Copper deposit of Surda lies on the Survey of India toposheet no. 73 J/6; latitude of 220 33’ 7’and longitude of 860 26’40’’. The area lies in the south west of Ghatsila

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Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Introduction.
Copper deposit of Surda lies on the Survey of India toposheet no. 73 J/6; latitude of 220
33’ 7’and longitude of 860 26’40’’. The area lies in the south west of Ghatsila, being also
the nearest railway station (Ghatsila at 8km), national highway no.33 at 19 km.
The area lies in Singhbhum Shear zone which represents one of the most spectacular
tectonic features occurring in the Singhbhum Craton spread over Jharkhand and adjoining
areas. It marks the boundary between the Archaean Craton of Singhbhum Granite
Batholiths and the Iron Ore Group in the south and the Proterozoic mobile belt in the
north. Singhbhum Shear Zone is an arcuate belt of 200 km length and the width varying
between 1-25kms. It is one of the most well known mineral abundant zones in the
country.
The Surda mine block is a part of the regional structure as worked out by several
geoscientists including Dunn and Dey (1942), reveals existence of an anticlinorium,
comprising of highly metamorphosed rocks of iron ore series and a great shear zone
which was formed along the southern limb of anticlinorium. The area is mostly covered
by soil, except in the mine area where the exposed rock types are quartz muscovite schist
with or without garnet, quartz-sericite-chlorite schist, quartz schist, quartz-biotite schist,
talc-chlorite schist, quartzite, amphibolite and epidiorite.
Mineral Exploration Corporation Limited (MECL) aims to discover deposit of minerals
and rocks that can be used to meet the resource needs of the society. Most exploration
starts with identification of a broad target area that has the potential to contain an ore
body; the challenge is then to narrow the focus to a specific target that can be tested,
hopefully leading to the discovery.
1.2. Brief description of the area and general geology:
The Singhbhum shear zone is an arcuate linear belt extending over 200 km in E-W
direction from Baharagora in the east to Chotapahar/Durapuram in the west. The
Singhbhum Shear Zone is bounded by Singhbhum craton in the south and a mobile belt
in the north. The geology of the study area is simple but each rock type is tectonically
sheared. The lithology of the area is quartz-chlorite/sericite schist, ultrabasic dyke,

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quartz-chlorite-muscovite schist, quartz schist with chlorite-biotite, quartz-chlorite-biotite
schist, talc-chlorite schist, feldpathic schist, Dhanjori quartzite, meta volcanics/epidiorite,
soda granite, granite and quartzite.
Structurally the rocks are highly sheared and folded. Wobbling trends of folds are
common. BMQ passes through 3 generations of folding with displaced and preserved
isoclinal folds and chevron folds.
The study area is rich in copper mineralization along the foliation planes of quartz-
chlorite schist. Other minerals and elements like galena, pyrite, chalcopyrite,
arsenopyrite, garnet, etc. are sparsely distributed in the area.
1.3. Purpose of Training
The Author with his team mates underwent training on Surda project, from 1st to
21st January 2014 under MECL. The purpose of training was learning various field
aspects of Copper deposits and techniques of Copper exploration. The training was given
under the guidance of the officers of MECL. We learnt about Copper deposits,
preparation of plan and section on the basis of borehole data, logging, drilling, and other
things.
1.4 Location and Accessibility:
A) Lies on the Survey of India toposheet no. 73 J/6; lattitude of 220 33’ 7’’ and longitude
of 860 26’ 40’’.
B) South west of Ghatsila, being also the nearest railway station(Ghatsila at 8 km),
national highway no.33 at 19 km.

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Fig. 1.0 Geographic location ofthe study area
Fig. 1.0 Geographic locationof study area
Fig. 1.0 Geographic locationof study area

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1.5. Geomorphology
1.5.1. Topography
The central part of the deposits is exposed to the northern foot of the Narwapahar
Hill, from where it extends eastwards along a hillock named Khundungri and then across
the Gara Nala into Rajdah. The elevation of the area varies from 120 m to 150 m above
mean sea level. The ground is undulating but in general, slopes northward to a small
easterly flowing water course which joins the Gara Nala, a tributary of the Subarnarekha
River. Except for the outcrops of rocks at the foot of the hills and the mounds of
Singridungri and Banadungri on the deposits is at the west of Harharjuria Nala, the area is
covered by paddy fields.
1.5.2. Drainage
The principal river of the ChotaNagpur region is Subarnarekha River is over 6 km
from Surda village. The Gala Nala is a prominent tributary of Subarnarekha River.

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1.5.3. Climate and Rainfall
The average daily temperature ranges between a maximum of about 39 0C in mid
May/June and minimum of 12 0C at the end of December. The average annual rainfall of
the area is about 1200 - 1400 mm which is practically entirely received during monsoon
months of the June - September.
The relative Humidity at the area is about 85% maximum and 48% minimum. The
wind blows generally from west to south west during October to April, with wind
velocity of about 10 km/hour.
1.5.4. Fauna and Flora
a. Flora
There are a number of reserve and protected forests in the area. The forests are
mostly composed of Shoris robuta (sal), Butia species (palash), Albizzia procera (sufed
sins), Diospyros melanoxylon (Tendu), Terminalia chebula (Harra), Buchaninia latifolia
(Piar), Pengamia glabra (Koranj), Termindia belerica (Bahera), etc.
b. Fauna
Elephants are frequently met within the forests of this district and their number
seems to be on the increase. Tigers and panthers are present but make very rare
appearance.
1.6. About Mineral:
Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from Latin: cuprum) and atomic
number 29. It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure
copper is soft and malleable; a freshly exposed surface has a reddish-orange color. It is
used as a conductor of heat and electricity, a building material, and a constituent of
various metal alloys.
The metal and its alloys have been used for thousands of years. In the Roman era, copper
was principally mined on Cyprus, hence the origin of the name of the metal
as сyprium (metal of Cyprus), later shortened to сuprum. Its compounds are commonly
encountered as copper (II) salts, which often impart blue or green colors to minerals such
as azurite and turquoise and have been widely used historically as pigments. Architectural
structures built with copper corrode to give green verdigris (or patina). Decorative
art prominently features copper, both by itself and as part of pigments.
Copper is essential to all living organisms as a trace dietary mineral because it is a key
constituent of the respiratory enzyme complexcytochrome-c-oxidase.

