Directions: Please answer three of the four following essay questions using reading materials.
Question #1: Monbiot (Guard Dogs of Perception) claims that the scientific freedom is a guarantor of our wider liberties.
A) Explain how this claim is true or not.
B) Explain why this claim is a benefit to a society, or a false hope.
Question #2: Does information justice truly exist? Create an argument for information justice, or against the claim of information justice.
Question #3: Explain what may be described as an "information oligarchy." Is this beneficial to a society - why or why not?
Question #4: Can you claim a "right"?
A) To privacy. If yes, explain your reasons for such a claim. If not, explain why you can't claim a "right" to privacy.
B) Do you have an obligation to protect your neighbor's right to privacy. Explain your position.
O R I G I N A L P A P E R
At the foundations of information justice
Matthew P. Butcher
Published online: 10 February 2009
� Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009
Abstract Is there such a thing as information justice? In
this paper, I argue that the current state of the information
economy, particularly as it regards information and com-
puting technology (ICT), is unjust, conferring power
disproportionately on the information-wealthy at great
expense to the information-poor. As ICT becomes the pri-
mary method for accessing and manipulating information, it
ought to be treated as a foundational layer of the information
economy. I argue that by maximizing the liberties (freedom
to use, freedom to distribute, freedom to modify, and so on)
associated with certain computer software, an incentives-
rich and stable environment can be established in ICT that
will foster development of the information economy among
the information poor. I suggest that the now-mature Free and
Open Source Software paradigm, which has already pro-
duced widely-used enterprise-class applications, can be
harnessed in support of these ends.
Keywords Information and computer technology �
Information justice � Information economy �
Free and Open Source Software (FOSS)
In 2004, the Business Software Association (BSA) and
Microsoft Corporation contacted the government of Indo-
nesia, claiming that the country owed licensing fees for
Microsoft software running on 500,000 computers. The
cost of purchasing licenses to run a single basic functional
computer workstation powered by Microsoft software is
$524.98 USD, which works out to a whopping 47.73% of
the per capita GDP of Indonesia.
1
But escaping such an
expense by simply avoiding the use of an operating system
is unfeasible. The operating system is the base-level pro-
gram that bridges the computer’s hardware with all of the
standard programs. A computer without an operating
system is a worthless piece of equipment, incapable of
performing any significant computing tasks.
2
Recent
research suggests that the Indonesia case is not a rarity.
3
In
.
ORIGINAL PAPERAt the foundations of information justice.docxaman341480
ORIGINAL PAPER
At the foundations of information justice
Matthew P. Butcher
Published online: 10 February 2009
� Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009
Abstract Is there such a thing as information justice? In
this paper, I argue that the current state of the information
economy, particularly as it regards information and com-
puting technology (ICT), is unjust, conferring power
disproportionately on the information-wealthy at great
expense to the information-poor. As ICT becomes the pri-
mary method for accessing and manipulating information, it
ought to be treated as a foundational layer of the information
economy. I argue that by maximizing the liberties (freedom
to use, freedom to distribute, freedom to modify, and so on)
associated with certain computer software, an incentives-
rich and stable environment can be established in ICT that
will foster development of the information economy among
the information poor. I suggest that the now-mature Free and
Open Source Software paradigm, which has already pro-
duced widely-used enterprise-class applications, can be
harnessed in support of these ends.
Keywords Information and computer technology �
Information justice � Information economy �
Free and Open Source Software (FOSS)
In 2004, the Business Software Association (BSA) and
Microsoft Corporation contacted the government of Indo-
nesia, claiming that the country owed licensing fees for
Microsoft software running on 500,000 computers. The
cost of purchasing licenses to run a single basic functional
computer workstation powered by Microsoft software is
$524.98 USD, which works out to a whopping 47.73% of
the per capita GDP of Indonesia.1 But escaping such an
expense by simply avoiding the use of an operating system
is unfeasible. The operating system is the base-level pro-
gram that bridges the computer’s hardware with all of the
standard programs. A computer without an operating
system is a worthless piece of equipment, incapable of
performing any significant computing tasks.2 Recent
research suggests that the Indonesia case is not a rarity.3 In
his article ‘‘License Fees and GDP Per Capita,’’ Rishab
Ghosh calculated the cost of license fees for Windows XP
based on the per capita GDP. The results were stunning: In
47 of 176 sampled countries, the cost of running Microsoft
Windows plus Microsoft Office was greater than the per
capita GDP of the country.4 In Vietnam, the software cost
M. P. Butcher (&)
Department of Philosophy, Loyola University Chicago, Crown
Center, Suite 300, 6525 N. Sheridan Road, Chicago, IL 60626,
USA
e-mail: [email protected]
1 The $524.98 price tag is based on the Amazon.com price (as of
Nov. 2006) for Windows XP Home Edition ($194.99) and Microsoft
Office 2003 Standard Edition (329.99). Retail price for these is much
higher. In 2004, these were the lowest end of Microsoft’s operating
system and office packs. According the the CIA Fact Book, the GDP
of Indonesia is.
ORIGINAL PAPERAt the foundations of information justice.docxvannagoforth
ORIGINAL PAPER
At the foundations of information justice
Matthew P. Butcher
Published online: 10 February 2009
� Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009
Abstract Is there such a thing as information justice? In
this paper, I argue that the current state of the information
economy, particularly as it regards information and com-
puting technology (ICT), is unjust, conferring power
disproportionately on the information-wealthy at great
expense to the information-poor. As ICT becomes the pri-
mary method for accessing and manipulating information, it
ought to be treated as a foundational layer of the information
economy. I argue that by maximizing the liberties (freedom
to use, freedom to distribute, freedom to modify, and so on)
associated with certain computer software, an incentives-
rich and stable environment can be established in ICT that
will foster development of the information economy among
the information poor. I suggest that the now-mature Free and
Open Source Software paradigm, which has already pro-
duced widely-used enterprise-class applications, can be
harnessed in support of these ends.
Keywords Information and computer technology �
Information justice � Information economy �
Free and Open Source Software (FOSS)
In 2004, the Business Software Association (BSA) and
Microsoft Corporation contacted the government of Indo-
nesia, claiming that the country owed licensing fees for
Microsoft software running on 500,000 computers. The
cost of purchasing licenses to run a single basic functional
computer workstation powered by Microsoft software is
$524.98 USD, which works out to a whopping 47.73% of
the per capita GDP of Indonesia.1 But escaping such an
expense by simply avoiding the use of an operating system
is unfeasible. The operating system is the base-level pro-
gram that bridges the computer’s hardware with all of the
standard programs. A computer without an operating
system is a worthless piece of equipment, incapable of
performing any significant computing tasks.2 Recent
research suggests that the Indonesia case is not a rarity.3 In
his article ‘‘License Fees and GDP Per Capita,’’ Rishab
Ghosh calculated the cost of license fees for Windows XP
based on the per capita GDP. The results were stunning: In
47 of 176 sampled countries, the cost of running Microsoft
Windows plus Microsoft Office was greater than the per
capita GDP of the country.4 In Vietnam, the software cost
M. P. Butcher (&)
Department of Philosophy, Loyola University Chicago, Crown
Center, Suite 300, 6525 N. Sheridan Road, Chicago, IL 60626,
USA
e-mail: [email protected]
1 The $524.98 price tag is based on the Amazon.com price (as of
Nov. 2006) for Windows XP Home Edition ($194.99) and Microsoft
Office 2003 Standard Edition (329.99). Retail price for these is much
higher. In 2004, these were the lowest end of Microsoft’s operating
system and office packs. According the the CIA Fact Book, the GDP
of Indonesia is ...
Control over information is distributed unjustly, creating an "information oligarchy" where a small group controls information access and use. This negatively impacts human well-being, especially in impoverished regions lacking information wealth and access. A potential solution is promoting free and open source software, which grants users freedom over software use, modification, and distribution. This could help reduce information poverty by providing a wealth of technical knowledge and freeing users from outside corporate interests.
ANALYTIC CHECKLIST FOR ESSAYS - ESL WorksAnita Miller
1. The document provides instructions for creating an account on HelpWriting.net in order to request that a writer complete an assignment. It outlines the 5-step process for this: creating an account, submitting a request form, reviewing writer bids, selecting a writer, and reviewing/authorizing the completed work.
2. The document then discusses the advantages of using HelpWriting.net, including that writers stand by providing original, high-quality content. It also notes the site's promise to fully meet customer needs and provide free revisions.
Computer Forensics
Discussion 1
"Forensics Certifications" Please respond to the following:
· Determine whether or not you believe certifications in systems forensics are necessary and explain why you believe this to be the case. Compare and contrast certifications and on-the-job training and identify which you believe is more useful for a system forensics professional. Provide a rationale with your response.
· Suppose you are the hiring manager looking to hire a new system forensics specialist. Specify at least five (5) credentials you would expect an ample candidate to possess. Determine which of these credentials you believe to be the most important and provide a reason for your decision.
Discussion 2
"System Forensics Organizations" Please respond to the following:
· Use the Internet or the Library to research and select one (1) reputable system forensics organization. Provide a brief overview of the organization you chose, including what it provides for its members, and how one can join the organization. Indicate why, in your opinion, this particular organization would be the best choice for a system forensics professional to join and why you believe this way.
· Examine what you believe to be the most important reason for a systems forensic professional to be a member of a forensics organization and how this could further one’s career in the industry.
Cyber Security
Discussion 1
"Leading Through Effective Strategic Management" Please respond to the following:
· Propose three ways to ensure that cooperation occurs across security functions when developing a strategic plan. Select what you believe is the most effective way to promote collaboration and explain why.
· Explain what may happen if working cultures are overlooked when developing a strategy. Recommend one way to prevent working cultures from being overlooked.
Discussion 2
"Installing Security with System and Application Development" Please respond to the following:
· Provide three examples that demonstrate how security can be instilled within the Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC). Provide two examples on what users may experience with software products if they are released with minimal security planning.
· Suggest three ways that application security can be monitored and evaluated for effectiveness. Choose what you believe to be the most effective way and discuss why.
Computer Security
Discussion 1
"Current Events and Future Trends" Please respond to the following:
· How can we create a national security culture where all are more cognizant of security threats and involved to help prevent potential incidents? How do we balance the need for this security culture with the rights guaranteed to us by our Bill of Rights?
Research Topics (Choose 1 Topic)
Terrorism
· Terrorism remains one of the major concerns in the wake of the 9-11 events. Research into terrorism as it pertains to homeland security is conducted by corporations like the RAND Corporation, which is.
Read four (4) academically reviewed articles on Net Neutrality and.docxmakdul
Read four (4) academically reviewed articles on Net Neutrality and complete the following activities:
(Wikipedia articles will not be accepted. Professor may check originality of all posts. Avoid copy-and-paste.
1. Summarize all four (4) articles in 300 words or more. Please use your own words. No copy-and-paste
2. Base on your article review and the assigned reading, discuss how net neutrality will affect data networks and the availability of information to businesses. Do you believe net neutrality will lead to IT efficiency? Why or why not?
Need your opinion with at least 150 words per each post below
1.Ibrahim Motiwala:
Never a devotee of Net Neutrality, FCC executive Ajit Pai, assigned seat of the commission by President Trump in January 2017, flagged from the get-go in his term his expectation to destroy Net Neutrality insurances. In May 2017, the FCC issued "Restoring Internet Freedom Notice of Proposed Rulemaking." Its motivation was to "reestablish the Internet to a light-touch regulatory structure" and to change broadband Internet benefit back to an “information benefit" (FCC, 2017). The news that the FCC proposed to invert Net Neutrality made enormous responses by advocates who needed Internet action to proceed with all information, content, sites, and administrations treated similarly. The FCC got 21.8 million remarks, most challenging the run change, however a contention more than many copy messages sent by spam bots caused Ajit Pai to declare that the FCC would consider just those that "brought new actualities into the record or made genuine legitimate contentions" (Romano, 2017). Notwithstanding remarks, there were challenges the approaching FCC activity. On July 12, 2017, the American Library Association (ALA) and almost two hundred different associations took an interest in "Day of Action," an online dissent to spare Net Neutrality (ALA, 2017).
Congressional competitors like Texan Laura Moser who composed an introduction on internet fairness as a major aspect of her offer for a GOP-held seat that Democrats are intending to flip have just crusaded forcefully on the issue. Other contenders have been offered a format by Congressional Dynamic Caucus part Ro Khanna, a technically knowledgeable California Democrat who proposes an Internet Bill of Rights. Notwithstanding unhindered internet, his stage incorporates the privilege to general access; the privilege to be free from warrantless metadata accumulation; the privilege to reveal the sum, nature, and dates of mystery information asks for by the government; the privilege to be completely educated concerning the extent of your information's utilization; and the privilege to be educated at the point when there's a difference responsible for your information.
2.Naga Kolluru:
To manage the web administrations Net Neutrality will be utilized by the administration bodies. To discover the straightforwardness in the charges to every one of the clients and the keep u ...
Defragmentation of indian legal cases withijfcstjournal
The main aim of this research paper is to develop a rule based knowledge database for legal expert system
for consumer protection act, a domain within the Indian legal system which is often in demand. A
knowledge database developed here will further help the legal expert system to determine type of case with
respect to the Indian Judicial System. In this paper a rule based knowledge database will be developed to
determine the type of the case. The main aim of the study is to build a prototype which will rule based in
nature. The rule based knowledge database development is the first phase in the development of
comprehensive rule based legal expert system for consumer protection act which will be of great help in
process of solving consumer related cases.
(300-400 words)1- Watch anyone of the following documentarymovi.docxmayank272369
(300-400 words)
1- Watch anyone of the following documentary/movie:
· The Corporation (2005)
· Food Inc. (2009)
· An Inconvenient Truth (2006)
Share your understanding around
Who
THE PEOPLE INVOLVED
What
THE PROBLEMS, THINGS, IDEAS
When
PAST, PRESENT, FUTURE OF THE TOPIC
Where
THE PLACE INVOLVED
Why
THE CAUSES, REASONS, RESULTS, CONDITIONS.
How
HISTORY OR FUNCTION (HOW IT BEGAN OR OPERATES).
