rules about DNA base pairing.
Recombinant DNA technology involves combining DNA from different sources by using restriction enzymes and plasmids. This allows scientists to [1] cure or treat diseases by introducing therapeutic genes into organisms, [2] genetically modify foods, and [3] better understand genetics. Bacteria are commonly used because they reproduce quickly and it is easy to introduce foreign DNA. The process involves isolating genes, cutting DNA with restriction enzymes, combining DNA fragments, and inserting the new recombinant DNA into bacteria. This can be used to produce human insulin in E. coli for diabetes treatment.
Cloning involves creating an exact genetic copy of an organism, with all of its DNA being identical. Genetic modification involves altering the genes of an organism using biotechnology, usually targeting one or a few specific genes to change a trait. While cloning aims to replicate an organism entirely, genetic modification allows targeted changes to traits through gene addition or replacement. The document discusses how scientists in Jurassic Park cloned dinosaurs using ancient DNA preserved in amber, but had to use frog DNA to fill in missing segments, showing how cloning and genetic modification techniques can be combined.
DNA contains the genetic instructions that determine traits in all living things. It exists as a double helix structure held together by hydrogen bonds between complementary nucleotide base pairs of adenine and thymine or guanine and cytosine. This double helix structure allows DNA to replicate, or make copies of itself, and also allows information to be transcribed into RNA and translated into proteins. Mutations in DNA can lead to genetic disorders or cancer if they disrupt these critical functions of DNA.
This lesson plan explores the structure and function of DNA through building a 3D model and extracting DNA from cheek cells. Students first create a DNA model using candy and toothpicks to represent nucleotides and base pairing. Next, they purify DNA from their own cheek cells using a kit. The extraction involves breaking open cells, precipitating DNA with alcohol and salt, and visualizing the extracted DNA. The lesson aims to give students hands-on experience visualizing key characteristics of DNA.
This document provides information about Science Prof Online, a free science education website that offers various educational resources including virtual science classrooms, PowerPoints, articles, and images. It details the types of materials available on the site such as practice questions, review questions, lecture PowerPoints, video tutorials, and course syllabi. The document explains that images and PowerPoints on the site can be viewed and downloaded in different formats for various purposes. It also provides contact information for the creators of Science Prof Online.
The Experts: We have personally interviewed two well-known experts, Antoine Danchin and Markus Schmidt to gather their opinions about every aspect of Synthetic Biology. They have also filled our survey so you can compare your answers to theirs, how close are your ideas to the ones of the experts?
The document summarizes several classic experiments that helped identify DNA as the genetic material:
1) Griffith's experiment showed that live bacteria could transform non-virulent bacteria into virulent ones, suggesting the transfer of a "transforming principle."
2) Avery, MacLeod and McCarty purified components from transformed bacteria and found that only DNA could induce transformation, demonstrating that DNA is the genetic material.
3) Hershey and Chase used bacteriophages labeled with radioactive sulfur or phosphorus to track entry into bacteria, finding that only DNA, not protein, entered the cells.
The document discusses the history of discoveries that led to determining the structure of DNA. It describes Griffith's experiments in the 1920s showing bacteria could be transformed, suggesting DNA carries genetic information. Avery later showed DNA was the molecule responsible for transformation. Chargaff discovered rules for base pairing in DNA. Rosalind Franklin's X-ray crystallography photos, especially Photo 51, provided data like DNA being a double helix that Watson and Crick used to model the DNA structure in 1953, with two strands coiled around each other and bases on each strand complementary and bonded to the other.
The Discovery of DNA Essay
DNA EXTRACTION Essay
DNA Essay
DNA Essay example
DNA Essay
Dna Replication Essay
Dna Replication Essay examples
Dna Essay
DNA Profiling Essay example
Dna And Sequence Of Dna Essay
Essay On DNA Discoveries
DNA Forensic Essay
DNA testing Essay
Dna And Protein Synthesis Essay
Dna Discovery Essay
Dna Editing Research Paper
Dna Essay
DNA Essay
Dna Essay
The document summarizes the activities and tents at a science summer camp called "Bodies Camp". The camp focuses on topics related to biology including DNA, genetics, mutations, and parasites. Some of the tents described are the DNA tent, Pedigree tent, Mutations are Everywhere tent, and Parasites tent. The DNA tent allows campers to do hands-on activities about building DNA, transcription, and decoding. The Parasites tent contains videos, worksheets, photos about parasites and students can earn a badge for participating.