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In molluscs and crustacea copper is a constituent of the blood pigment hemocyanin,
which is replaced by the iron-complexed hemoglobin in fish and other vertebrates. The
main areas where copper is found in humans are liver, muscle and bone. Copper
compounds are used as bacteriostatic substances, fungicides, and wood preservatives.
Native copper is an element and a mineral. It is found in the oxidized zones of copper
deposits; in hydrothermal veins; the cavities of basalt that has been in contact with
hydrothermal solutions; and as pore fillings and replacements in conglomerates that have
been in contact with hydrothermal solutions. It is rarely found in large quantities, thus it
is seldom the primary target of a mining operation. Most copper produced is extracted
from sulfide deposits.
Native copper was probably one of the early metals worked by ancient people. Nuggets
of the metal could be found in streams in a few areas and its properties allowed it to be
easily worked without a required processing step. Today most copper is produced from
sulfide ores. Copper is an excellent conductor of electricity. Most copper mined today is
used to conduct electricity - mostly in wiring. It is also an excellent conductor of heat and
is used in making cooking utensils, heat sinks and heat exchangers. Large amounts are
also used to make alloys such as brass (copper and zinc) and bronze (copper, tin and
zinc). Copper is also alloyed with precious metals such as gold and silver.
1.6.1 Geochemistry of Copper and mineralogy
The geochemical properties of copper are dominated by its great affinity to sulphur,
which characterizes the “chalcophile or triolophilic elements” Cu, Zn, Ag, Cd, In, Hg, Tl,
Pb, Bi, As, S, Se, Sb and Te. Although Cu is redox-sensitive both Cu+ and Cu2+ are
mobile cation under oxidizing conditions. Reduced sulphur and carbonates ion effectively
precipitate and immobilize the element in sulphides and malachite, or at higher pCo2
azurite. Copper forms stable complexes with organic substances. Therefore, black shales,
coal and petroleum ashes always have elevated copper traces. Copper is adsorbd by clay
and Mn-Fe oxy hydroxides. Its average abundance in the crust is 68 (14-100) ppm,
approximately 100 in mafic magmatic rocks and approximately 10 ppm in felsic rocks.
Among sediments, pelites have highest trace contents with 70 ppm, carbonates are lowest
with 6ppm. Acidic and sulphur poor ore forming hydrothermal solutions transport
copper mainly in the form of chloride complexes, such as (CuCl)0 >2500C and CuCl3
2+ or

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CuCl2
- at lower temperatures. At high concentrations of reduced sulphur effective
transport, for example in the form of CuS(HS)2
2- is only possible if solutions are alkaline.
Typical copper concentrations in ore forming hydrothermal solutions are between 100
and 500 ppm. Sulphur rich vapours segregating from magma may contain upto 1% Cu.
HCl rich volcanic gas can transport 280 ppm Cu.
Many copper ore deposits owe exploitable grades to supergene enrichment processes.
Leached sections are characterized by gossans and acidic alteration of silicate rocks.
Carbonate host rocks inhibit displacement of copper and its secondary enrichment.
Although varicoloured copper carbonates may taint every visible surface of the
weathered material, copper contents remain unchanged. However, because of the low
cost of leaching operations, even low grade deposits of oxide copper are attractive
exploration targets. The common abundance of pyrite in copper ore is the cause why acid
rock drainage (ARD) prevention and mitigation is one of the most serious and costly
environmental hazards of copper mining.
Copper Minerals
Name of Mineral Chemical Composition
1. Antlerite Cu3SO4(OH)4
2. Atacamite Cu2Cl H2O
3. Azurite Cu3(OH)2(CO3)2
4. Bornite Cu3FeS4
5. Brochantite Cu4(SO4)OH6
6. Chalcanthite CuSO4.5H2O
7. Chalcopyrite CuFeS2
8. Chalcocite Cu2S
9. Chrysocolla CuSiO3 2H2O
10. Covellite CuS
11. Cubanite CuFe2S3
12. Cuprite Cu2O
13. Enargite Cu3As5S4
14. Malachite CuCO3 Cu(OH)2
15. Native Copper Cu
16. Tennanite Cu12As4S13

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1.6.2 Types of Copper Ore Deposits
Copper ore deposits are formed in all major metallogenetic process systems. A
common feature of the majority is copper transport in the oxidized and acidic fluids, and
concentration and immobilization upon encountering reduced sulphur. The most
important primary genetic groups include:
 Orthomagmatic sulphides.
 Orthomagmatic to magmatic hydrothermal copper sulphide ores in carbonatite.
 Skarn and magmatic hydrothermal replacement deposits.
 Magmatic hydrothermal porphyry copper deposits.
 Magmatic hydrothermal, low sulphur, iron oxide-copper-gold deposits.
 Copper ore veins.
 Submarine exhalative massive sulphide deposits.
 Diagenetic-hydrothermal stratabound/stratiform sediment-hosted deposits.
 Retrograde-metamorphogenic hydrothermal saline brine-related.
 Secondary copper deposits enriched by supergene processes and oxide ores.
1.6.3. Copper Deposit of India
Sr.No. Name of Belt State
1. Singhbhum Copper Belt Jharkhand
2. Khetri Copper Belt Rajasthan
3. Malanjkhand Copper Belt Madhya Pradesh
4. Agnigundala Copper Belt Andhra Pradesh
5. Chitradurga Copper Belt Karnataka
6. Ambamata Multi Metal Deposit Gujarat
7. Rangpo Multimetal Deposit Sikkim

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Fig. 1.1 Copper occurrence of India

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1.7. Previous and present geological work
Geological Survey of India had explored the prospect during the period 1973 to 1978 by
proving the lodes at one level (110mRL) by drilling. GSI drilled 13 boreholes viz. DH-1
to 13 involving 2341 m. of drilling at strike interval ranging from 96 m. to 225 m. GSI
delineated five copper lodes (I, II, IIA, III and IV) in chlorite-quartz schist aggregating
total reserves of 3.596 million tones with 1.3% Cu at 1% Cu cut off. GSI recommended
further drilling, exploratory mining and beneficiation studies to assess the economic
viability of the deposit. HCL reassessed the reserves as 3.2 million tonnes of 1.42% Cu in
the block. RRA, on evaluation of GSI data, re-estimated the reserves of the order of 5.0
million tonnes with an average copper content of 1.2% up to a depth of 200 m. A total of
8437 m. of drilling has been done by MECL under phase-I&II in 36 boreholes along 13
cross sections (I to XIII) covering a strike length of 1300 m. A total of 9.25 million
tonnes of ore reserves with 1.12% copper in four lodes have been estimated. Besides
gold, tellurium, selenium nickel, cobalt & silver are present in copper ores which could
be recovered as by product.
Surda mines being the lone producing mines in the entire Singhbhum copper belt at
present, though opened up in the recent past after closer of all the producing mines in the
90s, necessity for expansion of the mine in depth at prompted HCL, ICC to explore the
mine block, involving a total of 7500 m and covering a total strike length of about1510
m. MECL was awarded this job on contract basis.

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Fig.1.2 Toposheet of study area (Toposheet 73 J/2)