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2-
(a) Find a news article about an economic topic that you find interesting.
(b) Make a short bullet-list summary of the article.
(c) Write and illustrate with appropriate graphs an economic analysis of the key points in the article.
Hint: Use 5Ws and 1H in your explanation.
1. Who was involved?
1. What happened?
1. When did it happen?
1. Where did it happen?
1. Why did it happen?
1. How did it happen?
Smartphones Have Privacy Risks.docx
Smartphones Have Privacy Risks
Smartphones, 2013
Top of Form
Bottom of Form
Around the turn of the century, the FBI [Federal Bureau of Investigation] was pursuing a case against a suspect—rumored to be Las Vegas strip-club tycoon Michael Galardi, though documents in the case are still sealed—when it hit upon a novel surveillance strategy.
The suspect owned a luxury car equipped with an OnStar-like system that allowed customers to "phone home" to the manufacturer for roadside assistance. The system included an eavesdropping mode designed to help the police recover the vehicle if it was stolen, but the FBI realized this same antitheft capability could also be used to spy on the vehicle's owner.
When the bureau asked the manufacturer for help, however, the firm (whose identity is still secret) objected. They said switching on the device's microphone would render its other functions—such as the ability to contact emergency personnel in case of an accident—inoperable. A federal appeals court sided with the company; ruling the company could not be compelled to transform its product into a surveillance device if doing so would interfere with a product's primary functionality.
The specifics of that 2003 ruling seem quaint today [in 2012]. The smartphones most of us now carry in our pockets can easily be turned into surveillance and tracking devices without impairing their primary functions. And that's not the only privacy risk created as we shift to a mobile, cloud-based computing world. The cloud services we use to synchronize data between our devices increase the risk of our private data falling prey to snooping by the government, by private hackers, or by the cloud service provider itself. And we're packing ever more private data onto our mobile devices, which can create big headaches if we leave a cell phone in a taxicab.
What to do about it? In this [viewpoint], we'll explore the new privacy threats being created as the world shifts to an increasingly mobile, multi-device computing paradigm. Luckily, there are steps both device makers and lawmakers can take to ...
ORIGINAL PAPERAt the foundations of information justice.docxaman341480
ORIGINAL PAPER
At the foundations of information justice
Matthew P. Butcher
Published online: 10 February 2009
� Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009
Abstract Is there such a thing as information justice? In
this paper, I argue that the current state of the information
economy, particularly as it regards information and com-
puting technology (ICT), is unjust, conferring power
disproportionately on the information-wealthy at great
expense to the information-poor. As ICT becomes the pri-
mary method for accessing and manipulating information, it
ought to be treated as a foundational layer of the information
economy. I argue that by maximizing the liberties (freedom
to use, freedom to distribute, freedom to modify, and so on)
associated with certain computer software, an incentives-
rich and stable environment can be established in ICT that
will foster development of the information economy among
the information poor. I suggest that the now-mature Free and
Open Source Software paradigm, which has already pro-
duced widely-used enterprise-class applications, can be
harnessed in support of these ends.
Keywords Information and computer technology �
Information justice � Information economy �
Free and Open Source Software (FOSS)
In 2004, the Business Software Association (BSA) and
Microsoft Corporation contacted the government of Indo-
nesia, claiming that the country owed licensing fees for
Microsoft software running on 500,000 computers. The
cost of purchasing licenses to run a single basic functional
computer workstation powered by Microsoft software is
$524.98 USD, which works out to a whopping 47.73% of
the per capita GDP of Indonesia.1 But escaping such an
expense by simply avoiding the use of an operating system
is unfeasible. The operating system is the base-level pro-
gram that bridges the computer’s hardware with all of the
standard programs. A computer without an operating
system is a worthless piece of equipment, incapable of
performing any significant computing tasks.2 Recent
research suggests that the Indonesia case is not a rarity.3 In
his article ‘‘License Fees and GDP Per Capita,’’ Rishab
Ghosh calculated the cost of license fees for Windows XP
based on the per capita GDP. The results were stunning: In
47 of 176 sampled countries, the cost of running Microsoft
Windows plus Microsoft Office was greater than the per
capita GDP of the country.4 In Vietnam, the software cost
M. P. Butcher (&)
Department of Philosophy, Loyola University Chicago, Crown
Center, Suite 300, 6525 N. Sheridan Road, Chicago, IL 60626,
USA
e-mail: [email protected]
1 The $524.98 price tag is based on the Amazon.com price (as of
Nov. 2006) for Windows XP Home Edition ($194.99) and Microsoft
Office 2003 Standard Edition (329.99). Retail price for these is much
higher. In 2004, these were the lowest end of Microsoft’s operating
system and office packs. According the the CIA Fact Book, the GDP
of Indonesia is.
ORIGINAL PAPERAt the foundations of information justice.docxvannagoforth
ORIGINAL PAPER
At the foundations of information justice
Matthew P. Butcher
Published online: 10 February 2009
� Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009
Abstract Is there such a thing as information justice? In
this paper, I argue that the current state of the information
economy, particularly as it regards information and com-
puting technology (ICT), is unjust, conferring power
disproportionately on the information-wealthy at great
expense to the information-poor. As ICT becomes the pri-
mary method for accessing and manipulating information, it
ought to be treated as a foundational layer of the information
economy. I argue that by maximizing the liberties (freedom
to use, freedom to distribute, freedom to modify, and so on)
associated with certain computer software, an incentives-
rich and stable environment can be established in ICT that
will foster development of the information economy among
the information poor. I suggest that the now-mature Free and
Open Source Software paradigm, which has already pro-
duced widely-used enterprise-class applications, can be
harnessed in support of these ends.
Keywords Information and computer technology �
Information justice � Information economy �
Free and Open Source Software (FOSS)
In 2004, the Business Software Association (BSA) and
Microsoft Corporation contacted the government of Indo-
nesia, claiming that the country owed licensing fees for
Microsoft software running on 500,000 computers. The
cost of purchasing licenses to run a single basic functional
computer workstation powered by Microsoft software is
$524.98 USD, which works out to a whopping 47.73% of
the per capita GDP of Indonesia.1 But escaping such an
expense by simply avoiding the use of an operating system
is unfeasible. The operating system is the base-level pro-
gram that bridges the computer’s hardware with all of the
standard programs. A computer without an operating
system is a worthless piece of equipment, incapable of
performing any significant computing tasks.2 Recent
research suggests that the Indonesia case is not a rarity.3 In
his article ‘‘License Fees and GDP Per Capita,’’ Rishab
Ghosh calculated the cost of license fees for Windows XP
based on the per capita GDP. The results were stunning: In
47 of 176 sampled countries, the cost of running Microsoft
Windows plus Microsoft Office was greater than the per
capita GDP of the country.4 In Vietnam, the software cost
M. P. Butcher (&)
Department of Philosophy, Loyola University Chicago, Crown
Center, Suite 300, 6525 N. Sheridan Road, Chicago, IL 60626,
USA
e-mail: [email protected]
1 The $524.98 price tag is based on the Amazon.com price (as of
Nov. 2006) for Windows XP Home Edition ($194.99) and Microsoft
Office 2003 Standard Edition (329.99). Retail price for these is much
higher. In 2004, these were the lowest end of Microsoft’s operating
system and office packs. According the the CIA Fact Book, the GDP
of Indonesia is ...
Control over information is distributed unjustly, creating an "information oligarchy" where a small group controls information access and use. This negatively impacts human well-being, especially in impoverished regions lacking information wealth and access. A potential solution is promoting free and open source software, which grants users freedom over software use, modification, and distribution. This could help reduce information poverty by providing a wealth of technical knowledge and freeing users from outside corporate interests.
ANALYTIC CHECKLIST FOR ESSAYS - ESL WorksAnita Miller
1. The document provides instructions for creating an account on HelpWriting.net in order to request that a writer complete an assignment. It outlines the 5-step process for this: creating an account, submitting a request form, reviewing writer bids, selecting a writer, and reviewing/authorizing the completed work.
2. The document then discusses the advantages of using HelpWriting.net, including that writers stand by providing original, high-quality content. It also notes the site's promise to fully meet customer needs and provide free revisions.
Computer Forensics
Discussion 1
"Forensics Certifications" Please respond to the following:
· Determine whether or not you believe certifications in systems forensics are necessary and explain why you believe this to be the case. Compare and contrast certifications and on-the-job training and identify which you believe is more useful for a system forensics professional. Provide a rationale with your response.
· Suppose you are the hiring manager looking to hire a new system forensics specialist. Specify at least five (5) credentials you would expect an ample candidate to possess. Determine which of these credentials you believe to be the most important and provide a reason for your decision.
Discussion 2
"System Forensics Organizations" Please respond to the following:
· Use the Internet or the Library to research and select one (1) reputable system forensics organization. Provide a brief overview of the organization you chose, including what it provides for its members, and how one can join the organization. Indicate why, in your opinion, this particular organization would be the best choice for a system forensics professional to join and why you believe this way.
· Examine what you believe to be the most important reason for a systems forensic professional to be a member of a forensics organization and how this could further one’s career in the industry.
Cyber Security
Discussion 1
"Leading Through Effective Strategic Management" Please respond to the following:
· Propose three ways to ensure that cooperation occurs across security functions when developing a strategic plan. Select what you believe is the most effective way to promote collaboration and explain why.
· Explain what may happen if working cultures are overlooked when developing a strategy. Recommend one way to prevent working cultures from being overlooked.
Discussion 2
"Installing Security with System and Application Development" Please respond to the following:
· Provide three examples that demonstrate how security can be instilled within the Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC). Provide two examples on what users may experience with software products if they are released with minimal security planning.
· Suggest three ways that application security can be monitored and evaluated for effectiveness. Choose what you believe to be the most effective way and discuss why.
Computer Security
Discussion 1
"Current Events and Future Trends" Please respond to the following:
· How can we create a national security culture where all are more cognizant of security threats and involved to help prevent potential incidents? How do we balance the need for this security culture with the rights guaranteed to us by our Bill of Rights?
Research Topics (Choose 1 Topic)
Terrorism
· Terrorism remains one of the major concerns in the wake of the 9-11 events. Research into terrorism as it pertains to homeland security is conducted by corporations like the RAND Corporation, which is.
Read four (4) academically reviewed articles on Net Neutrality and.docxmakdul
Read four (4) academically reviewed articles on Net Neutrality and complete the following activities:
(Wikipedia articles will not be accepted. Professor may check originality of all posts. Avoid copy-and-paste.
1. Summarize all four (4) articles in 300 words or more. Please use your own words. No copy-and-paste
2. Base on your article review and the assigned reading, discuss how net neutrality will affect data networks and the availability of information to businesses. Do you believe net neutrality will lead to IT efficiency? Why or why not?
Need your opinion with at least 150 words per each post below
1.Ibrahim Motiwala:
Never a devotee of Net Neutrality, FCC executive Ajit Pai, assigned seat of the commission by President Trump in January 2017, flagged from the get-go in his term his expectation to destroy Net Neutrality insurances. In May 2017, the FCC issued "Restoring Internet Freedom Notice of Proposed Rulemaking." Its motivation was to "reestablish the Internet to a light-touch regulatory structure" and to change broadband Internet benefit back to an “information benefit" (FCC, 2017). The news that the FCC proposed to invert Net Neutrality made enormous responses by advocates who needed Internet action to proceed with all information, content, sites, and administrations treated similarly. The FCC got 21.8 million remarks, most challenging the run change, however a contention more than many copy messages sent by spam bots caused Ajit Pai to declare that the FCC would consider just those that "brought new actualities into the record or made genuine legitimate contentions" (Romano, 2017). Notwithstanding remarks, there were challenges the approaching FCC activity. On July 12, 2017, the American Library Association (ALA) and almost two hundred different associations took an interest in "Day of Action," an online dissent to spare Net Neutrality (ALA, 2017).
Congressional competitors like Texan Laura Moser who composed an introduction on internet fairness as a major aspect of her offer for a GOP-held seat that Democrats are intending to flip have just crusaded forcefully on the issue. Other contenders have been offered a format by Congressional Dynamic Caucus part Ro Khanna, a technically knowledgeable California Democrat who proposes an Internet Bill of Rights. Notwithstanding unhindered internet, his stage incorporates the privilege to general access; the privilege to be free from warrantless metadata accumulation; the privilege to reveal the sum, nature, and dates of mystery information asks for by the government; the privilege to be completely educated concerning the extent of your information's utilization; and the privilege to be educated at the point when there's a difference responsible for your information.
2.Naga Kolluru:
To manage the web administrations Net Neutrality will be utilized by the administration bodies. To discover the straightforwardness in the charges to every one of the clients and the keep u ...
Defragmentation of indian legal cases withijfcstjournal
The main aim of this research paper is to develop a rule based knowledge database for legal expert system
for consumer protection act, a domain within the Indian legal system which is often in demand. A
knowledge database developed here will further help the legal expert system to determine type of case with
respect to the Indian Judicial System. In this paper a rule based knowledge database will be developed to
determine the type of the case. The main aim of the study is to build a prototype which will rule based in
nature. The rule based knowledge database development is the first phase in the development of
comprehensive rule based legal expert system for consumer protection act which will be of great help in
process of solving consumer related cases.
(300-400 words)1- Watch anyone of the following documentarymovi.docxmayank272369
(300-400 words)
1- Watch anyone of the following documentary/movie:
· The Corporation (2005)
· Food Inc. (2009)
· An Inconvenient Truth (2006)
Share your understanding around
Who
THE PEOPLE INVOLVED
What
THE PROBLEMS, THINGS, IDEAS
When
PAST, PRESENT, FUTURE OF THE TOPIC
Where
THE PLACE INVOLVED
Why
THE CAUSES, REASONS, RESULTS, CONDITIONS.
How
HISTORY OR FUNCTION (HOW IT BEGAN OR OPERATES).
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2-
(a) Find a news article about an economic topic that you find interesting.
(b) Make a short bullet-list summary of the article.
(c) Write and illustrate with appropriate graphs an economic analysis of the key points in the article.
Hint: Use 5Ws and 1H in your explanation.