This document summarizes four key milestones in the development of DNA technologies:
1. The first use of electrophoresis to separate hydrolyzed RNA molecules, laying the foundation for techniques to analyze nucleic acids.
2. The first construction of recombinant DNA molecules in vitro using restriction enzymes, DNA ligase, and bacterial plasmids, enabling new DNA technologies.
3. The development of fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) allowing detection and localization of specific DNA sequences within cells using fluorescently labeled probes.
4. The discovery of restriction enzymes that cut DNA at specific recognition sequences, enabling recombinant DNA techniques and genomic mapping. These discoveries transformed molecular biology.
Transformation and transfection allow the genetic alteration of cells through the introduction of foreign DNA. Transformation refers specifically to bacteria, where naked DNA fragments can be taken up through natural competence or artificial methods like heat shock or electroporation. Transfection applies to eukaryotic cells, using techniques like lipofection to introduce DNA through membrane pores. Common methods to transform plants include Agrobacterium infection, particle bombardment, and electroporation. These techniques generate genetically modified cells and organisms.
This document contains a chapter on DNA testing with multiple choice questions, modified true/false statements, completion questions, short answer questions, and essay questions about DNA structure and replication. The chapter covers Griffith's experiments which showed bacterial transformation, Avery's work identifying DNA as the transforming factor, the Hershey-Chase experiment, Watson and Crick's DNA model, and differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic DNA replication.
This document provides an overview of science 101 and key concepts in cell biology and biochemistry. It begins with defining science and the different disciplines within biomedical health sciences. It then covers cells and their components, the central dogma of DNA transcription and RNA translation, and the molecular architecture of DNA, RNA and proteins. Specific topics discussed include eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells, organelles, the nucleus and DNA packaging, RNA structures and functions, amino acids, protein folding and secondary structures.
genetic engineering, future perspectives and QC validationSana Rubab
this ppt will help you in studying genetic engineering, its introduction, history, basics, methods and procedures, QC validation, future perspectives and applications.
This document summarizes a study on bacterial transformation. It discusses how plasmids can contain genes that provide resistance to bacteria in foreign environments. The experiment introduces an ampicillin-resistant plasmid to E. coli through a process called transformation. Transformation incorporates foreign DNA into a host cell's genome. The experiment uses E. coli as the host, a plasmid as the vector to transfer DNA, and tags the transformed cells to identify them. The objectives are to observe bacterial transformation and demonstrate a change in phenotype from uptake of plasmid genes.
1) Bacterial transformation experiments and studies of bacteriophages provided evidence that DNA carries genetic information. Avery discovered DNA was the transforming factor in bacteria. Hershey and Chase found that the genetic material of bacteriophages was DNA.
2) The structure of DNA was elucidated. Chargaff found rules of base pairing in DNA. Franklin's X-ray diffraction revealed DNA's double helix structure. Watson and Crick built a DNA model explaining its structure and base pairing.
3) DNA replication copies genetic information by unwinding the double helix and synthesizing new complementary strands according to base pairing rules, ensuring each daughter cell inherits the full genome. It occurs at replication forks in prok
research done to prove DNA a genetic materialPartha Sarathi
1. Genetic inheritance refers to the transmission of traits from parents to offspring through genetic material. DNA was identified as the genetic material based on its ability to stably replicate and mutate over generations.
2. Experiments in the early 20th century identified DNA as the substance within chromosomes that determines inheritance. Key experiments included Avery, MacLeod and McCarty demonstrating transformation is caused by DNA.
3. The structure of DNA was elucidated in 1953 when Watson and Crick proposed the double helix model based on X-ray crystallography data from Franklin and Chargaff's rules regarding nucleotide base ratios. This established DNA as the molecule of heredity.
2. GENETIC MATERIAL
In the middle of the 1900’s
scientists were asking questions
about genes.
What is a gene made of?
How do genes work?
How do genes determine
characteristics of organisms?