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Chapter 2 General Geology of the Area
2.1. Introduction
Singhbhum Shear zone represents one of the most spectacular tectonic features
occurring in the Singhbhum Craton spread over Jharkhand and adjoining areas, marks the
boundary between the Archaean Craton of Singhbhum Granite Batholiths and the Iron
Ore Group in the south and the Proterozoic mobile belt in the north. Singhbhum Shear
Zone is an arcuate belt of 200 km length and the width varying between 1-25 kms. It is
one of the most well known mineral abundant zones in the country.
Singhbhum Shear Zone is a unique arcuate structure extending from Bahragora in
east to Porahat in west. At the extreme west end it grades into high angle fault and
extends up to the western margin of Bonai granite. Beyond Bahragora in east, the arcuate
southern continuation of the shear zone extends through Mayurbhauj to Sukinda thrust
(Ramakrishnan & Vaidyanathan, 2008).The Shear Zone is characterized by the extreme
ductile shearing, metasomatism, migmatisation and mineralizations of copper, uranium,
tungsten and phosphate.
The bulk of shear zone material is made up of pelites volcanic elastic rocks,
probably generated during the Dhanjori and Koira depositional cycles. The shear zone is
also characterized by abundance of ultramafic intrution such as hornblende schists, talc
schist, serpentine, and pyroxenites. The deformation history of this shear zone is high
complex marked by separated phase of folding, mylonitisation and rotation of fabrics.
2.2. Regional Geology
The most important deposits of the hydrothermal type occur in the Singhbhum
thrust belt in the rock of iron ore series of the Dharwarian (Archaean) Age . These are
divisible in to Chaibasa stage, Iron ore stage and the Dhanjori stage, into last one having
been deposited unconformable over the two older stages. The thrust belt starts from
Duarpuram (22o46’ , 85o34’) NE of Chakardharpur and continues through Kharswan,
Sini, Turamdih, Narwapahar, Bhatin, Jaduguda, Rakha Mines, Roam, Siddeswer,
Kendadih, Surda, Mosabani and Badia. This zone of shearing along which copper,
uranium and apatite are found is like an arc and is about 100 miles long.
This was due to the Singhbhum granite massif on the south acting as a buttress.
Where in the central part of the belt highly metamorphosed rock of the Chaibasa stage
where thrust, against the less altered rock of Dhanjori stage to the south, in the eastern
part, however, the thrust is within the Chaibasa stage itself. In the central part of the
Singhbhum thrust belt the shear zone is narrow being only about 300 meters wide, but in
the vicinity of the Gara Nala it bifurcates in to two zones which, when followed
westward, gradually diverge and are about 5 Km, apart near Chakardharpur.
The shear zone also widens out and bifurcates in a south-easterly direction. While
these orogenic movements were still continuing, quartz-feldspathic material was

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introduced along the shear zones was giving rise to what is commonly known as the
“Soda Granite”.
These latter had also undergone shearing. The mineralization solution probably
emanating from the soda granite and circulating along the zones of shearing and
fracturing are considering responsible for mineralization. The emplacement of uranium is
in the form of disseminations and micro vein lets of uraninite and this appears to have
been controlled mainly by structure but also to some extent by lithology. For example,
mylonitised-chlorite-sericite schist is the most favorable host rock, next to which is
granular rock consisting of chlorite, quartz, tourmaline, apatite and magnetite breccias
and muscovite biotite-schist. The northern shear zone is better mineralized than the
southern one. The location of the individual deposits in the shear zones seems to have
been also influenced by major and minor cross folds and drag folds.
In South East Singhbhum, the Iron Ore series of rocks consisting of sandstone
conglomerates, limestone, shale, phyllites, mica-schist, banded hematite quartzite, lavas
and agglomerates have been folded and over thrust. Localization of economic material of
copper and uranium are found along this overthrust and share zone known as the
Singhbhum Shear Zone, also known as the Singhbhum Thrust Belt, or the Singhbhum
Copper Belt.