1. Who was involved?
1. What happened?
1. When did it happen?
1. Where did it happen?
1. Why did it happen?
1. How did it happen?
Smartphones Have Privacy Risks.docx
Smartphones Have Privacy Risks
Smartphones, 2013
Top of Form
Bottom of Form
Around the turn of the century, the FBI [Federal Bureau of Investigation] was pursuing a case against a suspect—rumored to be Las Vegas strip-club tycoon Michael Galardi, though documents in the case are still sealed—when it hit upon a novel surveillance strategy.
The suspect owned a luxury car equipped with an OnStar-like system that allowed customers to "phone home" to the manufacturer for roadside assistance. The system included an eavesdropping mode designed to help the police recover the vehicle if it was stolen, but the FBI realized this same antitheft capability could also be used to spy on the vehicle's owner.
When the bureau asked the manufacturer for help, however, the firm (whose identity is still secret) objected. They said switching on the device's microphone would render its other functions—such as the ability to contact emergency personnel in case of an accident—inoperable. A federal appeals court sided with the company; ruling the company could not be compelled to transform its product into a surveillance device if doing so would interfere with a product's primary functionality.
The specifics of that 2003 ruling seem quaint today [in 2012]. The smartphones most of us now carry in our pockets can easily be turned into surveillance and tracking devices without impairing their primary functions. And that's not the only privacy risk created as we shift to a mobile, cloud-based computing world. The cloud services we use to synchronize data between our devices increase the risk of our private data falling prey to snooping by the government, by private hackers, or by the cloud service provider itself. And we're packing ever more private data onto our mobile devices, which can create big headaches if we leave a cell phone in a taxicab.
What to do about it? In this [viewpoint], we'll explore the new privacy threats being created as the world shifts to an increasingly mobile, multi-device computing paradigm. Luckily, there are steps both device makers and lawmakers can take to ...
The document discusses several social and ethical issues related to computing. It describes the digital divide between those with and without access to computers and the internet. It also outlines some workplace issues like employee monitoring and ergonomics. The document examines legal issues around different jurisdictions and laws to protect children online. Finally, it discusses the importance of ethics in computing and intellectual property rights.
This document contains review questions about ethical, social, and political issues related to technology. It discusses how ethics, society, and politics are interconnected and provides examples. Key technology trends like increasing computer power and data storage capabilities are highlighted as heightening ethical concerns due to their impact on privacy, data analysis, and system dependence. The document also defines responsibility, accountability, and liability and outlines the five steps of an ethical analysis. It identifies six ethical principles and discusses professional codes of conduct, privacy, and how technology challenges privacy protection. Intellectual property rights and challenges posed by the Internet are also addressed.
Greg Sivinski discusses important changes in the technology industry over the past 10 years from his perspective at Microsoft. He notes the shift from standalone PCs to competing ecosystems centered around devices, apps, services and access to user data at scale. This has implications for antitrust authorities. Three key issues are balancing IP rights and abuse, privacy/data protection with advertising roles, and the impact of large companies' control over user data, which is a critical input and barrier to entry in many markets. While tools exist to address new conduct, authorities have not fully grasped changes like the effect of Google's search/ad monopolies. Privacy and data are emerging antitrust issues as data affects many technologies and its control can blunt competition.
Vol. 8 No. 2, May 2017 ISSN 2156-7964 URL httpwww.iMoseStaton39
Vol. 8 No. 2, May 2017
ISSN 2156-7964
URL: http://www.iacajournal.org
Cite this as: DOI:
Copyright:
International Journal For Court Administration | May 2017 30
Ca n Artificia l Intelligence And Online Dispute Resolution Enha nce Efficiency And
Effectiveness In Courts
By John Zeleznikow1
Abstract:
The growing rise in the number of self-represented litigants has negative implications for both the court system and
access to justice. The expanding use of Artificial Intelligence and the World Wide Web has led to the development
and use of Online Dispute Resolution. In this article, we investigate a number of systems in Australian Family Law
that enhance Alternative Dispute Resolution and Access to Justice. We discuss how a hybrid system that
incorporates advice about Best Alternatives to Negotiated Agreements (BATNAs) and potential trade-offs as well as
allowing online communication can enhance access to justice.
Keywords: Self-Represented Litigants, Access to Justice, Online Dispute Resolution, Artificial Intelligence
1. Introduction
The growing rise in the number of litigants who represent themselves in court has undesirable consequences for the
administration of justice (Zeleznikow 2002). As early as 1999, a study conducted for the American Bar Association in the
Supreme Court of Maricopa County, Arizona, USA indicated that at least one of the parties were self-represented in over
88% of domestic relations cases and both parties were self-represented in 52% of the cases. Meachem (1999) reports
that 24,416 of the 54,693 cases opened in the US Court of Appeals in 1999 were filed by pro se appellants 2. Many pro se
appellants have neither the financial resources nor the legal skills to conduct their own appeals. Quatrevaux (1996) notes
that there is a shortfall in legal systems for poor persons residing in the United States.
In Washington State, for example, a 2003 study found that more than three-quarters of all low-income households
experience at least one civil (not criminal) legal problem each year. In the aggregate, low-income people experience more
than one million important civil legal problems annually; low-income people face more than 85% of their legal problems
without help from an attorney. The United States Courts are overwhelmed with a flood of Self Represented litigants, who
represent as much as eighty percent of the caseloads in certain jurisdictions, and millions of others who don't get to court
at all (Almeida 2013).
Branting (2001) claims that domestic abuse victims are particularly likely to have few resources and little opportunity to
obtain the services of a lawyer. He states that the growth of the consumer movement has increased the trend for pro se
litigation. The growing availability of books, document kits and computerized forms—together with the increasing
availability of legal materials on the World Wide Web—has increased the opportunities ...
INSIDER'S PERSPECTIVE: Three Trends That Will Define the Next Horizon in Lega...LexisNexis
In a recent Information Today article, Sean Fitzpatrick of LexisNexis discusses trends that will define the future of legal research as we know it.
Humans create 2.5 quintillion bytes of data each day, and the cost of storing and maintaining each byte of data is declining. In fact, the growth of stored data is outpacing the ability of most people to manage it.
Powerful tools, such as natural language processing and machine learning, are helping professionals bridge the gap between information overload and the ability to harvest the power of Big Data.
Millennials now make up nearly one-third of the U.S. workforce and they are our most educated generation.
Legal Perspective on Information Management “New Social Media – The New Recor...anthonywong
This document discusses social media as a new format for records and issues around managing records in social media. It notes that social media content may be considered government records but capturing authentic copies can be challenging given the dynamic nature of social media. It also discusses jurisdiction issues and privacy concerns around data collection by corporations and governments from social media and online activities.
https://digitalguardian.com/blog/social-engineering-attacks-common-techniques-how-prevent-attack
Statement of Michelle Richardson, Director, Privacy & Data
Center for Democracy & Technology
before the
United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary
GDPR & CCPA: Opt-ins, Consumer Control, and the Impact on Competition and Innovation
March 12, 2019
On behalf of the Center for Democracy & Technology (CDT), thank you for the
opportunity to testify about the importance of crafting a federal consumer privacy law that
provides meaningful protections for Americans and clarity for entities of all sizes and sectors.
CDT is a nonpartisan, nonprofit 501(c)(3) charitable organization dedicated to advancing the
rights of the individual in the digital world. CDT is committed to protecting privacy as a
fundamental human and civil right and as a necessity for securing other rights such as access to
justice, equal protection, and freedom of expression. CDT has offices in Washington, D.C., and
Brussels, and has a diverse funding portfolio from foundation grants, corporate donations, and
individual donations.1
The United States should be leading the way in protecting digital civil rights. This hearing
is an opportunity to learn how Congress can improve upon the privacy frameworks offered in
the European Union via the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and the California
Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA) to craft a comprehensive privacy law that works for the U.S. Our
digital future should be one in which technology supports human rights and human dignity. This
future cannot be realized if people are forced to choose between protecting their personal
information and using the technologies and services that enhance our lives. This future depends
on clear and meaningful rules governing data processing; rules that do not simply provide
1 All donations over $1,000 are disclosed in our annual report and are available online at:
https://cdt.org/financials/.
2
people with notices and check boxes but actually protect them from privacy and security
abuses and data-driven discrimination; protections that cannot be signed away.
Congress should resist the narratives that innovative technologies and strong privacy
protections are fundamentally at odds, and that a privacy law would necessarily cement the
market dominance of a few large companies. Clear and focused privacy rules can help
companies of all sizes gain certainty with respect to appropriate and inappropriate uses of data.
Clear rules will also empower engineers and product managers to design for privacy on the
front end, rather than having to wait for a public privacy scandal to force the rollback of a
product or data practice.
We understand that drafting comprehensive privacy legislation is a complex endeavor.
Over the past year we have worked with partners in civil societ.
International Protections for Intellectual PropertyZorba Parer
This document discusses several challenges to international intellectual property protections, including new technologies, globalization of knowledge, IP valuation, prior art/traditional knowledge, and fair trading. It specifically examines these challenges in relation to how treaties impact Australian national legislation and policy, focusing on IP considerations for defense acquisitions. The author argues that emergent technologies continually challenge conceptions of IP, and the ease of global knowledge transfer challenges national protections and the nation state model. Accurately valuing IP across markets and jurisdictions is also crucial.
E Commerce Platform Data Ownership and Legal Protectionijtsrd
This document discusses issues around data ownership on e-commerce platforms in China. It begins by providing background on data rights regulations in China and how they are addressed across various laws. It then analyzes the current status of legislation, law enforcement, and judicial practices regarding data rights protection on e-commerce platforms. Several issues are identified in China's legal protection of data ownership, including a lack of clear entitlement norms, potential for data leakage, and unclear legal use of data rights. The document argues that China's legal system for data rights protection needs improvement and proposes developing comprehensive regulations tailored for China's e-commerce context.
Assignment User FrustrationThe quality of the user experience i.docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment: User Frustration
The quality of the user experience is very important to the success of an application. In the early days of computing, users often experienced long delays since computing power was poor and networks had comparatively slow throughput. Modern systems have largely eliminated these delays due to increased network and computing power, yet users still report a high level of frustration.
Write a four to five (4-5) page paper in which you:
Describe three (3) reasons users are still frustrated with modern applications.
Suggest one (1) method for reducing the frustrations for each of the reasons you supplied in Question one (1).
Describe methods for determining if user frustration is caused by poor system design or from the natural frustration associated with learning a new software product.
Suggest at least three (3) methods to reduce the frustrations among the disabled population and how this population can be better served.
Use at least three (3) quality resources in this assignment. Note: Wikipedia and similar Websites do not qualify as quality resources.
The specific course learning outcomes associated with this assignment are:
Describe the inherent design issues across HCI environments.
Explain the use of interaction devices.
Use technology and information resources to research issues in human-computer interaction.
Write clearly and concisely about HCI topics using proper writing mechanics and technical style conventions.
.
Assignment Upstream Approaches to Canadian Population HealthAlt.docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment: Upstream Approaches to Canadian Population Health
Although Canada is contiguous to the United States and has some cultural and historical similarities, Canada’s population enjoys a vastly superior health status. Reasons are many, can be traced historically, and are related to a different view of the role of government. The experience of Canada demonstrates that neither a heterogeneous population, nor a health system that has waiting lines for services, are reasons for poor health. By looking critically at what produces good health in Canada, much can be learned about steps the U.S. might need to take if population health is its goal.
The Canadian Best Practices Portal challenges Canadian public health practitioners and researchers to create upstream interventions aimed at the source of a population health problem or benefit. What is being done to address the influences on population health in Canada?
To prepare
for this Assignment, review your Learning Resources. Search the Internet and scholarly research for examples of Canadian “upstream interventions” that can be put forth as examples of either effective or ineffective efforts to improve population health.
The Assignment (2–4 pages):
Provide a description of an existing intervention in Canada, intended to improve health inequities. Include an explanation of the inequity and how the intervention targets upstream determinants of health.
Describe the organizations involved and/or social policies enacted in the implementation of the intervention.
Explain whether or not the intervention was/is successful and what lessons public health practitioners can learn from that experience that might improve population health in the United States.
Expand on your insights utilizing the Learning Resources.
Use APA formatting for your Assignment and to cite your resources.
.
Assignment Type up an essay on one of two prompts and submit the .docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment:
Type up an essay on one of two prompts and submit the final draft online.
Choose
only
one
topic:
1.
Symbols are important in Fahrenheit 451. Identify 3 symbols and analyze their references and meanings throughout the novel.
2.
Illustrate how each of Montag's three mentors - a new mentor for each part of the novel - help to spur Montag's ideological progression.
This is the final draft of your individual research paper essay.
1.
Essay must be 7-8 pages typed, not including the works cited page.
2.
Essay must follow MLA format.
3.
Research must include a minimum of 8 sources, 4 of which must be from Library Databases: Proquest, CQ Researcher, Infotrac, Opposing Viewpoints, etc.
4.
Essay must have a complete Works Cited page that cross references correctly to all in-text citations.
Note:
Please submit your document with YOUR last name first. (Example:
Schilf-Research-Paper-Final-Draft.pdf
)
Format:
Follow the BASIC OUTLINE TEMPLATE ( i have already done this part and attached pictures)
A.
Introduction
: Type up an Introduction with an opening strategy (OS) that grabs the readers attention using a story based example (PE, OPE, HYPO, CS, or HYPO/COMBO) that also supports your chosen topic. End the Intro with the Thesis Statement. (Limit 1 to 2 paragraphs)
B.
Body
: Present the analysis position through 3 topic points. Type up the topic sentence and bullet point the evidence (in this case, only quotes from the primary source material). A minimum of 3 quotes for support are needed for each topic point. Ideally, you provide 4 or 5 supporting quotes
C.
Quoting
: Avoid long quotes. Instead, be concise with quoting. You want quotes that are short, dynamic, and memorable. You will still need to set up quotes with a signal phrase that sets up the context of the quote.
D.
Analysis
: Never assume that the quote itself is self-explanatory. You must respond to each quote with your Original Voice (ROV) to illustrate, explain, compare, contrast, identify, analyze, etc. Do not simply restate the quote in your own words. Your response needs to go deeper.