3. DO PROTEINS CARRY THE
GENETIC CODE?
At the time most scientists believed
proteins
that _________ had to be the
molecules that made up genes.
There were so many different kinds
proteins and DNA seemed to be too
monotonous . . . repeating the same
4
___ subunits.
4. SEE GRIFFITH’s EXPERIMENT
1928 – Frederick Griffith looked at
pneumonia bacteria trying to
figure out what made people die
S (SMOOTH) strain R (Rough) strain
- killed mice -mice lived
Images from: http://microvet.arizona.edu/Courses/vsc610/mic205/griffith.jpg
5. If he heated the
LETHAL
strain first
_______________
. . . mice lived.
The heat killed bacteria were no longer
LETHAL.
Images from: http://microvet.arizona.edu/Courses/vsc610/mic205/griffith.jpg
6. Images from: http://microvet.arizona.edu/Courses/vsc610/mic205/griffith.jpg
BUT. . .
If he mixed heat-killed
LETHAL bacteria with
live harmless DIED !
. . . mice bacteria
________________
When he looked inside dead mice, he found
LIVE LETHAL
______________ bacteria!
Somehow the heat killed LETHAL bacteria passed
their characteristics to the harmless bacteria.
7. See a video clip about
GRIFFITH’S EXPERIMENTS (12A)
8. Griffith called this process
TRANSFORMATION
__________________ because one
strain of bacteria had been changed
permanently into another.
But what was the factor that caused the
transformation?
A protein ? A lipid ? A carbohydrate ?
A nucleic acid ?
9. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oswald_Avery
1944-
Oswald Avery’s team of scientists
repeat Griffith’s experiments
looking for the transforming molecule.
After heat killing the LETHAL
Pneumonia bacteria, he treated them
with digestive enzymes that destroy
specific kinds of molecules.
If proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, or
RNA’s were destroyed .. .
Transformation still occurred!
______________________________
http://cystitis-cystitis.com/Images/testtube.jpg
http://faculty.uca.edu/~johnc/mbi1440.htm
10. But when they treated the heat-killed
LETHAL bacteria with enzymes to
DNA
destroy _____ there was NO
transformation!
. . . the mice lived!
DNA was the molecule
that caused the genetic
change.
http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~acarpi/NSC/12-dna.htm
11. GRIFFITH EXPERIMENT
(PNEUMONIA-RAT)
Showed ____________ could be
genetic material
passed between bacteria & cause a
change.
AVERY EXPERIMENT (Digestive enzymes)
howed that the genetic material
DNA
was _____
12. Scientists are skeptical… it takes more
than one experiment to convince them.
1952-Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase
experimented with viruses that infect
bacteriophages
bacteria = _________________
Knew bacteriophages
were made of
proteins DNA
________ and _______
Hear about their
cool experiment
http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/Chase_&_Hershey_1953.jpg
14. HERSHEY-CHASE BLENDER
EXPERIMENT
only DNA not protein
Showed_______________
entered cell during infection.
Conclusion:
______________in virus was
Genetic material
DNA
_____ not protein
16. DNA is a DOUBLE HELIX
http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/watsoncrick.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosalind_Franklin
X-ray experiments by Rosalind Franklin
led James Watson and Francis Crick to the
discovery of the structure of DNA in 1953
18. NUCLEIC ACIDS are built
from subunits called
NUCLEOTIDES
____________________
Image by: Riedell SUGAR in DNA is
________________
deoxyribose
19. NITROGEN BASES in DNA
_____________= A
ADENINE
_____________ = G
GUANINE
CYTOSINE
_____________ = C
______________ = T
THYMINE
No URACIL
20. DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID
DOUBLE
______________
STRANDED
Backbone
(sides of ladder)
made of
_____________
PHOSPHATES
and
Image from: http://www.tokyo-med.ac.jp/genet/picts/dna.jpg _____________
sugars
22. CHARGAFF’S RULES
A = T
_________ G = C
_________
At time no one knew why…
now we know its because
Adenine always bonds
THYMINE
across with____________
Guanine always bonds
CYTOSINE
across with ____________
Image from: http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/evo101/images/dna_bases.gif
23. DOUBLE HELIX
Hydrogen
_____________ bonds
between nitrogen bases
hold the two strands
together.