14. 14 | P a g e Fig. 2.0 Geological map of Singhbhum Shear Zone

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2.2.1 Regional Stratigraphy.
The first geological work ever carried out on Singhbhum Thrust Belt by Dunn and
Dey (1942) has provided a sound groundwork for study regional stratigraphy of the area.
Subsequently, the stratigraphy has undergone several modifications based on some recent
systematic studies (structural and petrography) supported by laboratory age determination
data. A Generalized Chronostratigraphic Succession of the Singhbhum region, modified
from Saha et. al. (1988) is presented here below in Table 2.1.
Table 2.0. Chronostratigraphic succession of Singhbhum region (Saha et.al’ 1988)
Group Formation Rock Type Age
Kolhan
Newer Dolerite dykes and sills 1600-950 Ma
Mayurbhanj Granite 2100 Ma
Gabbro – anorthosite -Ultramafic rocks 2100-2200 Ma
~~~~~~~~~~~~~Unconformity~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Dhanjori
Jagannathpur, Malangtoli, Dhanjori and
Simlipal Lavas, Quartzite, conglomerate 2300 Ma
Singhbhum
Dhalbhum
Chaibasa
Peletic and arenaceous meta sedimentary
rocks with mafic sills
2300-2400 Ma
~~~~~~~~~~~~~Unconformity~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Singhbhum
Granite
(Phase III)
Epidiorite (intrusive) Upper shales with
sandstones and volcanic rocks. 3100 Ma
Iron Ore
Banded hematite jasper with iron ore Tuffs,
acid volcanic rocks and tuffaceous shales.
Mafic lavas with tuffs. Sandstones and
conglomerate
~~~~~~~~~~~~~Unconformity~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Singhbhum Granite
(Phase II and I),
Nilgiri Granite,
Bonai Granite
3400-3500 Ma
3775 Ma
Older
Metamorphic
Group (OMG)
Older Metamorphic
Tonalitic-Gneiss
(OMTG)
Pelitic schist, quartzite, para-
amphibolites, ortho amphibolites
4000 Ma

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2.3. Local Geology in Detail:
Regional structure as worked out by several geoscientist including dunn and dey
1942 reveals existance of an anticlinorium , comprising of highly metamorphosed rock of
iron ore series and a great shear zone which was formed along the southern limb of
anticlinorium. The present area i.e. the surda mine block is a part of the same zone. The
area is mostly covered by soil except in the mine area where the e xposed rock types are
quartz muscovite schist with or without garnet, quartz sericite chlorite schist, qaurtz
schist, quartz biotite schist, talc chlorite schist, quartzite , amphibolite and epidiorite.
2.3.1.Lithology
Mainly the formation in the area is of schistose rocks, uniformly dipping to N 300
E, The rock units across the strike and in the North-South direction may be broadly
classified as under:
1. The Garnetiferous Mica/Sericite Schist to the North with varying amount of quartz
and other mineral constituents. These rocks are considered to be of Chaibasa stage.
These are impersistant band of quartzite. Sericite is a common alteration mineral of
orthoclase or plagioclase feldspars in areas that have been subjected to hydrothermal
alteration typically associated with copper, tin, or other hydrothermal ore deposits.
2. The middle schistose rocks are referred to the Iron ore stage and are of special
interest as they alone carry Uranium mineralization. The schists are generally
chloritic with or without sericite content and with varying degree of silicification.
Based on the lithological characteristics, these rocks may be sub-divided into three
parts-
a. Chlorite-sericite schist, light green in color with considerable silicification,
conspicuous magnetite disseminations and quartz.
b. Chlorite-sericite schist, light green in color with less degree of silicification
and inconspicuous magnetite mineralization. This rock is generally devoid of
quartz lenticles and exhibits crushing and mylonitisation. This forms the host
rock for the Uranium mineralization disseminations and quartz.
c. Chlorite schist, dark green in color, considerably silicified and with large
grains and crystals of magnetite. Apatites with plenty of quartz lenticles are
present in this formation. Within the formation a conspicuous quartz reef with
gossans like ferruginous material is noted. This footwall chlorite schist is
particularly silicified at the Singridungri and Banadungri blocks to appear at
places as schistose quartzite sometimes containing crystals of tourmaline.

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2.3.2. Structural feature.
The rocks of the iron ore series had undergone folding and metamorphism. The
principle tectonic movement was from North to South and the body was folded into well
defined anticlines and synclines.
The Singhbhum Thrust Belt of which the area forms a part is structurally an
anticlinorium of isoclinals folded northerly-dipping rocks, with over thrusting along the
southern limb of the geo-anticline caused by tectonic movements directed from North to
South. The Thrust Zone which has an arcuate trend has brought the Chaibasa Stage rocks
in the North in juxta-position with the Iron ore stage rocks in the South. This thrusting is
accompanied by crushing, mylonitisation, drag folding, intense shearing, fracturing and
brecciation. The most important structural features are the cross folding generally
indicated by the wobbling trend of the outcrop. These exibit well developed foliation with
general strike of N150 W-S15d0 E to N200 W- S 200 and North – easterly dip of 340 to
400. Being a part of the thrust zone, the area is marked by presence of structural features
like puckers, drags, ptygmatic folds, joints, minor fault, slickensides, etc.
Several sets of joints have been created due to folding and subsequent disturbances.
2.3.3. . Mineralization
Copper mineralization as encountered in bore holes is mainly in the form of veinlets and
veins with dissemination around them. The ore minerals are mainly chalcopyrite,
pyrrhotite and pyrite. The gangues are mainly quartz, biotite, chlorite, garnet. The host
rock is biotite-chlorite schist and biotite-quartz schist.
2.4. Petrographic description of rocks in the study area
1. Quartz-sericite-chlorite schist: Hand specimen, appears light green colored, medium
grained, showing schistosity, composed of chlorite, quartz, sericite and minor oxides like
pyrite present as specs. Minerals are sheared and crenulated.

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2. Quartz- chlorite schist, core sample. Megascopically appears green in color showing
schistosity, composed of chlorite, sericite and quartz. Minor oxides like apatite, magnetite
and pyrite as specs are also present.
3. Quartz-chlorite-muscovite schist: Hand specimen, appears light green colored,
medium grained, showing schistosity, composed of chlorite, quartz, muscovite and minor
oxides like pyrite present as specs.
4. Quartz-chlorite-biotite schist:Hand specimen, appears light green colored, medium
grained, showing schistosity, composed of chlorite, quartz biotite.

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Chapter 3
Prospecting and exploration techniques
3.1. Introduction
Mineral exploration aims to discover deposits of minerals and rocks that can be
used to meet the resource needs of society. Most exploration starts with identification of a
broad target area that has the potential to contain an ore body; the challenge is then to
narrow the focus to a specific target that can be tested, hopefully leading to discovery.
A prospect is a restricted volume of ground that is considered to have the
possibility of directly hosting an ore body and is usually a named geographical location.
The prospect could be outcropping mineralization, an old mine, an area selected on the
basis of some geological idea, or perhaps some anomalous feature of the environment
(usually a geophysical or geochemical measurement) that can be interpreted as having a
close spatial link with ore. Prospects are the basic units with which explorationists work.
The explorationist’s job is to generate new prospects and then to explore them in order to
locate and define any ore body that might lie within them.
Depending on the scale of the base map on which work is being carried out, the
prospecting work can be divided into 3 categories-
1) Reconnaissance- Scale of map used 1:1,000,000 or 1:5,00,000
2) Preliminary prospecting. Scale of map used 1:2,00,000 or 1:1,00,000
3) Detailed prospecting. Scale of map used <1:50,000.
3.2. Exploration Tools
The wide variety of exploration techniques available for exploration can be
broadly grouped into three types: geological, geochemical, and geophysical. The
selection of the technique or combination of techniques used varies with the target
sought, the area to be explored, the geological conditions, the stage of exploration, the
weathering regime, and factors such as location, topography, vegetation cover, climate
and social and cultural issues.
3.2.1 Geological Techniques
If the geological situation in which mineralization is likely to occur, can be
recognized by observation, and then geological mapping of rock types, stratigraphy, or
structure can be used (Table 3.0). Work on very prospective areas may involve more
detailed studies, including petrography, fluid inclusion studies, or alteration mineralogy.
Geological techniques are applicable only where geological observations can be made
(i.e., where there is sufficient outcrop or where appropriate samples can be collected) or