F.
Conclusion
: Type up a Conclusion that revisits the opening strategy story based example. (Limit to 1 paragraph)
G.
Format
: Essay must follow MLA format with a Works Cited page that cross references correctly to all in-text citations.
H.
Length
: Essay should be 3 to 4 pages typed.
Note:
Please submit your document with YOUR last name first. (Example:
Schilf-Fahrenheit-451-Final-Essay.pdf
)
.
Assignment Type:
Individual Project
Deliverable Length:
8–10 slides
Points Possible:
150
Management utilities can be vendor-specific or vendor-neutral. There are many utilities that are
available to provide a proactive approach to monitoring each node of the cluster.
Submit a PowerPoint presentation of 8–10 slides that includes the following:
• Identify 1 vendor-specific server-monitoring utility.
• Identify 1 vendor-neutral monitoring utility.
• In your presentation, list advantages and disadvantages of using one or the other.
Your answer should clearly identify what notification and management interfaces each utility has
available (i.e., e-mail enabled, management console, Web-based)
.
Assignment Type Individual discussion Board; 450 – 550 word.docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment Type
: Individual d
iscussion Board;
450 – 550 words
Leadership varies widely by culture and personality. An international organization with locations in several countries must balance the local customs and cultures with those of the primary culture of the organizations’ headquarters. Using the USA as the headquarters, pick two other countries that might be part of a international internet retail organization and research and discuss the differences that leaders would have to navigate in approach and adapting to different standards of behavior and culture within the countries.
Grading criteria: students are graded on the quality and originality of their posts and responses, not the quantity. Responses should indicate the dilemma that leaders will face in working in cultures where values and leadership styles vary widely from those of the US. Examples may include the use of payments for access, the difficulty that women might experience in dealing with a patriarchal country or other theoretically sound differences in leadership
.
Assignment Two UNIT 2Student Name _______________________.docxlynettearnold46882
This document provides instructions for Assignment Two in Unit 2 of an art history course. Students are asked to answer 11 questions about important artists and artworks from the time period covered in Unit 2 of their textbook. They must cite sources and submit their written answers through the online learning platform. The questions cover major figures like Giotto, Vermeer, Bruegel, da Vinci, Michelangelo, Goya, Pollock, van Gogh, and others. Students are instructed to draw from the textbook, online resources, and their own opinions in crafting their responses.
Assignment Two Select a college or university and provide th.docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment Two
Select a college or university and provide the information listed below for the university.
History of the Institution
Mission Statement
Accreditation Status of the Institution
Institutions Goals and Objectives
.
Assignment Two
Objectives
• Understand how the AVL tree works
• Give you further practice with C and data structures
Admin
Marks 10 marks, excluding bonus marks. Marking is based on the correctness and
efficiency of your code. Your code must be well commented.
Group? This assignment is completed individually.
Due Time 23:59:59 pm on Sunday 31 March 2019. 23:59:59 pm on Wed 3 April 2019
Late Submissions Late submissions will not be accepted!
In this assignment, you will implement AVL tree and a set of functions associated with AVL
tree. For simplicity, we make the following assumptions:
1. Each item of an AVL tree contains an integer key and an integer value.
2. No AVL tree contains duplicate items. Two items (k1, v1) and (k2, v2) are duplicates
iff k1=k2 and v1=v2 hold.
3. An AVL tree may contains multiple items with the same key and the number of
duplicate keys is a constant.
A template file named MyAVLTree.c is provided. MyAVLTree.c contains the type definitions of
AVL tree and AVL tree node as well as some basic functions. You can add your own helper
functions and auxiliary data structures for better performance in terms of time complexity.
You need to implement the following functions:
1. AVLTree *CreateAVLTree(const char *filename). This function creates an AVL tree by
reading all the items from a text file or from the standard input (keyboard)
depending on the argument filename. If filename is “stdin”, this function will read all
the items from the standard input. Otherwise, it will read all the items from a text
file with filename as its full path name. (2 marks)
An input text file contains zero or more items where each item is of the form (key,
value). Any characters such as white space between two adjacent items are ignored.
For example, the following sample file contains 10 items:
(2, 50) (4, 30) (9, 30) (10, 400) (-5, -40)
(7, 20) (19, 200) (20, 50) (-18, -200) (-2, 29)
Similarly, when reading from the standard input, each input line may have zero or
more items, separated by one or more white space characters. An empty line
indicates the end of input.
In case of an error in the input, this function will print the error and your program
terminates.
You may assume that the input does not contain duplicate items and thus this
function does not need to check for duplicate items.
The time complexity of this function cannot be higher than O(n logn), where n is the
size of the resulting AVL tree. If your time complexity is higher, you will get 0 mark
for this function. You may assume that each call to a C built-in function takes O(1)
time.
2. AVLTree *CloneAVLTree(AVLTree *T). This function creates an identical copy (clone)
of the input AVL tree T, and returns a pointer to the clone tree. (1 mark)
The time complexity of this function cannot be higher than O(n), where n is the size
of T. If your time complexity is high.
Assignment Topic Exploration and Analysis (Proposal)In Week 6 o.docxlynettearnold46882
This document provides guidelines for a topic exploration and analysis proposal assignment. Students must select and research two social change movements - one from the pre-modern era (pre-1945) and one from the modern era (post-1945). They must analyze and compare the leadership structure, success in promoting social change, and how the movements paralleled each other. The proposal assignment requires identifying the two topics, outlining the planned paper sections, summarizing initial research findings, and including an initial bibliography.
Assignment To consider three sources about the Fall of Rome and w.docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment:
To consider three sources about the Fall of Rome and write an analytical essay.
Purpose:
To demonstrate proficiency in integrating historical sources and producing a well-informed analytical essay.
Part 1:
Research
Examine three sources:
1.
The textbook explanation concerning the decline and fall of Rome (chapter 7).
2.
The class presentation lecture on the Roman Empire.
3.
An article on the subject (“Friends, Romans, Countrymen” – see the Reading & Study link).
Write a 1,000–1,300-word essay concerning the decline and fall of the Roman Empire.
The paper should have a clear thesis statement, located at the end of the introduction.
The paper should cover the following:
1.
The various viewpoints given in the three sources (focus on the viewpoints you agree with)
2.
The variables involved (social, economic, military, etc.).
3.
Lessons the United States (our people and our government) can learn from Rome’s decline and fall.
4.
Similarities between the actions and attitudes of ancient Rome in their decline and fall and our American society today
Be careful that you use only the three sources provided. Use of other sources will be penalized.Textbook:
Perry, M., Chase, M., Jacob, J. R., Jacob, M. C., & Von Laue, T. H. (2013).
Western civilization: Ideas, politics, and society
(10th ed.). Boston: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. ISBN: 9781111831707.
Williams, S., & Friell, G. (1994). Friends, romans or countrymen? barbarians in the empire.
History Today,
44
(7), 34.
http://bb7.liberty.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-22815357-dt-content-rid-159718173_1/xid-159718173_1
.
Assignment topic Rapid Influenza Testing in Children and Adult.docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment topic : Rapid Influenza Testing in Children and Adults.
When seeking to identify a patient’s health condition, advanced practice nurses can use a diverse selection of diagnostic tests and assessment tools; however, different factors affect the validity and reliability of the results produced by these tests or tools. Nurses must be aware of these factors in order to select the most appropriate test or tool and to accurately interpret the results.
Not only do these diagnostic tests affect adults, body measurements can provide a general picture of whether a child is receiving adequate nutrition or is at risk for health issues. These data, however, are just one aspect to be considered. Lifestyle, family history, and culture—among other factors—are also relevant. That said, gathering and communicating this information can be a delicate process.
For this Assignment, you will consider the
validity
and
reliability
of different assessment tools and diagnostic tests. You will explore issues such as
sensitivity,
specificity,
and
positive
and
negative predictive values
. You will also consider examples of children with various weight issues. You will explore how you could effectively gather information and encourage parents and caregivers to be proactive about their children’s health and weight.
To Prepare
· Review this week’s Learning Resources and consider factors that impact the validity and reliability of various assessment tools and diagnostic tests. You also will review examples of pediatric patients and their families as it relates to BMI.
· Search the Library and credible sources for resources explaining the tool or test you were assigned. What is its purpose, how is it conducted, and what information does it gather?
· Also, as you search the library and credible sources, consider what the literature discusses regarding the validity, reliability, sensitivity, specificity, predictive values, ethical dilemmas, and controversies related to the test or tool.
Assignment
(3–4 pages, not including title and reference pages)
:
For the Adult Assessment Tools or Diagnostic Tests:
Include the following:
· A description of how the assessment tool or diagnostic test you were assigned is used in healthcare.
o What is its purpose?
o How is it conducted?
o What information does it gather?
· Based on your research, evaluate the test or the tool’s validity and reliability, and explain any issues with sensitivity, reliability, and predictive values. Include references in appropriate APA formatting.
For the Child :
Include the following:
· An explanation of the health issues and risks that are relevant to the child you were assigned.
· Describe additional information you would need in order to further assess his or her weight-related health.
· Identify and describe any risks and consider what further information you would need to gain a full understanding of the child’s health. Think about how you could gather this infor.
Assignment Topic 1Choose a contemporary painting, sculpture, o.docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment Topic 1
Choose a contemporary painting, sculpture, or piece of art that captures your interest. This should be a piece created between the end of World War II (about 1945) and today. You may choose one of the illustrations or color inserts in the textbook, or try a virtual museum (check the links in this week's My Humanities Kit).
Before you begin writing your post, view the “Closer Look” art critiques from the unit My Humanities Kit resources. Consider what features are discussed in the piece you select. Aim for an evaluation that notes small details in a work, considers the purpose of various elements, and perhaps investigates the artist’s life.
In the post, begin by introducing the piece of contemporary art created between 1945 and present. What is the title? Who created it and when? What is the style? How would you describe it to someone who had not seen it? Finally, explain why viewing this work is a valuable experience. Connect the Unit 5 reading material in your response; include APA formatting.
Student 1
Hello Class and Professor,
For my piece of Art I have chosen Andy Warhol’s painting “Diamond Dust Shoes 1980”. I not only love the colors that are presented in the piece but the meaning to me signifies how many shoes women fill in our daily lives such as a mother, a friend, a lover, a daughter and etc. I fell a since of gratitude when I look at this colorful piece.
Andy Warhol was born in 1928; he left a huge legacy behind when he passed away in 1987 (Janaro & Altshuler, 2012, p. 142). From drawings, paintings and prints to videography, publishing and performance, he produced more than art -- he was essentially his own brand. From haunting black and white self-portraits to Polaroid snapshots of celebrities, many of the photos in the collection later became the inspiration for Warhol's most well-known Pop Art pieces (Janaro & Altshuler, 2012, p. 142).
Warhol's focus on consumer goods and pop-culture icons, as well as his own taste for money and fame, suggest a life in celebration of the very aspects of American culture that his work criticized (A & E Television Networks, 1996-2013). When looking at this piece of work you have a sense of what life is everyday!
Please look at the link provided below to take a look at this peice of Art. (The last reference below)
Margaret
A & E Television Networks, L. (1996-2013). bio.true story. Retrieved from Andy Warhol Biography: http://www.biography.com/people/andy-warhol-9523875?page=2
Student 2
Hello Class and Professor,
For some reason many of the illustrations in our text I cannot view. So I decided to search for contemporary art photos. There were quite a few interesting images but I found a sculpture or performance piece by Rook Floro that really caught my eye. Oddly, there is no title; at least I have not been able to locate one. Parts of this three-dimensional art look like it has some kind of wiry texture. The piece seems to be an imitation of human emotion. .
More Related Content
Similar to Directions Please answer three of the four following essay questi.docx
The document discusses several social and ethical issues related to computing. It describes the digital divide between those with and without access to computers and the internet. It also outlines some workplace issues like employee monitoring and ergonomics. The document examines legal issues around different jurisdictions and laws to protect children online. Finally, it discusses the importance of ethics in computing and intellectual property rights.
This document contains review questions about ethical, social, and political issues related to technology. It discusses how ethics, society, and politics are interconnected and provides examples. Key technology trends like increasing computer power and data storage capabilities are highlighted as heightening ethical concerns due to their impact on privacy, data analysis, and system dependence. The document also defines responsibility, accountability, and liability and outlines the five steps of an ethical analysis. It identifies six ethical principles and discusses professional codes of conduct, privacy, and how technology challenges privacy protection. Intellectual property rights and challenges posed by the Internet are also addressed.
Greg Sivinski discusses important changes in the technology industry over the past 10 years from his perspective at Microsoft. He notes the shift from standalone PCs to competing ecosystems centered around devices, apps, services and access to user data at scale. This has implications for antitrust authorities. Three key issues are balancing IP rights and abuse, privacy/data protection with advertising roles, and the impact of large companies' control over user data, which is a critical input and barrier to entry in many markets. While tools exist to address new conduct, authorities have not fully grasped changes like the effect of Google's search/ad monopolies. Privacy and data are emerging antitrust issues as data affects many technologies and its control can blunt competition.
Vol. 8 No. 2, May 2017 ISSN 2156-7964 URL httpwww.iMoseStaton39
Vol. 8 No. 2, May 2017
ISSN 2156-7964
URL: http://www.iacajournal.org
Cite this as: DOI:
Copyright:
International Journal For Court Administration | May 2017 30
Ca n Artificia l Intelligence And Online Dispute Resolution Enha nce Efficiency And
Effectiveness In Courts
By John Zeleznikow1
Abstract:
The growing rise in the number of self-represented litigants has negative implications for both the court system and
access to justice. The expanding use of Artificial Intelligence and the World Wide Web has led to the development
and use of Online Dispute Resolution. In this article, we investigate a number of systems in Australian Family Law
that enhance Alternative Dispute Resolution and Access to Justice. We discuss how a hybrid system that
incorporates advice about Best Alternatives to Negotiated Agreements (BATNAs) and potential trade-offs as well as
allowing online communication can enhance access to justice.