Image from: http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/evo101/images/dna_bases.gif
24. Interest Grabber Answers
1. On a sheet of paper, draw a curving or zig-zagging line that divides the
paper into two halves. Vary the bends in the line as you draw it. Without
tracing, copy the line on a second sheet of paper.
2. Hold the papers side by side, and compare the lines. Do they look the
same?
Lines will likely look similar.
3. Now, stack the papers, one on top of the other, and hold the papers up
to the light. Are the lines the same?
Overlaying the papers will show variations in the lines.
4. How could you use the original paper to draw exact copies of the line
without tracing it?
Use 1st line as a template to draw the line on another sheet of paper.
5. Why is it important that the copies of DNA that are given to new
daughter cells be exact copies of the original?
Each cell must have the correct DNA, or the cell will not
have the correct characteristics.
27. DNA in EUKARYOTES is
packaged into chromosomes
http://www.paternityexperts.com/images/DNA-of-life.jpg
Humans have approximately 3
billion base pairs (1 m long)
60,000 to 100,000 genes
If the diameter of the DNA (2 nanometers) was as wide as a fishing
line (0.5 millimeters) it might stretch as far as 21.2 km (or 13.6 miles)
in length which would all have to be packed into a nucleus, the
equivalent size of 25 cm in diameter.
That is some packaging!
28. THINK ABOUT IT
How could you get
this piece of
string into the
container?
http://www.artzooks.com/files/3966/AZ533823_320.jpg
http://www.mivaroo.com/sites/toyconnection.com/
33. Image from: http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/evo101/images/dna_bases.gif
HOW IS DNA COPIED?
The structure of DNA
explains how it can be
copied.
Each strand has all the info
needed to construct
matching
the __________other half.
If strands are separated,
_____________ rules allow
base-pairing
you to fill in the
complementary bases.
34. Figure 12–11 DNA Replication
Section 12-2
Original
strand DNA
New strand polymerase
Growth
DNA
polymerase
Growth
Replication Replication Nitrogenous
fork fork bases
New strand Original
Sites where strand separation and
strand
replication forks
replication occur are called _____________
35. REPLICATION STEPS
1.Enzymes “unzip” molecule by breaking
_______________ that hold the strands
Hydrogen bonds
together and unwind it.
DNA polymerase
2. _______________ joins nucleotides
using original strand as template and
spell checks
______________for errors.
opposite
3. Copying happens in ________ directions
along the two strands & in __________
multiple
places at once.
36. REPLICATION
ANIMATION
See a video clip about
DNA REPLICATION (12B)
39. RNA- the Other Nucleic Acid
NUCLEOTIDES
Also made of ___________
RIBOSE
Sugar is _______ instead
of deoxyribose.
SINGLE
RNA is _________ stranded
URACIL
Contains _________ instead
of thymine.
http://images2.clinicaltools.com/images/gene/dna_versus_rna_reversed.jpg
41. Figure 12–14 Transcription
Section 12-3
Adenine (DNA and RNA)
Cystosine (DNA and RNA)
Guanine(DNA and RNA)
Thymine (DNA only)
Uracil (RNA only)
RNA
polymerase
DNA
RNA
RNA POLYMERASE
Enzyme called _____________________
separates strands, then uses one strand
as a template to assemble an RNA copy.
42. How does RNA POLYMERASE know
where a gene starts and stops?
Enzyme binds to places with specific DNA
PROMOTERS
sequences called _______________.
RNA POLYMERASE
PROMOTERS tell _________________
where to start.
Signals at the end of the gene code cause
stop
transcription to _____ .
http://images2.clinicaltools.com/images/gene/dna_versus_rna_reversed.jpg
43. Video 3
Transcription animation
See another
transcription
animation
See a video clip about
TRANSCRIPTION (12C) Transcription animation
46. WHY WASTE IT?
Why spend energy making a large RNA
and then throw parts away?
May allow same gene to be used in
different ways in different kinds of cells.
May have a role in evolution… allows small
changes in genes to have a big effect.
48. HOW CAN JUST 4 BASES GIVE DIRECTIONS
TO MAKE 20 AMINO ACIDS?