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where geological inferences can be made indirectly (from aerial geophysical or spectral
surveys, aerial photographs, satellite images, etc.).
Table 3.0 Main geological tools in mineral exploration
Tools Basis Applicability Target
Geological
mapping
Systematic mapping of
surface rock types,
structures, hydrothermal
alteration, etc.
Requires reasonable
distribution of
exposure of bedrock,
though other tools can
be used to fill in
missing information
An important tool in
exploration for all
deposit types; provides
the basis
for interpretation of all
other datasets
Aerial
photograph
interpretation
A stereoscopic view of
Earth’s surface is provided
by overlapping
photographs; lineaments,
color, structures,
weathering patterns, and
vegetation can be used to
generate a geological
interpretation
Applicable if the
surface is visible (no
cloud cover); best in
areas lacking thick
vegetation cover
An important aid to
geological mapping;
can be used to locate
ore bodies that are
exposed at the surface
and show distinctive
features
Satellite image
interpretation
Satellite based scanners
generate detailed images
of Earth’s surface
Available everywhere,
but
application varies with
density of buildings
and agriculture,
vegetation,
rainfall, weathering,
etc.
An important aid to
geological mapping;
can seldom be used to
locate ore bodies
directly, but in
favorable conditions in
remote areas, can
highlight alteration
zones
Spectral data
interpretation
A wide variety of spectral
information is now
available from satellites,
aircraft, and ground
surveys
Applicability varies
with density of
buildings and
agriculture, vegetation,
rainfall, weathering,
etc. Most useful in
arid, well exposed
regions
useful aid to
geological mapping; in
favorable conditions,
can locate
hydrothermal
alteration related to
mineralization, or,
rarely, large
mineralized areas
3.2.2 Geophysical techniques:
Geophysical techniques rely on variations in the physical properties of the
mineralized rocks or the rocks that surround them to indicate the location of
mineralization directly or indirectly (Table 3.1). The physical response may be a direct
property of the rock (e.g., its density, natural radioactivity, magnetic properties, or

21. 21 | P a g e
resistivity), or an induced response produced by exposing the rock to a physical stimulus
such as an electrical or magnetic field. Geophysical techniques may indicate
mineralization directly, or may allow the search area to be reduced to a favorable host
rock or a favorable structural environment. A major advantage of
geophysical techniques is that they can detect responses from mineralization buried
several hundred meters below the ground surface, at depths too great to be reflected in the
surface geology or detected by geochemical surveys.
Table 3.1 Geophysical tools in mineral exploration.
Tools Basis Applicability
Magnetic Measures spatial
variations in the
intensity of Earth’s
natural magnetic field
All deposits with a well defined geological setting in
magnetically variable rocks; direct detection of
deposits containing magnetic minerals (e.g., iron ore,
chromite, diamonds, some volcanic massive sulphide
deposits, some porphyry copper deposits)
Radiometric Measures spatial
variations in the
intensity of natural
radiation from
potassium, thorium,
and uranium
All deposits with a well defined geological setting;
direct detection of deposits containing uranium or
thorium minerals, or deposits with strong potassium
enrichment in alteration zones (e.g., volcanic massive
sulphide deposits, porphyry copper deposits, some
epithermal gold deposits)
Gravity Measures spatial
variations in the
intensity of Earth’s
natural gravitational
attraction
Direct detection of deposits with strong density
contrast to surrounding rocks (e.g., iron ore, volcanic
massive sulphide deposits, kimberlites) Huge areas
covered by very low density ground surveys; limited
coverage with high resolution aerial surveys;.
Seismic Records underground
surface reflections
produced by
explosions
Indicates surfaces in the bedrock (e.g., faults, beds,
igneous layers), In mineral exploration, mainly used
for layered complexes.
Resistivity Measures spatial
variations
in the resistivity of the
rock mass being
surveyed
Applied to direct detection of sulphide rich masses
Electromagnetic Induced response in
the Earth from an
applied EM field
Direct detection of deposits with high concentrations
of conductive minerals.
3.2.3 Geochemical techniques:
Geochemical techniques involve the chemical analysis of geological materials
such as stream sediment, soil, rock, and, in some cases, water, vegetation, or air at widely
spaced intervals — in the order of one sample per 10 or 15 square kilometers, and
analyzed by rapid and inexpensive techniques capable of dealing with several hundreds
of samples per day. Analytical results (‘anomalies’) may suggest prospective areas.

22. 22 | P a g e
Geochemical techniques are applicable only where the rock that hosts the ore, or material
derived directly from it, is accessible. In areas of shallow cover, drilling may be used to
collect samples from beneath the cover. Proper orientation surveys are essential for
effective geochemical surveys. Geochemical techniques help in identifying the secondary
and primary haloes.
3.2.4. Testing Targets
Once possible mineralization has been located or a target identified, it is then
necessary to test it to confirm that it is what is sought, and how commercially significant
it is. The cheapest approach in near-surface situations is to dig trenches across the
mineralization to create complete exposure and to allow detailed sampling. If the target is
more than a few meters below the surface, drilling is needed. Drilling is the most reliable
means to investigate a target and is used to define the grade and extent of the
mineralization.
3.3. Guides
Guides are structures or other features and conditions that serves as clues to
the location of ore bodies. The most perfect guides are those which are capable of
representation on maps, sections, or models.
3.3.1 Classification of guides
Genetically guides may be grouped in 3 categories
 From presence of mineralization Features that were in existence before the ore
was deposited and served localize it. Eg. Fractures, breccias pipes.
 Features which came into existence with the ore. Eg. Alteration haloes.
 Features resulting from the presence of ores.
Example- Gossans, oxidation, subsidence, ancient workings etc.
Practically, guides are classified on the basis of geological nature of the guiding features:
3.3.1.1 Physiographic guides
Physiographic features may serve as evidence of the presence of ores. Direct
indications like expression of an ore body, or fault, scraps etc serve as clues to the
geological structure e.g. Metallic or poly-metallic deposits are associated with higher
relief.
3.3.1.2 Mineralogical guides
The minerals that are present and their relative abundance serve as very practical
guides in ore search. Oxidized mineral at the surface is a guide of what lies beneath.
- Rock alteration
- Target ring
- Oxidation
- Primary mineralization
- Gossanization

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3.3.1.3 Structural guides
Structural pattern that serves as guide are called structural guides.
- Fracture pattern- stress and fracturing
- Tensional fractures
- Vein pattern, vein intersection
- Stratigraphic contacts
- Fold patterns
- Ore bodies displaced by faults
- Ore bodies displaced by intrusions.
3.3.1.4 Lithological / Stratigraphic guides
If ore occurs exclusively in a given sedimentary bed, the bed constitutes an ideal
stratigraphic guide. If the containing rock is not a sedimentary formation but an intrusive
body or a volcanic flow, in such case term lithological guide is used. These may be
syngenetic or epigenetic.
3.3.1.5 Regional guides
Some guides to ore are broad and general in nature. Some important types are as follows
- Igneous rock Batholiths and other major bodies,
- Volcanic rocks of specific types and ages
- Age relations with respect to metallogenic epochs.
- Sedimentary rocks of specific ages
- Climatic and topographic conditions favorable to formation of certain types of
deposits
3.3.1.1 Geochemical guides
Proximity to an ore body is indicated in some instances by the presence of metallic
ions in rocks, soil or ground water. The minor content of metal may represent primary
minerals disseminated in the rocks.
and remote sensing are gathered and interpreted. Deep understanding of the geological
history of the area, time bound characteristic of uranium deposits help in conceptual
modeling and application of the best methods of exploration.

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Chapter 4 Drilling
Drilling is concerned with making a relatively small circular hole in the earth’s
surface with help of drilling machines. Drilling is one of the most important, and can be
the most expensive, of all mineral exploration procedures. In almost all cases, it is
drilling that locates and defines economic mineralization, and drilling provides the
ultimate test for all the ideas, theories and predictions that are generated in the preceding
prospect generation and target generation phases of the exploration process. At this stage
the main purpose of drilling is simply to get better idea regarding the ore deposits and