Keywords: Self-Represented Litigants, Access to Justice, Online Dispute Resolution, Artificial Intelligence
1. Introduction
The growing rise in the number of litigants who represent themselves in court has undesirable consequences for the
administration of justice (Zeleznikow 2002). As early as 1999, a study conducted for the American Bar Association in the
Supreme Court of Maricopa County, Arizona, USA indicated that at least one of the parties were self-represented in over
88% of domestic relations cases and both parties were self-represented in 52% of the cases. Meachem (1999) reports
that 24,416 of the 54,693 cases opened in the US Court of Appeals in 1999 were filed by pro se appellants 2. Many pro se
appellants have neither the financial resources nor the legal skills to conduct their own appeals. Quatrevaux (1996) notes
that there is a shortfall in legal systems for poor persons residing in the United States.
In Washington State, for example, a 2003 study found that more than three-quarters of all low-income households
experience at least one civil (not criminal) legal problem each year. In the aggregate, low-income people experience more
than one million important civil legal problems annually; low-income people face more than 85% of their legal problems
without help from an attorney. The United States Courts are overwhelmed with a flood of Self Represented litigants, who
represent as much as eighty percent of the caseloads in certain jurisdictions, and millions of others who don't get to court
at all (Almeida 2013).
Branting (2001) claims that domestic abuse victims are particularly likely to have few resources and little opportunity to
obtain the services of a lawyer. He states that the growth of the consumer movement has increased the trend for pro se
litigation. The growing availability of books, document kits and computerized forms—together with the increasing
availability of legal materials on the World Wide Web—has increased the opportunities ...
INSIDER'S PERSPECTIVE: Three Trends That Will Define the Next Horizon in Lega...LexisNexis
In a recent Information Today article, Sean Fitzpatrick of LexisNexis discusses trends that will define the future of legal research as we know it.
Humans create 2.5 quintillion bytes of data each day, and the cost of storing and maintaining each byte of data is declining. In fact, the growth of stored data is outpacing the ability of most people to manage it.
Powerful tools, such as natural language processing and machine learning, are helping professionals bridge the gap between information overload and the ability to harvest the power of Big Data.
Millennials now make up nearly one-third of the U.S. workforce and they are our most educated generation.
Legal Perspective on Information Management “New Social Media – The New Recor...anthonywong
This document discusses social media as a new format for records and issues around managing records in social media. It notes that social media content may be considered government records but capturing authentic copies can be challenging given the dynamic nature of social media. It also discusses jurisdiction issues and privacy concerns around data collection by corporations and governments from social media and online activities.
https://digitalguardian.com/blog/social-engineering-attacks-common-techniques-how-prevent-attack
Statement of Michelle Richardson, Director, Privacy & Data
Center for Democracy & Technology
before the
United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary
GDPR & CCPA: Opt-ins, Consumer Control, and the Impact on Competition and Innovation
March 12, 2019
On behalf of the Center for Democracy & Technology (CDT), thank you for the
opportunity to testify about the importance of crafting a federal consumer privacy law that
provides meaningful protections for Americans and clarity for entities of all sizes and sectors.
CDT is a nonpartisan, nonprofit 501(c)(3) charitable organization dedicated to advancing the
rights of the individual in the digital world. CDT is committed to protecting privacy as a
fundamental human and civil right and as a necessity for securing other rights such as access to
justice, equal protection, and freedom of expression. CDT has offices in Washington, D.C., and
Brussels, and has a diverse funding portfolio from foundation grants, corporate donations, and
individual donations.1
The United States should be leading the way in protecting digital civil rights. This hearing
is an opportunity to learn how Congress can improve upon the privacy frameworks offered in
the European Union via the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and the California
Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA) to craft a comprehensive privacy law that works for the U.S. Our
digital future should be one in which technology supports human rights and human dignity. This
future cannot be realized if people are forced to choose between protecting their personal
information and using the technologies and services that enhance our lives. This future depends
on clear and meaningful rules governing data processing; rules that do not simply provide
1 All donations over $1,000 are disclosed in our annual report and are available online at:
https://cdt.org/financials/.
2
people with notices and check boxes but actually protect them from privacy and security
abuses and data-driven discrimination; protections that cannot be signed away.
Congress should resist the narratives that innovative technologies and strong privacy
protections are fundamentally at odds, and that a privacy law would necessarily cement the
market dominance of a few large companies. Clear and focused privacy rules can help
companies of all sizes gain certainty with respect to appropriate and inappropriate uses of data.
Clear rules will also empower engineers and product managers to design for privacy on the
front end, rather than having to wait for a public privacy scandal to force the rollback of a
product or data practice.
We understand that drafting comprehensive privacy legislation is a complex endeavor.
Over the past year we have worked with partners in civil societ.
International Protections for Intellectual PropertyZorba Parer
This document discusses several challenges to international intellectual property protections, including new technologies, globalization of knowledge, IP valuation, prior art/traditional knowledge, and fair trading. It specifically examines these challenges in relation to how treaties impact Australian national legislation and policy, focusing on IP considerations for defense acquisitions. The author argues that emergent technologies continually challenge conceptions of IP, and the ease of global knowledge transfer challenges national protections and the nation state model. Accurately valuing IP across markets and jurisdictions is also crucial.
E Commerce Platform Data Ownership and Legal Protectionijtsrd
This document discusses issues around data ownership on e-commerce platforms in China. It begins by providing background on data rights regulations in China and how they are addressed across various laws. It then analyzes the current status of legislation, law enforcement, and judicial practices regarding data rights protection on e-commerce platforms. Several issues are identified in China's legal protection of data ownership, including a lack of clear entitlement norms, potential for data leakage, and unclear legal use of data rights. The document argues that China's legal system for data rights protection needs improvement and proposes developing comprehensive regulations tailored for China's e-commerce context.
Similar to Directions Please answer three of the four following essay questi.docx (10)
Assignment User FrustrationThe quality of the user experience i.docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment: User Frustration
The quality of the user experience is very important to the success of an application. In the early days of computing, users often experienced long delays since computing power was poor and networks had comparatively slow throughput. Modern systems have largely eliminated these delays due to increased network and computing power, yet users still report a high level of frustration.
Write a four to five (4-5) page paper in which you:
Describe three (3) reasons users are still frustrated with modern applications.
Suggest one (1) method for reducing the frustrations for each of the reasons you supplied in Question one (1).
Describe methods for determining if user frustration is caused by poor system design or from the natural frustration associated with learning a new software product.
Suggest at least three (3) methods to reduce the frustrations among the disabled population and how this population can be better served.
Use at least three (3) quality resources in this assignment. Note: Wikipedia and similar Websites do not qualify as quality resources.
The specific course learning outcomes associated with this assignment are:
Describe the inherent design issues across HCI environments.
Explain the use of interaction devices.
Use technology and information resources to research issues in human-computer interaction.
Write clearly and concisely about HCI topics using proper writing mechanics and technical style conventions.
.
Assignment Upstream Approaches to Canadian Population HealthAlt.docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment: Upstream Approaches to Canadian Population Health
Although Canada is contiguous to the United States and has some cultural and historical similarities, Canada’s population enjoys a vastly superior health status. Reasons are many, can be traced historically, and are related to a different view of the role of government. The experience of Canada demonstrates that neither a heterogeneous population, nor a health system that has waiting lines for services, are reasons for poor health. By looking critically at what produces good health in Canada, much can be learned about steps the U.S. might need to take if population health is its goal.
The Canadian Best Practices Portal challenges Canadian public health practitioners and researchers to create upstream interventions aimed at the source of a population health problem or benefit. What is being done to address the influences on population health in Canada?
To prepare
for this Assignment, review your Learning Resources. Search the Internet and scholarly research for examples of Canadian “upstream interventions” that can be put forth as examples of either effective or ineffective efforts to improve population health.
The Assignment (2–4 pages):
Provide a description of an existing intervention in Canada, intended to improve health inequities. Include an explanation of the inequity and how the intervention targets upstream determinants of health.
Describe the organizations involved and/or social policies enacted in the implementation of the intervention.
Explain whether or not the intervention was/is successful and what lessons public health practitioners can learn from that experience that might improve population health in the United States.
Expand on your insights utilizing the Learning Resources.
Use APA formatting for your Assignment and to cite your resources.
.
Assignment Type up an essay on one of two prompts and submit the .docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment:
Type up an essay on one of two prompts and submit the final draft online.
Choose
only
one
topic:
1.
Symbols are important in Fahrenheit 451. Identify 3 symbols and analyze their references and meanings throughout the novel.
2.
Illustrate how each of Montag's three mentors - a new mentor for each part of the novel - help to spur Montag's ideological progression.
This is the final draft of your individual research paper essay.
1.
Essay must be 7-8 pages typed, not including the works cited page.
2.
Essay must follow MLA format.
3.
Research must include a minimum of 8 sources, 4 of which must be from Library Databases: Proquest, CQ Researcher, Infotrac, Opposing Viewpoints, etc.
4.
Essay must have a complete Works Cited page that cross references correctly to all in-text citations.
Note:
Please submit your document with YOUR last name first. (Example:
Schilf-Research-Paper-Final-Draft.pdf
)
Format:
Follow the BASIC OUTLINE TEMPLATE ( i have already done this part and attached pictures)
A.
Introduction
: Type up an Introduction with an opening strategy (OS) that grabs the readers attention using a story based example (PE, OPE, HYPO, CS, or HYPO/COMBO) that also supports your chosen topic. End the Intro with the Thesis Statement. (Limit 1 to 2 paragraphs)
B.
Body
: Present the analysis position through 3 topic points. Type up the topic sentence and bullet point the evidence (in this case, only quotes from the primary source material). A minimum of 3 quotes for support are needed for each topic point. Ideally, you provide 4 or 5 supporting quotes
C.
Quoting
: Avoid long quotes. Instead, be concise with quoting. You want quotes that are short, dynamic, and memorable. You will still need to set up quotes with a signal phrase that sets up the context of the quote.
D.
Analysis
: Never assume that the quote itself is self-explanatory. You must respond to each quote with your Original Voice (ROV) to illustrate, explain, compare, contrast, identify, analyze, etc. Do not simply restate the quote in your own words. Your response needs to go deeper.
F.
Conclusion
: Type up a Conclusion that revisits the opening strategy story based example. (Limit to 1 paragraph)
G.
Format
: Essay must follow MLA format with a Works Cited page that cross references correctly to all in-text citations.
H.
Length
: Essay should be 3 to 4 pages typed.
Note:
Please submit your document with YOUR last name first. (Example:
Schilf-Fahrenheit-451-Final-Essay.pdf
)
.
Assignment Type:
Individual Project
Deliverable Length:
8–10 slides
Points Possible:
150
Management utilities can be vendor-specific or vendor-neutral. There are many utilities that are
available to provide a proactive approach to monitoring each node of the cluster.
Submit a PowerPoint presentation of 8–10 slides that includes the following:
• Identify 1 vendor-specific server-monitoring utility.
• Identify 1 vendor-neutral monitoring utility.
• In your presentation, list advantages and disadvantages of using one or the other.
Your answer should clearly identify what notification and management interfaces each utility has
available (i.e., e-mail enabled, management console, Web-based)
.
Assignment Type Individual discussion Board; 450 – 550 word.docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment Type
: Individual d
iscussion Board;
450 – 550 words
Leadership varies widely by culture and personality. An international organization with locations in several countries must balance the local customs and cultures with those of the primary culture of the organizations’ headquarters. Using the USA as the headquarters, pick two other countries that might be part of a international internet retail organization and research and discuss the differences that leaders would have to navigate in approach and adapting to different standards of behavior and culture within the countries.
Grading criteria: students are graded on the quality and originality of their posts and responses, not the quantity. Responses should indicate the dilemma that leaders will face in working in cultures where values and leadership styles vary widely from those of the US. Examples may include the use of payments for access, the difficulty that women might experience in dealing with a patriarchal country or other theoretically sound differences in leadership
.
Assignment Two UNIT 2Student Name _______________________.docxlynettearnold46882
This document provides instructions for Assignment Two in Unit 2 of an art history course. Students are asked to answer 11 questions about important artists and artworks from the time period covered in Unit 2 of their textbook. They must cite sources and submit their written answers through the online learning platform. The questions cover major figures like Giotto, Vermeer, Bruegel, da Vinci, Michelangelo, Goya, Pollock, van Gogh, and others. Students are instructed to draw from the textbook, online resources, and their own opinions in crafting their responses.
Assignment Two Select a college or university and provide th.docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment Two
Select a college or university and provide the information listed below for the university.
History of the Institution
Mission Statement
Accreditation Status of the Institution
Institutions Goals and Objectives
.
Assignment Two
Objectives
• Understand how the AVL tree works
• Give you further practice with C and data structures
Admin
Marks 10 marks, excluding bonus marks. Marking is based on the correctness and
efficiency of your code. Your code must be well commented.
Group? This assignment is completed individually.
Due Time 23:59:59 pm on Sunday 31 March 2019. 23:59:59 pm on Wed 3 April 2019
Late Submissions Late submissions will not be accepted!
In this assignment, you will implement AVL tree and a set of functions associated with AVL
tree. For simplicity, we make the following assumptions:
1. Each item of an AVL tree contains an integer key and an integer value.
2. No AVL tree contains duplicate items. Two items (k1, v1) and (k2, v2) are duplicates
iff k1=k2 and v1=v2 hold.
3. An AVL tree may contains multiple items with the same key and the number of
duplicate keys is a constant.
A template file named MyAVLTree.c is provided. MyAVLTree.c contains the type definitions of
AVL tree and AVL tree node as well as some basic functions. You can add your own helper
functions and auxiliary data structures for better performance in terms of time complexity.
You need to implement the following functions:
1. AVLTree *CreateAVLTree(const char *filename). This function creates an AVL tree by
reading all the items from a text file or from the standard input (keyboard)
depending on the argument filename. If filename is “stdin”, this function will read all
the items from the standard input. Otherwise, it will read all the items from a text
file with filename as its full path name. (2 marks)
An input text file contains zero or more items where each item is of the form (key,
value). Any characters such as white space between two adjacent items are ignored.