Message is read in groups of 3 = _________
CODON
UCGCACGGU
UCG-CAC-GGU
Serine - Histidine - Glycine
Codons represent different amino acids
49. The m-RNA Code
Section 12-3
64 possible codons
Some amino acids
have more than one
codon.
AUG
START= _______
STOP
3 codons for _____
53. Video 4
SEE ANOTHER
Translation Animation
See a video clip about TRANSLATION VIDEO
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS (Choose Large video)
(12D)
54. Mendel/flower images from: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookTOC.html
Blood cell by Riedell
GENES & PROTEINS
Proteins are the connection between
the gene code in the DNA and how that
gene is expressed.
A gene that codes for an enzyme (protein)
to make a pigment can control
the color of a flower.
A gene that codes for an enzyme (protein)
adds carbohydrates to glycoproteins to
produce your blood type.
Enzymes catalyze and regulate chemical reactions so
proteins build and operate all cell components.
55. DNA → DNA ____________
REPLICATION
TRANSCRIPTION
DNA → RNA ____________
TRANSLATION
RNA→ Protein ___________
56. Concept Map
Section 12-3
can be
also called which functions to also called which functions to also called which functions to
from to to make up
57. Concept Map
Section 12-3
RNA
can be
Messenger RNA Ribosomal RNA Transfer RNA
also called which functions to also called which functions to also called which functions to
Bring
Combine
mRNA Carry instructions rRNA tRNA amino acids to
with proteins
ribosome
from to to make up
DNA Ribosome Ribosomes
59. REMEMBER!
MUTATIONS
_______________ are changes
in the genetic material.
Mutations can happen when cells make
mistakes
_____________ in copying their own DNA
radiation
or be caused by _______________ or
chemicals
___________ in the enviroment.
60. KINDS OF MUTATIONS
Mutations that produce changes in a single
GENE MUTATIONS
gene = ______________________
Mutations that produce changes in whole
chromosomes = _____________________
CHROMOSOMAL MUTATIONS
61. GENE MUTATIONS
Mutations involving ________________
One or a few
____________ = __________________
nucleotides Point mutation
because they occur at a single point in the
DNA sequence.
TYPES OF POINT MUTATIONS:
_____________________
substitutions
deletions
_____________________
insertions
_____________________
63. SICKLE CELL ANEMIA
CAUSE:
(autosomal recessive)
A changed to T
(glu to val)
gene on chromosome #11
that codes for part of
hemoglobin protein
(carries oxygen in blood)
64. DELETION
Piece of DNA code for one gene is lost
________________________________________
Image from:
http://www.biology-online.org/2/8_mutations.htm
65. Duchenne Muscular
Dystrophy
CAUSE:
(X linked
recessive)
DELETION in
gene that codes
for a muscle
protein
66. INSERTION
Piece of DNA is copied too many times
Image from:
http://www.biology-online.org/2/8_mutations.htm
68. FRAME SHIFT MUTATIONS
Change multiple bases in code
thefatcatatetherat
the fat cat ate the rat
____________________
INSERTION
thefatcatateateateatetherat
the fat cat ate ate ate ate the rat
DELETION
thefatcatatetherat
the fat ata tet her at
69. FRAME SHIFTS
Frame shift mutations change every
Amino acid
___________ in the ___________
protein
that follows the shift.
Frame shifts can alter a protein so
much it is unable to _____________
function
70. CHROMOSOMAL MUTATIONS
Mutations involving changes in the
Number structure
_____________ or ______________
of whole chromosomes
TYPES OF CHROMOSOMAL MUTATIONS:
_____________________ See a Video
deletions
(deletions
duplications
_____________________
& duplications
See a Video
inversions
_____________________ (inversions
& translocations
translocations
_____________________
71. DELETION
Piece of chromosome is lost
________________________________________
Image from:
http://www.biology-online.org/2/8_mutations.htm
72. DUPLICATION
Piece of DNA is copied too many times
________________________________________________
Image from:
http://www.biology-online.org/2/8_mutations.htm
73. HUNTINGTON’S
• Degenerative brain disorder
• Symptoms appear
age 30-40
• Lose ability to walk, think,
talk, reason
• Cause = ADDITION of extra
CAG repeats
74. INVERSION
Segment flips and reads
backwards
Image from:
http://www.biology-online.org/2/8_mutations.htm
75. TRANSLOCATION
Segment breaks off and joins a
different non-homologous
chromosome
Image from:
http://www.biology-online.org/2/8_mutations.htm
76. MUTATIONS
Most mutations are ____________
neutral
meaning they have little or no effect on
gene ____________.