confirm the data observed by geological, geophysical and geochemical means.
4.1. Purpose of drilling: Drilling or boring is used for the following purpose
1. To understand the subsurface geology especially along strike and dip to know
their continuity or discontinuity.
2. To know about the presence or absence of any ore body/ mineralized zone
beneath the surface, depth, nature and persistence of the ore body in depth,
3. Blast holes
4. Development and exploitation (drilling for shaft sinking),
5. Groundwater exploration and exploitation,
6. Engineering purpose like grouting.
4.2. Classification of drilling
There are a large number of different drilling techniques.
i. On the basis of material obtained from the hole, there are two types:
a) Coring: core sample can be obtained,
b) Non-coring: only cutting along with slurry can be found.
ii. On the basis of drilling operation, it can be classified as follows:
a) Conventional drilling,
b) Wire-line drilling,
c) Reserve circulating drilling.
iii. On the basis of presence of water, there are mainly two types-
a) Dry drilling – water is not involved,
b) Wet drilling- water is used for drilling purpose.
iv. On the basis of principal involved in the operation, drilling may be
classified as follows,
a) Percussion drilling: - the rock is broken by repetitive impaction.
In this group five types of drilling can be recognized:
- Jumper bar or hand drill,
- Pneumatic drills-(Jack hammer, hammer drill, wagon drill)
- Churn drill,

25. 25 | P a g e
- Reich drill or drillmaster (down-hole type).
b) Rotary: - In these drills the drilling tool is rotated, by a prime
mover and at the same time certain amount of pressure is applied.
Some common rotary machines are as follow-
- Auger,
- Calyx,
- Rotary drill using rock roller bits, tricone bits etc.
- Diamond drill using diamond and tungsten carbide bit.
c) Miscellaneous: -
- Jet drilling,
- High temperature flame drill,
- Banka or empire drill,
- Burnside drilling equipment.
Note: - Out of the above mentioned classification the drilling used for copper
exploration in surda is diamond drill.
4.2.1. Pneumatic drill –
It is a type of Pneumatic drills. In the mechanized mining, pneumatic drills work
by compressed air. Popular version of compressed air drill is the Jack hammer drill.
Working:-The piston is pushed forward, in one direction by the action of compressed air
under pressure (800-900 lbs/sq.inch.) which enters the cylinder through the valve. The
piston in turn delivers a blow on the shank or upper end of the drill. Due to the action of
the valve, the air supply is reversed and the piston is pushed back.
In forward stroke, the piston does not rotate but the rifle bar inside the
piston rotates and the pawl slips over the ratchet. In the backward movement the chuck,
which connects the drill to the front part of the piston, is made to rotate as the hammer
slips back on the rifling on the rifle bar. Thus a rotary motion is communicated to the
drill rod, simultaneously with the hammer action. Jack hammers are mostly employed for
short length drill for breaking huge boulders and in underground mine phase.
4.2.2 Diamond core drilling: The sample is cut from the target by a diamond
armored or impregnated bit. This produces a cylinder of rock that is recovered from the
inner tube of a core barrel. The bit and core barrel are connected to the surface by a
continuous length (string) of steel or aluminum alloy rods, which allow the bit plus core
barrel to be lowered into the hole, and pulled to the surface. They also transmit the rotary

26. 26 | P a g e
cutting motion to the diamond bit from the surface diesel power unit, and appropriate
pressure to its cutting edge.
Components of diamond drill (fig.4.1):-
(1) Drill bits. Drill bits are classified as either impregnated or surface-set. The former
consist of fine-grained synthetic or industrial grade diamonds within metallic
cement while the latter have individual diamonds, sized by their number per carat.
In general, impregnated bits are suitable for tough compact rocks such as chert,
while surface-set varieties with large individual diamonds are used for softer rocks
such as limestone. Diamond bits will penetrate any rock in time but because of
their high cost and the need to maximize core advance and core recovery with
minimum bit wear, the choice of bit requires considerable experience and
judgment. Different size of drill bits used in diamond drill is mentioned in Table
4.0).
(2) Reamer shell. This is placed just above the bit and is useful in enlarging the hole
to decrease the friction caused by rubbing of the tools and drill rods against the
wall of hole and making the hole of uniform diameter.

27. 27 | P a g e
(3) Core lifter and core catcher. This is a wedged shaped split cylinder ring, used to
retain the core inside the drill core barrel.
(4) Core barrels. As the cylinder of rock (the core) is cut by the circular motion of
the drill bit it is forced up into the core barrel by the advancing drill rods. Core
barrels are classified by the length of core they contain. They are usually 1.5–3.0
m in length but can be as long as 6 m. They are normally double-tube in the sense
that in order to improve core recovery an inner core barrel is independent of the
motion of the drill rods and do not rotate. Triple-tubed barrels can be used in poor
ground and for collecting undisturbed samples for geotechnical analysis.
Previously, to recover core the barrel had to be removed from the hole by
pulling the entire length of drill rods to the surface, a time consuming process.
Wire-line drilling (Q series core) is now standard practice; in this method the
barrel is pulled to the surface inside the connecting drill rods using a thin steel
cable.
(5) Drill rods. These are hollow screw jointed steel cylinders which are varying in
length from 5’ to 10’. The one end of these rods is attached to the core barrel while
the other end is fixed with drill machine. The diameter of drill rods varies with
corresponds to the diameter of bit.
(6) Casing. Cylindrical casing is used to seal the rock face of the hole. It provides a
steel tube in which the drill string can operate in safety and prevents loss of drill
strings caused by rock collapse and either loss or influx of water.

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Table 4.0 The selectionof core, drill hole and drill bit size
4.3. Problems of drilling:
a) Loss of diamonds, breaking and bending of drilling rods, breaking of core
barrels, jamming of drill rod,
The various types of fishing tools are used to take out the lost diamonds,
fallen spanners, or the reamer bits are used- (i)Female type (taps outside), (ii)
Male type (taps inside), (iii) Chopping type (chopping the part), (iv) Rose type
(grinding the parts) etc.
b) Loss of water being circulated,
c) Bore-hole deviation. Due to presence of alternate hard and soft strata with
high dips, presence of weak planes like fault plane, shear or contact zones, use
of bent rods and also due to the application of excessive pressure during
drilling.
The bore hole deviation is generally measured by the use of Hydrofluoric
Acid or the etch test. The other methods are- (i)Tropari compass
method,(ii)Bore hole camera method, (iii)Mass compass method, (iv)Multishot
directional survey method, (v)Photo magnetic instrument method, (vi)Surwell
gyroscope method.

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4.3.1 Etch method using hydrofluoric Acid:-
In this method hydrofluoric
acid of 5% strength is taken into
clean glass tube, which is kept in a
metal cylinder generally a steel or
bronze case. For the purpose of the
survey this is substituted for the core
barrel to the drill and lowered into
the hole with the help of rods. The
acid etches a line on the glass in the
position at which the liquid stands
and thus gives record of the
inclination of the tube. Now the tube
is taken out from the hole after 2
hours and cleaned with water and
kept dry.
With the help of this etch mark the observed angle can be find out. Then the true
angle or corrected angle is determined by the observed angle with the help of standard
curve. This method is very economical and hence commonly used.
4.3.2 Borehole camera method –
In this method, the camera is lowered into the borehole, which records the
inclination as well as the direction of deviation. In the method, various recording can be
recording during lowering the camera.
In our study area we have used both HF method and borehole camera method.

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4.4. Core Arrangement:
The core recovered from the bore holes are placed in core boxes having
longitudinal position generally boxes are 3 feet long and 1feet wide. There are two
types of core arrangement –
i. Serpentine pattern- in serpentine pattern cores are kept continuously depth
wises. It starts from both directions and alternatively.
ii. Book pattern- here core are arranged from left to right. It starts from one
direction gives book pattern core arrangement.
In Surda, book pattern are generally followed.
4.5. Core Logging:
It is the systematic depth wise representation of the complete geological
record of various lithological and structural characteristic of rocks encountered
during drilling. During lithological logging of bore holes core thickness of all
distinguishable rock type, their characteristic such as color, grain size, mineral