For example, the following sample file contains 10 items:
(2, 50) (4, 30) (9, 30) (10, 400) (-5, -40)
(7, 20) (19, 200) (20, 50) (-18, -200) (-2, 29)
Similarly, when reading from the standard input, each input line may have zero or
more items, separated by one or more white space characters. An empty line
indicates the end of input.
In case of an error in the input, this function will print the error and your program
terminates.
You may assume that the input does not contain duplicate items and thus this
function does not need to check for duplicate items.
The time complexity of this function cannot be higher than O(n logn), where n is the
size of the resulting AVL tree. If your time complexity is higher, you will get 0 mark
for this function. You may assume that each call to a C built-in function takes O(1)
time.
2. AVLTree *CloneAVLTree(AVLTree *T). This function creates an identical copy (clone)
of the input AVL tree T, and returns a pointer to the clone tree. (1 mark)
The time complexity of this function cannot be higher than O(n), where n is the size
of T. If your time complexity is high.
Assignment Topic Exploration and Analysis (Proposal)In Week 6 o.docxlynettearnold46882
This document provides guidelines for a topic exploration and analysis proposal assignment. Students must select and research two social change movements - one from the pre-modern era (pre-1945) and one from the modern era (post-1945). They must analyze and compare the leadership structure, success in promoting social change, and how the movements paralleled each other. The proposal assignment requires identifying the two topics, outlining the planned paper sections, summarizing initial research findings, and including an initial bibliography.
Assignment To consider three sources about the Fall of Rome and w.docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment:
To consider three sources about the Fall of Rome and write an analytical essay.
Purpose:
To demonstrate proficiency in integrating historical sources and producing a well-informed analytical essay.
Part 1:
Research
Examine three sources:
1.
The textbook explanation concerning the decline and fall of Rome (chapter 7).
2.
The class presentation lecture on the Roman Empire.
3.
An article on the subject (“Friends, Romans, Countrymen” – see the Reading & Study link).
Write a 1,000–1,300-word essay concerning the decline and fall of the Roman Empire.
The paper should have a clear thesis statement, located at the end of the introduction.
The paper should cover the following:
1.
The various viewpoints given in the three sources (focus on the viewpoints you agree with)
2.
The variables involved (social, economic, military, etc.).
3.
Lessons the United States (our people and our government) can learn from Rome’s decline and fall.
4.
Similarities between the actions and attitudes of ancient Rome in their decline and fall and our American society today
Be careful that you use only the three sources provided. Use of other sources will be penalized.Textbook:
Perry, M., Chase, M., Jacob, J. R., Jacob, M. C., & Von Laue, T. H. (2013).
Western civilization: Ideas, politics, and society
(10th ed.). Boston: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. ISBN: 9781111831707.
Williams, S., & Friell, G. (1994). Friends, romans or countrymen? barbarians in the empire.
History Today,
44
(7), 34.
http://bb7.liberty.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-22815357-dt-content-rid-159718173_1/xid-159718173_1
.
Assignment topic Rapid Influenza Testing in Children and Adult.docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment topic : Rapid Influenza Testing in Children and Adults.
When seeking to identify a patient’s health condition, advanced practice nurses can use a diverse selection of diagnostic tests and assessment tools; however, different factors affect the validity and reliability of the results produced by these tests or tools. Nurses must be aware of these factors in order to select the most appropriate test or tool and to accurately interpret the results.
Not only do these diagnostic tests affect adults, body measurements can provide a general picture of whether a child is receiving adequate nutrition or is at risk for health issues. These data, however, are just one aspect to be considered. Lifestyle, family history, and culture—among other factors—are also relevant. That said, gathering and communicating this information can be a delicate process.
For this Assignment, you will consider the
validity
and
reliability
of different assessment tools and diagnostic tests. You will explore issues such as
sensitivity,
specificity,
and
positive
and
negative predictive values
. You will also consider examples of children with various weight issues. You will explore how you could effectively gather information and encourage parents and caregivers to be proactive about their children’s health and weight.
To Prepare
· Review this week’s Learning Resources and consider factors that impact the validity and reliability of various assessment tools and diagnostic tests. You also will review examples of pediatric patients and their families as it relates to BMI.
· Search the Library and credible sources for resources explaining the tool or test you were assigned. What is its purpose, how is it conducted, and what information does it gather?
· Also, as you search the library and credible sources, consider what the literature discusses regarding the validity, reliability, sensitivity, specificity, predictive values, ethical dilemmas, and controversies related to the test or tool.
Assignment
(3–4 pages, not including title and reference pages)
:
For the Adult Assessment Tools or Diagnostic Tests:
Include the following:
· A description of how the assessment tool or diagnostic test you were assigned is used in healthcare.
o What is its purpose?
o How is it conducted?
o What information does it gather?
· Based on your research, evaluate the test or the tool’s validity and reliability, and explain any issues with sensitivity, reliability, and predictive values. Include references in appropriate APA formatting.
For the Child :
Include the following:
· An explanation of the health issues and risks that are relevant to the child you were assigned.
· Describe additional information you would need in order to further assess his or her weight-related health.
· Identify and describe any risks and consider what further information you would need to gain a full understanding of the child’s health. Think about how you could gather this infor.
Assignment Topic 1Choose a contemporary painting, sculpture, o.docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment Topic 1
Choose a contemporary painting, sculpture, or piece of art that captures your interest. This should be a piece created between the end of World War II (about 1945) and today. You may choose one of the illustrations or color inserts in the textbook, or try a virtual museum (check the links in this week's My Humanities Kit).
Before you begin writing your post, view the “Closer Look” art critiques from the unit My Humanities Kit resources. Consider what features are discussed in the piece you select. Aim for an evaluation that notes small details in a work, considers the purpose of various elements, and perhaps investigates the artist’s life.
In the post, begin by introducing the piece of contemporary art created between 1945 and present. What is the title? Who created it and when? What is the style? How would you describe it to someone who had not seen it? Finally, explain why viewing this work is a valuable experience. Connect the Unit 5 reading material in your response; include APA formatting.
Student 1
Hello Class and Professor,
For my piece of Art I have chosen Andy Warhol’s painting “Diamond Dust Shoes 1980”. I not only love the colors that are presented in the piece but the meaning to me signifies how many shoes women fill in our daily lives such as a mother, a friend, a lover, a daughter and etc. I fell a since of gratitude when I look at this colorful piece.
Andy Warhol was born in 1928; he left a huge legacy behind when he passed away in 1987 (Janaro & Altshuler, 2012, p. 142). From drawings, paintings and prints to videography, publishing and performance, he produced more than art -- he was essentially his own brand. From haunting black and white self-portraits to Polaroid snapshots of celebrities, many of the photos in the collection later became the inspiration for Warhol's most well-known Pop Art pieces (Janaro & Altshuler, 2012, p. 142).
Warhol's focus on consumer goods and pop-culture icons, as well as his own taste for money and fame, suggest a life in celebration of the very aspects of American culture that his work criticized (A & E Television Networks, 1996-2013). When looking at this piece of work you have a sense of what life is everyday!
Please look at the link provided below to take a look at this peice of Art. (The last reference below)
Margaret
A & E Television Networks, L. (1996-2013). bio.true story. Retrieved from Andy Warhol Biography: http://www.biography.com/people/andy-warhol-9523875?page=2
Student 2
Hello Class and Professor,
For some reason many of the illustrations in our text I cannot view. So I decided to search for contemporary art photos. There were quite a few interesting images but I found a sculpture or performance piece by Rook Floro that really caught my eye. Oddly, there is no title; at least I have not been able to locate one. Parts of this three-dimensional art look like it has some kind of wiry texture. The piece seems to be an imitation of human emotion. .
Assignment TitleAssessment Item 03 Case Study Analysis – Engagi.docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment Title
Assessment Item 03: Case Study Analysis – Engaging and Motivating staff
Length
3000-3500 wordsLearning outcomes
1. Knowledge - Describe and critically discuss key principles and theories of Human Resource Management.
2. Problem Solving Skills - Critically evaluate and synthesize relevant information to solve real world issues associated with Human Resource Management.
3. Change Management - Analyse the role of Human Resource Management in implementing change within a global context.
4. Global Environment - Identify and critically discuss local, global and international workforce trends and assess the implications for human resource managementLecturer Discretion
Lecturers may, at their discretion, ask students to verbally present their assignment submission or rewrite some selected part/s of their answer in a controlled setting.Task Details
Engaging and motivating employees is at the centre of Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM) practices. It is therefore important to identify the organisational practices that can be used to foster the cognitive, emotional and behavioural qualities that will positively impact on employees and enhance their motivation.
To understand what motivates people to work is essential to this assignment. The focus of the assignment is to identify the motivational theories, the characteristics of a positive work environment and the HR practices that positively influence affective processes (e.g. motivation, commitment, job satisfaction, wellbeing) and behavioural processes (e.g. effort, reduced turnover and absenteeism).
To complete this assignment successfully students at a minimum should:
· Identify the key motivational theories and discuss which of the theories strongly influences employees’ affective processes and behavioural processes.
· Describe the characteristics of a positive work environment and discuss how HR designs jobs to motivate employees.
· Discuss the synthesis of Hackman and Oldham’s (1976) job characteristics and employees’ psychological states in relation to work outcomes, such as intrinsic work motivation, job satisfaction, and high quality work performance.
International Human Resource Management
· Discuss the possible relationship between Maslow’s general components and job characteristics in view of engaging and motivating employees in organisations.
Your assignment must be formatted with heading.
Harvard referencing style must be used.
References
Gallup Consulting 2010, The state of the global workplace: A worldwide study of employee engagement and wellbeing, viewed 20 February 2015
<http://www.gallup.com/services/176300/state-global-workplace.aspx>
Jackson, S & Schuler, R 1995, Understanding Human Resource Management in the context of organisations and their environments, Annual Review of Psychology, vol. 46, pp. 237-264.
Pfeffer, J & Veiga, F 1999, Putting people first for organisational success, Academy of
Management Executive, vol. 13, no. 2, pp.37-48.
Runni.
Assignment Title Knowledge management cycle process in or.docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment Title:
Knowledge management cycle process in organizations and significance communities of practice
Note:
Each question/concept/ topic must be supported with peer reviewed journal references.
Assignment Structure:
Part A.
1.
Provide brief description about knowledge management processes in organizations. (
1 Mark
)
2. Explain the concept of organizational learning and describe the link between individual and organizational leaning. (
2 Marks
)
3. Describe role of organizational culture in knowledge management. (
2 Marks
)
Part B.
1. Describe the concept of community. Describe its key components. (
1 Mark
)
2. Discuss how communities can be linked to organizational memory in order to foster organizational learning and innovation. (
2 Marks
)
3. Highlight some of the key steps you would need to carry out in order to conduct social network analysis of an organization. What sort of questions could the social network analysis answer? (
2 Marks
)
NO plagiarism/ 700 WORDS
.
Assignment Three Technical Descriptions Due March 2 (1155 PM .docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment Three: Technical Descriptions
Due: March 2 (11:55 PM on Moodle)Peer:Feb 29
For this assignment you will either be creating a technical description or an extended technical definition. Officially, an extended technical definition is a microgenre of a technical description, but there are some differences worth noting. Technical descriptions are “longer explanation[s] . . . of the physical or operational features of an object, mechanism, or process”(Markel 534). While technical descriptions include technical definitions, an extended technical definition is slightly different.
An extended definition includes the three parts of a basic sentence definition, “[1] the term being defined, [2] the category in which the term belongs, and [3] the distinguishing features that differentiate it from its category” (Johnson Sheehan 155). It also expands the definition by adding more details of an object, process, or idea (Markel 534). It is divided by adding some (all) of the following: examples, partition, principle of operation, analogy, negation, and etymology (Markel 538 – 541).
Technical descriptions need a title/indication of the nature/scope of what the description will accomplish; an introduction that answers the questions in table 20.1 on page 545; a body with appropriate detail that discusses each step or section with detail, creativity, and clarity; and a conclusion that usually explains how the steps work together or summarizes the main steps. Look at the guidelines on page 547 for writing tips and additional help.
What you choose to do this on is up to you. You are free to choose any object, place, or process (and the definition of these can be pretty loose—think about my spider example). If you want to choose something that interests you, something you currently work with, something from your future workplace, or something else entirely—go for it. If you want to do something out of the ordinary you can always ask me if it’s okay.
Requirements
· The description/definition should be between 600 to 1000 words.
· It should be typed in a serif font.
· It must focus on clear writing that uses creative and technical writing techniques.
· It should be written for an audience similar to Wikipedia.
· It should follow checklist on page 571 – 572.
Green Hospitality: Green Hospitality:
Saving the EnvironmentSaving the Environment
A student Webzine from the International Council
on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education
for Future Hospitality & Tourism Professionals
Vol. 17 No. 1 • ISSN: 1095-7898 Spring 2008
HOSTEUR
INTERNATIONAL
CHRIE
The Hospitality &
Tourism Educators
Volume 17, No. 1 | Spring/Summer 2008 Issue2 HOSTEURTM
Sustainability Standards for the Hotel Industry............5
by Andrew Moreo
Destination “Green”land - a Look at the Sustainable
Efforts of the Air Travel Industry......................9
by Katie Fontaine
Green Hotels..................................................
Assignment ThreeUNIT 3 – ON LINE CLASSStudent Name __________.docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment Three
UNIT 3 – ON LINE CLASS
Student Name: ______________________________________________
(Name must be exactly as it is on the e campus roll and the same in WEBCOM 2) Turn in assignment through WEBCOM 2 to Professor on time
Your Section Number _____________ (you must enter your section number)
The Unit 3 Assignment 3: Unit Three in the Textbook.
DIRECTIONS: The assignment is in WORD. Save the document to your computer and write your answers in the spaces given. You may change the spacing as needed.
NOTE: Turn in assignments to me through WEBCOM 2 see the place where you send me the assignment. You may either attach your Word file or copy and paste your entire submission. Be thorough in your answers. You should use the Textbook, Essential Humanitiesthird edition and/or the Study Guide. The Study Guide is not mandatory; however, it is there for your enrichment and it is helpful. The Study Guide is in WEBCOM 2 in the tab labeled Student Resources. You may also want to use additional information for any assignments from the Internet. If you do, please remember to cite your source at the end of your answer. If you add additional information from the Internet, this is great, but then be sure to cite your source at the end of your paragraph. You must cite sources. This applies to photos as well.