function
defective proteins
Mutations that cause ________________
are usually ____________
HARMFUL
Harmful mutations are associated with
genetic disorders
many
________________ and can cause
cancer
____________
77. MUTATIONS
Mutations are also a source of
Genetic variability
_________________ and can be
_____________
beneficial
MORE ON THIS
2nd SEMESTER!
Can help an organism
_________________
Survive and reproduce
variation
Provide _________
in population
for ____________
natural selection
to act upon
78. POLYPLOIDY
Condition in which an organism has
extra sets of chromosomes
= _______________
POLYPLOIDY
LETHAL
__________ in humans, but beneficial
in some ___________.
plants
3N
Triploid (___) or tetraploid (___)
4N
plants are often ________________
larger and stronger
than diploid plants.
80. Only a fraction of genes in a cell are
expressed (made into RNA) at any given time.
How does the cell decide which will be turned on and
which will stay “silent”?
PROMOTER
You already know about _____________ regions
that show RNA polymerase where to start.
REGULATORY SITES
There are other ______________________ that
control whether a gene is ON or OFF.
82. E. Coli lac operon See a MOVIE
choose animation/narrated
Group of genes that operate together are
OPERON
called an ________________
Genes code for
enzymes
needed
to digest
lactose sugar.
Only needed if
glucose is not
available
http://www.life.uiuc.edu/bio100/lectures/s97lects/16GeneControl/lac_operon_ind.GIF
83. Most of time glucose is available so
OFF
lac operon is turned _____ by a
REPRESSOR
____________ molecule that sits on a
regulatory site next to the promoter
OPERATOR
called the ___________
84. What if there’s NO GLUCOSE?
Cells need to get rid of the repressor
ON
and turn _____the lac genes to digest
lactose instead.
The presence of lactose
causes a change in the
REPRESSOR
____________ molecule so
so it can’t bind the
operator site.
Image modified from: http://www.life.uiuc.edu/bio100/lectures/s97lects/16GeneControl
85. Cells turn genes ON & OFF as needed
Many genes are regulated by
REPRESSOR
_____________ proteins that keep
them turned off until needed.
Others use proteins that speed up
transcription
_______________ or affect
protein synthesis
___________________
86. EUKARYOTES are more COMPLEX
Additional regulatory sequences:
ENHANCER
1. ___________ regions
upstream from promoters
bind many different regulatory proteins
TATA box
2. __________ (TATATA or TATAAA)
helps position RNA POLYMERASE
Image by Riedell
87. DEVELOPMENT & DIFFERENTIATION
Gene regulation is also important in shaping
way organisms develop
How does a zygote become a multi-cellular
organism?
How does it know what kind of cell to be?
88. DEVELOPMENT & DIFFERENTIATION
Cells DIFFERENTIATE by turning different
________________
genes on and off.
http://www.ncu.edu.tw/~ls/graph/faculty_pictures/whole_time/SLC/SLC_lab-1.jpg
BUT…
How does a cell know where it is in the body?
and what genes it should turn on?
and when?
89. In the 1980s, researchers discovered a
series of genes in fruit flies called
Hox genes
___________
These genes control the organization of the
developing embryo and tell parts where to
grow and when.
Mutations to Hox genes
can cause a leg to grow
where an antenna should
sprout.
http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/history/hox.shtml
91. HOX GENES
Similar genes controlling the
eyes of insects and our own
eyes have also been discovered.
Our version of the gene can be
inserted in a fly and still
trigger the building of an insect
eye!
http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/history/hox.shtml
92. SO WHAT?
The similarities between HOX gene
sequences in very different organisms
and the ability of these genes to trade
places and still function in different
species suggests that these organisms
__________________________
share a common ancestor