composition hardness, core dip angle, structure, nature of contact, fossil (if any),
degree of weathering etc. are noted.
During logging the following parameters are taken into consideration:-
(i) The Run Length: - It is the total length of the individual run and calculated by
subtracting depth run from initial run to last run.
(ii) Core Length: - In each run how many core was obtained is its core length.
(iii) Core recovery: - It is expressed in %.
(iv) Lithology: - study of lithology of cores is very important means of colour,
grain size, texture, mineral composition, etc.
(v) Structure: - Study of structure featured should be done correctly. The
presences of lineation, foliation, schistosity, bedding plane, fissure plane, joints
etc. are recorded.
(vi) Rock Quality Designation (RQD):- It is expressed in %, it is computed by the
following formula-
summed length odf core sticks more than 10 cm in length
Total length of core recovered
(vii) Core angle: - This is the angle between the core axis and the plane of foliation,
bedding, schistosity, etc. It is measured with the help of diagonal scale.
(viii) Mineralization: - The study of mineralization in core is done with the help of
scintillation counter. The Scintillation counter reads more than the background
value in the mineralized area.

31. 31 | P a g e
Table 4.1 Core Logging
TO
(m)
Fro
m
(m)
Run
/
Leng
th
(m)
Recov
ery
(%)
Extrapola
tion
Mineral
ogy
Descrip
tion
Visual
estimat
ion
Roc
k
type
Structur
e
Co
re
dip
°
Rem
ark
526.
50
524
.5
2 100 2 Sericite,
muscovi
te,
Quartz
--- -- Mic
a
schis
t
Qua
rtz
vein
schistose 15°
529.
5
526
.5
3 98.33 - - -- -- -- -- 20°
532.
5
529
.5
3 100 - - -- -- -- -- 16°
535.
5
532
.5
3 100 - - -- -- -- -- 47°
538.
5
535
.5
3 100 - - -- -- -- -- 25°
541.
5
538
.5
3 100 - --
garnet
-- -- -- --
Microfol
ding
shearing
25°
544.
5
541
.5
3 100 - -- -- -- -- Faulting 20°
547.
5
544
.5
3 99 3 -- -- -- -- -- 10°
550.
5
547
.5
3 97.3 - -- -- -- -- -- 25°
553.
5
550
.5
3 100 - -- -- -- -- -- 15°
556.
5
553
.5
3 100 - -- -- -- -- -- 25°
558.
0
556
.5
1.5 100 - -- --- -- -- -- 25°
559.
5
558
.0
1.5 100 - -- -- -- -- -- 25°
562.
5
559
.5
3 100 - -- -- -- -- -- 15°
565.
5
562
.5
3 100 - -- -- -- -- -- 15°
568.
5
565
.5
3 95.7 - -- -- -- -- -- 15°
571. 568 3 100 - -- -- -- -- -- 20°

32. 32 | P a g e
5 .
574.
5
571
.5
3 100 - -- -- -- -- -- 20°
577.
5
574
.5
3 98 - -- -- -- -- -- 18°
580.
5
577
.5
3 100 - -- -- -- -- -- 20°
583.
5
580
.5
3 100 - -- -- -- -- -- 20°
586.
5
583
.5
3 99 - -- -- -- -- -- 20°
589.
5
586
.5
3 100 - -- -- -- -- -- 20°
Fig.4.4 Reaming Shell
Fig.4.6.a Diamond drill bits (Lateral View)
Fig.4.5. Core Catcher

33. 33 | P a g e
Fig.4.6.b Diamond Drill Bits, (top view)

34. 34 | P a g e
Fig.4.7 Q Series Wire line core barrel assembly

35. 35 | P a g e
Chapter 5 Sampling
Sampling is an art of collecting small fractions of the material so as to represent
the whole mass or a part representative of the whole that defines location and
composition of ore body or formation. Mine evaluation is closely related to the
interpretation of the geological condition and the choice of method of sampling is usually
governed by the character of mineral occurrence to be studied.
5.1 Purpose of Sampling:
i. To ascertain the grade of ore or metal value,
ii. To determine chemical, physical characteristics of ore body or formation
and genetic aspect in thin and polished sections.
iii. To ascertain the exact dimension and geometry of the deposit.
iv. To evaluate engineering and hydrological properties and variation in
physical properties or behavior of formations or ore bodies at depth.
5.2 Theory of sampling:
(Based on uneven distribution of metals/ minerals and physical characteristics of
the ore body and host rocks)
i. It is part representative of whole.
ii. Proper site of sample and width selection,
iii. Mechanical collection at mathematical spaced intervals,
iv. Proper care must be taken when abnormal distribution of ore,
v. Technique and amount of sample depend upon type of deposit and degree of
development.
5.3 Principle of sampling:
vi. In all cases sampling is done across the strike or the contact.
vii. Examination of the sample should include chemical, macro/ micro petrological
studies.
viii. Sample location must be indicated with reference to fixed point on the plan/ map.
ix. The surface must be clean to avoid weathered portion and contamination.
x. The width of each sample should be accurately recorded.
xi. Sample reduction for chemical analysis.
xii. Depth and width of channel should be uniform and recorded.

36. 36 | P a g e
5.4Techniques of sampling:
1. Channel sampling: channel samples are collected from grooves or channels
which are generally 10 cm. broad and 2.5 cm deep across the exposure parallel to
the width of ore body. Method usually is applied to sample trenches; pit and
underground mine the purpose is to ensure that uniform quantity of material drawn
over the entire width of ore body. In the underground drives, the true width groove
can only be cut in face of a drive or in a cross-cut. In underground mines the
grooves cover the footwall and the back of the wall in the case of inclined ore
bodies.
2. Grab or chip sampling: Specimen is picked up or a small portion of mineralized
rock is taken out at random in a grab sample, to obtain a preliminary idea about
the nature and grade of mineralization and rock characteristic etc., location of the
sample is important in this case.
3. Dump sampling: Where the dump is of a regular shape, the sample is drawn at
several points of the dump from its top. Depending upon the size of the material
dumped, suitable methods are devised for such work.
4. Bulk sampling: sample obtained in the order of few tones either from pit channel
runoff mines, exploratory mines for quality testing during pre-production.
5. Composite sampling: theoretically different samples collected from various part
of an ore body is combined in a single sample as representative for assaying.
6. Bore-hole sampling: bore hole samples are drawn by drilling (coring type)
which is regarded as most modern and authentic visual examination of
mineralization. In underground mines, it helps in delimiting the lateral as well
as vertical extension of the ore body.
Along with the core sludge are systematically placed in the core box and examined
on the basis of color, luster, mineral composition etc. and its data recording with
depth wise detail is termed as bore-hole logging.

37. 37 | P a g e
5.5 Sample Reduction techniques
The total sample must be reduced to sample size that can be quickly tested. Time
will not allow the technician to run the total sample. The key to sample reduction is to
ensure that the sample remains representative of the material in the stockpile. This
practice is commonly referred to as splitting a sample. Four different methods are used to
reduce a sample to the proper test size.
i. Mechanical splitter
ii. Sand splitter
iii. Miniature stockpile
iv. Quartering
Mechanical splitter splits the sample into halves as the material passes through
the space between the bars in the splitter. The same number of particle size will go into
each half of the sample, thus keeping the reduced sample representative of the total
collected sample.
Sand splitter is the smaller version of the mechanical splitter.
Miniature stockpile is used for reducing all samples of fine aggregates when the
material is in a dump or most condition. If the sample to be split is dry, then the material
must be moistened before using the method. The splitter procedure is as follows.
Quartering is a non mechanical method of reducing a sample. This is the best
method of reducing highly moistened compact aggregate or when a mechanical splitter is
not available. Quartering procedure is as follow-
i. Pour the sample in a conical pile in the centre of a clean, dry steel plate or other
hand smooth non-absorptive surface.
ii. Using a large trowel, shovel or other suitable tool, turn the entire sample over
three times and reshape the sample into a conical pile,
iii. Uniformly flattened the pile until the height is approximately equal to 4-8 times
the diameter.
iv. With a large trowel or other suitable tool, divide the sample in half by vertically
passing the tool through the centre of the pile. In a similar manner divide each of
these halves into two parts, thus ‘quartering’ the sample and combine diagonally
opposite quarters of the material into two samples. Store one of these 2 halves. If
the remaining material still weighs too much, repeat the entire quartering process,
until the proper test sample size is obtained.

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Chapter 6 Environmental Aspects
6.1 Introduction
The word environment is derived from a Greek word which means
surroundings. In simpler terms, we can say that environment mean atmosphere
which surrounds an organism. It is in this atmosphere that an organism lives, thrive
nurture and sustains it. Thus, everything that we see around us – land, air, water,
flora and fauna consist of our environment. The environment exerts its influence
upon us and thus our living condition are indirectly controlled and affected to an
extent. Any change in the environment is thus bound to disturb the harmony of the
environment with its organism it becomes necessary for human being not to disturb
this balance by their activities .This inter–relationship between the organism and