DIRECTIONS FOR FULL CREDIT: You will need to show how the architectural structure is significant (importance in history and explain its legacy). You should explain how it fits into the historical period and what it reflects about its time and place. Include names of important individuals connected to the construction and especially the name of the architect, if known. Mention the materials used in the construction and include information about how it was built. Also include location. Use full sentences in your answers and be sure to site your answers if you use photos and the internet if you use google. Do not just write in your site that you used google. You must place exact address. Google is too broad of a site for a reference. Thank you
1. List the major time periods in sequential order. The first period is Prehistoric. Then comes Mesopotamia, and then Egypt etc. Under each period, list the minimum of 3 major accomplishments or achievements of that period. See the WEBCOM 2 Resources tab that has the heading timeline and the Textbook Index in front of the textbook for Unit III which lists the periods of time in order
1. Discuss in written statements at least 2 major differences between the Paleolithic Era (Old Stone Age) and the Neolithic Era (New Stone) found during the Prehistoric Period? (Unit 3, Chapter 3). (SLO 3: ULO 3.4).
EXPLAIN ANSWER FULLY USING THE CHART THAT YOU WILL SEE ON A PAGE IN YOUR TEXT
1. Explain how the Sumerian marble statuettes, sculptures, and Queen Puabi’s Harp that were excavated in modern times help us understand how the Sumerian people’s lived and what their beliefs were during the anc.
Assignment title An Evaluation of the Business Strategy at Mc D.docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment title: An Evaluation of the Business Strategy at Mc Donald’s.
Word count: 4242
Student name: Shane Sunil Mohan
Student number: A001753898
Subject name: 9050PROJ
AQF Level: 9
Discipline: Strategic Management
Theme: Critical Evaluation of a Business Strategy
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This paper was fundamentally about conducting a research and analyzing the findings on an evaluation of the business strategy at Mc Donald’s. Mc Donald’s establishment is a centralized, international organization which competes in the fast food industry by supplying hamburgers, french fries, and other consumable items using standardization. Substantial expansion and branding as the main driving force. As mentioned previously, operating in an open market in the food chain sector, one of Mc Donald’s major competition would be Wendy’s. These two establishments offer the exact same service which tends to make it difficult for Mc Donald’s to gain market share. With this being said, this report outlines different strategic strategies in which Mc Donald’s can gain competitive advantage against Wendy’s by providing substantial evidence on Mc Donald’s weaknesses and how it can be improved by using the case study method to help assist presenting its findings.
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction 4
2.0 Literature Review: 5
2.1 Application of the literature to Mc Donald’s 6
2.2 Analysis with respect to Neoclassical microeconomics: 7
2.3 Analysis with respect to Evolutionary economics: 8
3.0 Research Methodology: 9
3.1 Case study method: 9
3.2 Data Collection: 10
3.3 Presentation of findings: 10
3.4 Analyzing the data: 11
4.0 Data Analysis and Reflections 11
4.1 Presentation of data 11
4.2 Reflection on findings and implications: 12
5.0 Conclusion and Recommendations: 14
5.1 Addressing social changes with differentiation strategy: 15
5.2 Recommendation: Improved Promotional Strategy: 16
5.3 Conclusion 16
References 18
1.0 Introduction
With the increase in the trend of globalization and the increasing competition in global markets, companies work day and night to come with effective strategies. Some of the multinational companies are known for the strategies they use and practice. In this paper, two of the companies operating in the United States of America will be discussed and compared along with the suggestion of a competitive strategy for McDonald’s. One of the companies that was researched in this paper name is McDonald's. This company operates internationally while the opposition organization which is Wendy’s also known as a fast food restaurant operates in the United States of America. As far as McDonald's is concerned, McDonald's was established in the year 1940 by Richard and Maurice McDonald, in San Bernardino, California, United States. The organization's business structure depends on three basic axes: representatives, franchisees, and suppliers. This business structure made by the founder of the organization, Ray Kroc, is known as "the three-legged sto.
ASSIGNMENT The student will submit a research project that compares.docxlynettearnold46882
ASSIGNMENT: The student will submit a research project that compares and contrasts two organizations in the same sector (Career Education Corporation and the Apollo Group Inc. or any other that you prefer), including analysis of the following criteria: legal, social, and economic environments; management structure; operational and financial issues; and impact of potential change factors.
1) Student should analyze the basic legal, social, and economic environments of the organization
2) Student should analyze the managerial, operational and financial issues of the organization
3) Student will analyze the impact of potential change factors as they related to the organization.
4) Student should apply appropriate college level writing standard.
the submission should be in APA Format. LENGTH of Paper: 5 Body Pages
.
Assignment Three Case study report – mixed mediaValue 40 .docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment Three: Case study report – mixed media
Value: 40% of the total marks for the unit
Length: 2000 words, or 5-6 minute video, or audio-narrated powerpoint of 10-15 slides, or photo essay supported with 500 words
Due: Week 12
Task description
Attend the event nominated in Assignment 2.
Briefly describe the event – name, date, location and venue, and attendance numbers and demographics.
Describe and critically analyse the positive and negative impacts of the event utilising the principles of sustainability and the triple bottom line approach.
Describe and discuss how the event’s program elements related to the aims and objectives identified in Assignment Two.
Describe and discuss the marketing of the event and how the promoted experience related to the actualisation and attainment of its aims and objectives (include actual audience details – numbers, demographic composition).
Provide recommendations for future activities which clearly identify issues relevant to event management.
The task is a report on the event nominated in Assignment Two that uses the triple bottom line approach to identify and critically analyse - the attainment of the events aims and objectives; the positive and negative economic, environmental, sociocultural impacts of the event; and recommendations which clearly identify issues relevant to the event management.
The evaluation report should use creativity in the approach to the task style.
The assignment may be presented as a 2000 word essay, or a 5-6 minute video, or an audio-narrated powerpoint of 10-15 slides, or a photo essay supported with 500 words. The process for submission of this assessment will depend upon the format chosen and prior negotiation with the tutor is required.
.
Assignment The Nurse Leader as Knowledge WorkerThe term kn.docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment: The Nurse Leader as Knowledge Worker
The term “knowledge worker” was first coined by management consultant and author Peter Drucker in his book,
The Landmarks of Tomorrow
(1959). Drucker defined knowledge workers as high-level workers who apply theoretical and analytical knowledge, acquired through formal training, to develop products and services. Does this sound familiar?
Nurses are very much knowledge workers. What has changed since Drucker’s time are the ways that knowledge can be acquired. The volume of data that can now be generated and the tools used to access this data have evolved significantly in recent years and helped healthcare professionals (among many others) to assume the role of knowledge worker in new and powerful ways.
In this Assignment, you will consider the evolving role of the nurse leader and how this evolution has led nurse leaders to assume the role of knowledge worker. You will prepare a PowerPoint presentation with an infographic (graphic that visually represents information, data, or knowledge. Infographics are intended to present information quickly and clearly.) to educate others on the role of nurse as knowledge worker.
Reference: Drucker, P. (1959).
The landmarks of tomorrow. New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers.
To Prepare:
Review the concepts of informatics as presented in the Resources.
Reflect on the role of a nurse leader as a knowledge worker.
Consider how knowledge may be informed by data that is collected/accessed.
The Assignment:
Explain the concept of a knowledge worker.
Define and explain nursing informatics and highlight the role of a nurse leader as a knowledge worker.
Develop a simple infographic to help explain these concepts.
Your PowerPoint should Include the hypothetical scenario you originally shared in the Discussion Forum. Include your examination of the data that you could use, how the data might be accessed/collected, and what knowledge might be derived from that data. Be sure to incorporate feedback received from your colleagues’ responses.
.
Temple of Asclepius in Thrace. Excavation resultsKrassimira Luka
The temple and the sanctuary around were dedicated to Asklepios Zmidrenus. This name has been known since 1875 when an inscription dedicated to him was discovered in Rome. The inscription is dated in 227 AD and was left by soldiers originating from the city of Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv).
Elevate Your Nonprofit's Online Presence_ A Guide to Effective SEO Strategies...TechSoup
Whether you're new to SEO or looking to refine your existing strategies, this webinar will provide you with actionable insights and practical tips to elevate your nonprofit's online presence.
Philippine Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) CurriculumMJDuyan
(𝐓𝐋𝐄 𝟏𝟎𝟎) (𝐋𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐧 𝟏)-𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐦𝐬
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐮𝐬𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐄𝐏𝐏 𝐂𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐦 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐏𝐡𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐩𝐩𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐬:
- Understand the goals and objectives of the Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) curriculum, recognizing its importance in fostering practical life skills and values among students. Students will also be able to identify the key components and subjects covered, such as agriculture, home economics, industrial arts, and information and communication technology.
𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐍𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐜𝐨𝐩𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐧 𝐄𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐮𝐫:
-Define entrepreneurship, distinguishing it from general business activities by emphasizing its focus on innovation, risk-taking, and value creation. Students will describe the characteristics and traits of successful entrepreneurs, including their roles and responsibilities, and discuss the broader economic and social impacts of entrepreneurial activities on both local and global scales.
How to Setup Default Value for a Field in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, we can set a default value for a field during the creation of a record for a model. We have many methods in odoo for setting a default value to the field.
THE SACRIFICE HOW PRO-PALESTINE PROTESTS STUDENTS ARE SACRIFICING TO CHANGE T...indexPub
The recent surge in pro-Palestine student activism has prompted significant responses from universities, ranging from negotiations and divestment commitments to increased transparency about investments in companies supporting the war on Gaza. This activism has led to the cessation of student encampments but also highlighted the substantial sacrifices made by students, including academic disruptions and personal risks. The primary drivers of these protests are poor university administration, lack of transparency, and inadequate communication between officials and students. This study examines the profound emotional, psychological, and professional impacts on students engaged in pro-Palestine protests, focusing on Generation Z's (Gen-Z) activism dynamics. This paper explores the significant sacrifices made by these students and even the professors supporting the pro-Palestine movement, with a focus on recent global movements. Through an in-depth analysis of printed and electronic media, the study examines the impacts of these sacrifices on the academic and personal lives of those involved. The paper highlights examples from various universities, demonstrating student activism's long-term and short-term effects, including disciplinary actions, social backlash, and career implications. The researchers also explore the broader implications of student sacrifices. The findings reveal that these sacrifices are driven by a profound commitment to justice and human rights, and are influenced by the increasing availability of information, peer interactions, and personal convictions. The study also discusses the broader implications of this activism, comparing it to historical precedents and assessing its potential to influence policy and public opinion. The emotional and psychological toll on student activists is significant, but their sense of purpose and community support mitigates some of these challenges. However, the researchers call for acknowledging the broader Impact of these sacrifices on the future global movement of FreePalestine.
Information and Communication Technology in EducationMJDuyan
(𝐓𝐋𝐄 𝟏𝟎𝟎) (𝐋𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐧 2)-𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐦𝐬
𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐈𝐂𝐓 𝐢𝐧 𝐞𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧:
Students will be able to explain the role and impact of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in education. They will understand how ICT tools, such as computers, the internet, and educational software, enhance learning and teaching processes. By exploring various ICT applications, students will recognize how these technologies facilitate access to information, improve communication, support collaboration, and enable personalized learning experiences.
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐮𝐬𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐚𝐛𝐥𝐞 𝐬𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐧𝐞𝐭:
-Students will be able to discuss what constitutes reliable sources on the internet. They will learn to identify key characteristics of trustworthy information, such as credibility, accuracy, and authority. By examining different types of online sources, students will develop skills to evaluate the reliability of websites and content, ensuring they can distinguish between reputable information and misinformation.
CapTechTalks Webinar Slides June 2024 Donovan Wright.pptxCapitolTechU
Slides from a Capitol Technology University webinar held June 20, 2024. The webinar featured Dr. Donovan Wright, presenting on the Department of Defense Digital Transformation.
Gender and Mental Health - Counselling and Family Therapy Applications and In...PsychoTech Services
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Accounting for Restricted Grants When and How To Record Properly
Directions Please answer three of the four following essay questi.docx
1. Directions: Please answer three of the four following essay
questions using reading materials.
Question #1: Monbiot (Guard Dogs of Perception) claims that
the scientific freedom is a guarantor of our wider liberties.
A) Explain how this claim is true or not.
B) Explain why this claim is a benefit to a society, or a false
hope.
Question #2: Does information justice truly exist? Create an
argument for information justice, or against the claim of
information justice.
Question #3: Explain what may be described as an "information
oligarchy." Is this beneficial to a society - why or why not?
Question #4: Can you claim a "right"?
A) To privacy. If yes, explain your reasons for such a claim. If
not, explain why you can't claim a "right" to privacy.
B) Do you have an obligation to protect your neighbor's right to
privacy. Explain your position.
O R I G I N A L P A P E R
At the foundations of information justice
Matthew P. Butcher
Published online: 10 February 2009
� Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009
2. Abstract Is there such a thing as information justice? In
this paper, I argue that the current state of the information
economy, particularly as it regards information and com-
puting technology (ICT), is unjust, conferring power
disproportionately on the information-wealthy at great
expense to the information-poor. As ICT becomes the pri-
mary method for accessing and manipulating information, it
ought to be treated as a foundational layer of the information
economy. I argue that by maximizing the liberties (freedom
to use, freedom to distribute, freedom to modify, and so on)
associated with certain computer software, an incentives-
rich and stable environment can be established in ICT that
will foster development of the information economy among
the information poor. I suggest that the now-mature Free and
Open Source Software paradigm, which has already pro-
duced widely-used enterprise-class applications, can be
harnessed in support of these ends.
Keywords Information and computer technology �
Information justice � Information economy �
3. Free and Open Source Software (FOSS)
In 2004, the Business Software Association (BSA) and
Microsoft Corporation contacted the government of Indo-
nesia, claiming that the country owed licensing fees for
Microsoft software running on 500,000 computers. The
cost of purchasing licenses to run a single basic functional
computer workstation powered by Microsoft software is
$524.98 USD, which works out to a whopping 47.73% of
the per capita GDP of Indonesia.