environment is the ecological balance which should be maintained at any cost.
Industrial development & economic requirement depends on mineral growth
and energy requirement with rapid global industrialization since last 19th century,
deforestation has added momentum in degradation of environment of much faster
rate.
Environment impact from source like industrial effluent, hydroelectricity,
mining activity, thermal power generation, biogenic decay, weapon test falls out;
natural hazards are visible by common people. But environmental impacts which
are not visible due to natural radiation and needs careful attention.
On the vital source of natural environment radiation are atomic minerals.
Radiation effecting human body are either of cosmic or of terrestrial origin. Cosmic
radiation originated from interstellar protons which are high energy proton. At sea
level, cosmic radiation is 0.30 msv .It is doubled or tripled or slightly more than in
1msv per year at high altitude. Terrestrial radiation originated from the constituent
element of the earth such as K40, U238, and Th232 etc.
6.2 Sources of Copper Minerals Exploration
a) Surface activities
b) Sub-surface activities
c) Milling /Pilot scale test recovery
d) Laboratory analysis
e) copper waste disposal

39. 39 | P a g e
a. Surface activities
There are insignificant copper mineral impacts from these activities. These steps
involves survey and mapping, channeling, trenching and pitting of uraniferous
rock/ores and sampling of rocks, soil sediment ,water and hot springs. In India
b. Sub-surface activities
Sub-surface activities are such as exploratory mining, underground drilling,
underground sampling etc. In India, copper mines are all of low grade. Thus, no
special precautions are necessary for protection against external hazards in such
mines.In highleval effect of copper, the exposure of workers be controlled by
limiting its duration of exposures.
When itis inhaled, its daughter products are deposited in different respiratory
organs depending upon the size of the carrier particulates. They irradiate the
neighboring tissues and causeconsiderable damage to the tissue of respiratory
organ.
Substantial amount of dust can be generated during sample preparation,
crushing,grinding, spitting, screening, sieving and blending. Sample preparation
room should beseparated from other areas and should be equipped with dust
control system such ashoods and filters. The personal preparation of the sample
should be properly alteredwith over all boots; gloves dust mask and caps. Worker
should also shower and changeinto normal clothing before leaving the controlled
area.
d. Laboratory analysis
small quantity of Copper ore and minerals are processed in the laboratory.
The effects of sample processing and analysis is insignificant. The scientist and
technicians are use in some technics.
e. copper waste disposal
copper material used in industry, agriculture, research andmuch in the same way as
other human activity. The largest amounts of copper waste are produced by
activities related to ore mining.
6.3 Types of Waste at Different Stages of copper ore
There are different types of waste material is produced at different stages of
copper ore.

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6.4 Impact of Copper Mining
The impact varies with the resources stage of development. As the
exploration activitysuch as collecting and analyzing remote sensing data for field
work, drilling andgathering geophysical data are going on so they have minimal
impact of environment.But mining and processing minerals can have a considerable
impact on land, water, airand biological resources as in conventional mines.
The following problem can be generated if mining are set up in the area
a. Land degradation. Land degradation can be caused by dumping of waste
from mines , excavation andmineral stocks piling soil formation may require 2,000
to 20,000 years and if remove for1 year from its natural place , its losses all the
nutrients forever.
b. Deforestation. Deforestation is depends upon selection of mining
methods. Underground miningmethods are not much responsible for deforestation
while open cast mine methodsrequire considerable amount of deforestation.
c. Water pollution. Water pollution problem is a major environmental
problem related to mining activities.The water, which is found in many mining area
is extremely acidic. Besides radon richmining water is also matter of discussion.
Ground water level is also affected by the miningactivities.
d. Air pollution. The formation of dust during mining and transportation and
emission of harmful gasesultimately pollute the air. Dust from layer in the
atmosphere so short radiation form.
e. Noise pollution. Like other mines, uranium mines, either underground or
open pit, posses serve noisehazards and hence the sound level meter is used for
nose measurement. Noise levelduring different operation was measured
periodically with noise level meter for safety,good quality ear muffs are used by
exposed personnel.
f. Effect of biological activities. As the deforestation begins, many species
including man has to shift at other places.Some species can survive at another places
and many other cannot tailing from theconcentration plant into the rivers.
6.5 Pollution Control Measures in Copper Mines
The methods for maintaining a safe working environment are basically the
same in copper mines as is conventional mines but the unique property of radon
and its daughter impose special requirement, particularly in regard of ventilation.
Basic methods of control in order of importance are
a. Mechanical dilution ventilation.
c. Personnel protection and job rotation.
d.Safe working practice and neat housekeeping.
e. Through personnel hygiene and protective clothing..
g. Air cleaning.

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h. Full proof personnel respiratory protection
Environment is a key issue and transcended in emphasis from domestic to
international. As environmental standard are becoming complex more and more, its
importance and complexity of interrelation between the mankind, the global
resources base and the encompassing are needed to be recognized.
a. Surface impacts .
b. Air quality, including radon measurement.
c. Water quality, including radon measurement.
d. Land use.
e. Regional seismicity.
The baseline data generation is planned to cover 3-4 seasons over 2-3 years to
assess its fluctuation and for planning the remedial measure during the actual stage
of commercial mining with sophisticated analytical laboratories and a bake of
decades long expertise such quality data generation will go a long way in public
awareness programme.
6.6 Environmental Surveillance Objective
A comprehensive environmental surveillance program is essential to
a. Evaluate the effectiveness of designed control measures
b. Identify unexpected environmental contamination
c. To provide data for exposure estimates
d. Verify physical condition and integrity of waste containment facility
e. Maintain the environmental releases within the prescribe
6.7 Environmental Monitoring Program
The regular environmental monitoring program includes weekly effluent and
watersampling and analysis at the discharge points near mine, mill, tailing pond and
in therecipient aquatic system in the vicinity of the copper complex. Monthly
sampling andanalysis are carried out at these locations and up to a distance of about
10 km.
6.8 Impact Assessment
These operations are carried out as per the international guidelines and
within the limits prescribed by DGMS, ICRP, and Armband central and state
pollution control boards.

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6.8.1 Major Pathways
Extensive environmental surveillance programme carried out at site, even
before the commencement of commercial operations and continued over the years
have identified the possible impacts of these release on
a. Radon levels in the atmosphere, above natural levels, in the immediate
environment of mine/mill complex and tailing pond area.
b. Dust level in air and associated long lived alpha activity.
c. Concentration of radionuclide’s in surface and ground water.
d. Uptake of radionuclides by food items obtained in the area including fish
etcharvested from aquatic system.
e. External exposure, especially from tailing pond area.

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PHOTOGRAPHS

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Photo 1- Banti kumar, Ravi Tomar, Harsh Vardhan, Mohammad Asad , Mr. V.
N. Das, Mr. Arindam Ghose, Mr. Rustam , Siddhartha Jang Thapa, (from left to
right) at MECL surda project drill site, East Singhbhum (Jharkhand).
A. Group Photos

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Photo 2- Ravi Tomar, Banti kumar, ArindamGhose,SiddharthaJang Thapa,
Harsh vardhan, Mohammad Asad,(left toright)
B. Drilling (Coring type diamond drills)
Photo3. Truck mounted Hydrostatic drilling inMECL surdaproject at
surda village,

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Photo 4. Mechanical drill (diamondDrill), in surda village in east
singhbhum( Jharkhand )

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Core Samples
Photo 5. Bore-hole Samples collected in surda village area, east singhbhum
(arranged in Book-pattern)
Photo 6. Core Catcher

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Websites
 http://earth.google.com

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