1
But escaping such an
expense by simply avoiding the use of an operating system
is unfeasible. The operating system is the base-level pro-
gram that bridges the computer’s hardware with all of the
standard programs. A computer without an operating
system is a worthless piece of equipment, incapable of
performing any significant computing tasks.
2
Recent
4. research suggests that the Indonesia case is not a rarity.
3
In
his article ‘‘License Fees and GDP Per Capita,’’ Rishab
Ghosh calculated the cost of license fees for Windows XP
based on the per capita GDP. The results were stunning: In
47 of 176 sampled countries, the cost of running Microsoft
Windows plus Microsoft Office was greater than the per
capita GDP of the country.
4
In Vietnam, the software cost
M. P. Butcher (&)
Department of Philosophy, Loyola University Chicago, Crown
Center, Suite 300, 6525 N. Sheridan Road, Chicago, IL 60626,
USA
e-mail: [email protected]
1
The $524.98 price tag is based on the Amazon.com price (as of
Nov. 2006) for Windows XP Home Edition ($194.99) and
Microsoft
Office 2003 Standard Edition (329.99). Retail price for these is
much
5. higher. In 2004, these were the lowest end of Microsoft’s
operating
system and office packs. According the the CIA Fact Book, the
GDP
of Indonesia is $270 billion (current currency exchange rate),
and the
population is 245,452,739. GDP/Population = $1100.01 per
capita.
CIA Factbook. Indonesia.
https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/
geos/id.html (accessed 12 Nov. 2006).
2
The computer will perform basic bootstrapping (‘‘booting up’’),
where software encoded in onboard chips (the Basic
Input/Output
System (BIOS) and firmware) is loaded and executed. But once
basic
initialization of major pieces of hardware is executed, the
computer
(when failing to find an operating system) will sit idle.
3
No public conclusion was ever reached in the Indonesian deal.
At
one point (July 2005), a handful of newspapers reported that
6. Microsoft agreed to charge the Indonesian government only
$1.00
USD per computer, but at the same time Microsoft denied
having
made any such offer. Early this year, Microsoft released a
stripped-
down low-cost version of its operating system for developing
nations.
This system has a lower price tag, but lacks features, as well.
4
Gosh (2003).
123
Ethics Inf Technol (2009) 11:57–69
DOI 10.1007/s10676-009-9181-2
https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/id.html
https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/id.html
is equivalent to 16.33 GDP Months (GDP/capita/month). In
Ethiopia, the cost is 70.96 GDP Months. Many countries
lack the monetary resources to pay for licenses to run basic
commercial software for their computers.
5
7. This is disheartening, perhaps, and may strike some as
an injustice prima facie. But, considered in a broad context,
this is but an indication of a much larger problem.
In this paper, I argue that the Free and Open Source
Software (FOSS) model can be used to address one of
the foundational points that prevent information-poor
regions from developing a successful information econ-
omy. I begin by discussing the idea of the information
economy. From there, I argue that the correct focal point
is the software platform used on computers. By making
such software accessible under licenses that encourage
further development, areas that would otherwise be sub-
ject to high license fees and severe contract restrictions
can instead begin with an open foundation and have the
freedom to develop from this foundation as needed. I
propose that the FOSS model, which has been proven
viable, is a more feasible solution than policy changes.
Finally, I conclude with suggestions as to how this pro-
8. cess can be fostered.
Information wealth, information poverty
As information and computing technology (ICT) becomes
pervasive, information has become a valuable commodity.
And this point has not been lost on those who trade in
information. Information creators and managers have
sought to protect their interests through legislative means at
national and international levels. International organiza-
tions such as the World Intellectual Property Organization
(WIPO) and the World Trade Organization (WTO) become
legislators and enforcers of such policies.
As a result, legal standards have transitioned from basic
forms of intellectual protection—granting authors and
inventors short-term rights over their creative work—to a
behemoth system of intellectual property rights in which
information is said to be as protectable a property as land or
other physical possessions.
6
9. Intellectual property laws are
no longer used merely as incentives to promote work
(as was the stated purpose of copyright in the U.S. Con-
stitution and the Statue of Anne
7
), nor even to protect the
investments required for replicating information in physi-
cal media. Instead, current law is written to protect the long
term financial interests of organizations who profit through
the control of information—however ephemeral that
information may be. The initial checks and balances of the
system were long ago forfeited, as legislation has shifted to
favor agencies that control information at the expense of
those who use the information.
The result is that in the new economy of information,
the gap between the information-wealthy and the infor-
mation-poor has emerged in such a way that the
information-wealthy, privileged as they are with owner-
ship, have effectively become the ruling class of the
10. infosphere.
8
The rights to disseminate information is
concentrated in a small, but affluent, sector made up not
only of media corporations, but also technology compa-
nies and large research firms. Backed by international
treaties (such as the Berne Convention)
9
guaranteeing
copyright, patent, and trade secret protection, such
organizations can restrict use of their information. And
copyright law continues to be extended. More works are
now subject to copyright control, and copyright holders
retain complete control over copyrighted information for
as much as the lifetime of the author plus seventy
years.
10
In contrast, those who do not own rights to such infor-
mation take on the role of information consumers who may
use information only when such information is offered, and
11. then only under the conditions under which it is offered.
For example, before one can watch a sporting event on U.
S. television, one is advised of his or her legal rights
regarding viewing, recording, and rebroadcasting the con-
tents of the broadcast. Beyond those straightforward
prohibitions on use, though, one is even notified that she or
he may not describe the events that occur based on the
5
Also, it should be noted that given these prices, PC hardware is
currently cheaper than the software needed to run it. This trend
will
likely continue with the maturation of projects like One Laptop
Per
Child (http://laptop.org).
6
Tavani (2005).
7
The Statute of Anne of 1710 is the prototype for copyright law
in the
English-speaking world. Tallmo, Karl-Eric. The History of
Copyright:
A Critical Overview with Source Texts in Five Languages.
12. 2005. http://
Footnote 7 continued
www.copyrighthistory.com/anne.html. (Accessed November 14,
2007).
8
The term infosphere, coined by philosopher Luciano Floridi,
describes the domain of information. He explains this concept
in
detail in Floridi (1999).
9
WIPO 1979.
10
Circular 92: Copyright Law of the United States of America.
2003,
June. Washington, DC: U.S. GPTO. §302. (Circular 92 is Title
17 of
the U.S. copyright code, plus all amendments and significant
legal
decisions.) The extensions of copyright terms has had some
interest-
ing implications. When the Copyright Term Extension Act
(CTEA)
passed in the US in 1998, copyright terms were extended by 20
13. years.
The extension had the effect of removing works from the public
domain. Works that had passed into public domain under the
‘‘life
plus fifty’’ scheme were now once again protected under the
‘‘life plus
seventy’’ scheme of CTEA. In the Eldred v. Ashcroft case, the
U.S.
Supreme Court upheld a lower court’s verdict that the CTEA
does in
fact have the effect of re-protecting such borderland works.
Lessig
(2004, 213ff).
58 M. P. Butcher
123
http://laptop.org
http://www.copyrighthistory.com/anne.html
contents of the broadcast.
11
Similarly, in 2000, the U.S.
Patent Office issued Human Genome Sciences a patent
over a sequence of human genes that seems to be resistant
14. to AIDS. This raises the fear that ‘‘now the corporation can
restrict the numbers of scientists working on AIDS cures
and drugs, unless they pay a hefty licensing fee to HGS.’’
12
Seeds, too, can be patented, and farmers are required to pay
seed companies license fees if any patented seeds are
grown in their fields.
13
All of these restrictions are placed
in the name of intellectual property rights. What these
examples illustrate is the way that claims of information
ownership are made, and how ownership of information,
once granted, leads to control of information according to
proprietary interests (or at least the claims of rights to
control information).
Certainly, some level of intellectual property protection
is warranted, and even desirable. And I do not raise these
examples to simply condemn them so much as to illustrate
the breadth of intellectual property claims and restrictions.
15. But what is of concern, here, is that the control over
information has become centralized, and hence controlled,
by a small collection of affluent organizations.
The risk presented under contemporary circumstances is
that the information-wealthy enforce their claims of own-
ership against the information poor, and they exercise their
control in such a way as to prevent the information-poor
from producing or owning their own information.
14
Fur-
ther, the information-wealthy use legislative means to
control how their information may be used. Simple
examples of these problems abound. Individuals may not
copy significant portions of books (where the term ‘sig-
nificant’ is subject to judicial definition). When one finds a
factual error in a text, one may not make and disseminate
corrected texts. Individuals may not plant the seeds of last
year’s crops (many seeds are patented). Nor may they
16. improve on such crops by grafting techniques or other
genetically modifying technologies. In fact, some seed
usage agreements stipulate that second generation seeds
may not be planted. Individuals may not take a drug,
improve it, and then make the improved version avail-
able—nor may one do the same with architectural
blueprints. All of these materials are legally protected from
such uses.
There is a disparity between the information-wealthy
and the information-poor, and because the legislative
weight falls on the side of the information-wealthy, such a
disparity is not easily breached. Such a caste-like system
with seemingly impermeable class boundaries precludes
the possibility of the information-poor improving their
station. For this reason, I refer to the current situation as a
nascent information oligarchy in which the information-
wealthy rule.
The term ‘oligarchy’ refers to the form of government in
17. which a small minority rules over the populous. In Politics,
Aristotle uses the term to refer to an unbalanced form of
government by the wealthy or aristocratic.
15
It represents
for him an unbalanced (and thus unjust) form of govern-
ment. As Fred Miller puts it, ‘‘Justice requires that benefits
be distributed to individuals in proportion to their merit or
desert. The oligarchs mistakenly think that those who are
superior in wealth should also have superior political
rights[….]’’16 The problem with oligarchy lies in the way
the rulers choose to use their power. The task of the gov-
ernment, according to the oligarch, is to protect the
interests of the wealthy (those in power). This is a result of
a mis-application of the equal-to-equals/unequal-to-un-
equals doctrine: using political authority to protect one
class (the oligarchs), at the expense of a second class (the
populace) is acceptable because the two groups of people
are not equals. It is this sense of the term oligarchy that I
18. wish to capture; the information oligarchy is a rule by those
with a wealth of information (intellectual property) over
which they lay claim, and who employ their wealth in order
to (a) extend and protect their own wealth, and (b) exercise
authority over those who lack information.
By promoting intellectual property law, filing legal
suits—sometimes abusive ones—to protect their inter-
ests,
17
and wrapping information in additional legal
contracts,
18
the information wealthy rule the infosphere.
The recent push in WIPO to extend copyright protection
to non-original databases, in spite of the abundance
of research indicating that this will put nascent information
economies at a distinct disadvantage to the information-
wealthy, exemplifies the legislative endeavors of the
11
This principle was tested in National Basketball Association vs.
19. Motorola, Inc. (1997) 105 F.3d 841 (2d Cir. 1997). See also
Vaidhayanathan (2001, 17ff).
12
Shrader-Frechette (2006, p. 135).
13
Ibid., pp. 135–136. For a summary of the case, see Hirsch
(2003).
14
It may be objected that anyone can produce information simply
by
producing a collection of utterances, whether meaningless or
not. This
objection relies heavily on a strong definition of information (as
opposed to data). But rather than argue the point, I would
simply
further qualify what is meant by information: information is
valuable
only when it has meaning. Meaningful information is all that I
am
interested in—and, in particular, I am interested in information
that
can be applied in service of increased human well-being
(broadly
construed). Falling under this rubric would be scientific and
20. technological information as well as literary and artistic works.
15
Aristotle (2001, III.8 1280a1-2).
16
Miller (2002).
17
For examples of such cases, see Lessig (2004, pp. 95–99).
18
‘‘End User License Agreements,’’ ‘‘Terms of Service Agree-
ments,’’ and other forms of additional licenses are levied on
information consumers. In many cases, information consumers
need
not sign such documents to become party to the license.
At the foundations of information justice 59
123
information-wealthy.
19
Likewise, the increasing reliance
on implicit license agreements in digital media such as
software, music discs, and even books, provides a clear
21. indication of how contract law can be leveraged by the
information-wealthy to protect their property. There is
certainly an effort amongst those who have (the informa-
tion-wealthy) to strengthen their position in regards to
those who have not (the information-poor). In the info-
sphere, what is exchanged is information. In an information
oligarchy, the small group of people who control the
information determine the conditions under which infor-
mation is exchanged and used. While such an authority is
not directly equivalent to state governments, the rule-
making capacity of the information wealthy is sufficient to
warrant the use of the term ‘oligarchy’ in a sense stronger
than mere metaphor.
One of the chief problems of oligarchy, stemming from
the misconstruing of the equals-to-equals doctrine, is that
the information oligarchy is incapable of viewing this
stratification of rights of the infosphere as a justice issue.
The foundational assumptions on the part of the oligarchy
22. make it impossible to see distribution of information as a
justice issue, for the inequality (and subsequent rights
relationships) regarding information are the justification for
the oligarchy’s existence. Should the oligarchy reverse its
position on the rights of information usage, it would
undermine its foundation.
20
Before continuing on, an additional item ought to be
clarified: Who are the information-poor? One familiar
formulation relies upon the concept of the ‘‘Digital
Divide.’’ According to this formulation, the information
poor are those who do not have direct access to modern
computing technology, be they individuals (such as poor
African-Americans in inner-city urban areas) or nations
(such as Ethiopia, Venezuela, Indonesia, and Vietnam).
21
I
find this characterization is overly narrow, for only one
source of information (digital computers) is considered,
23. and often considered in such a way as to reduce the
problem to a supply and demand issue regarding physical
hardware and network access. A broader definition should
not be media-specific. The information-poor are those
people who simply do not have access to or control of
significant sources of information. Access may not require
computing technology—books and other printed media
prove ready sources of information. Likewise, linguistic
and educational barriers may render one information-poor
even if media are readily available. Thus, information
poverty, in this more general sense, need not be wedded to
the concept of the digital divide. In the infosphere, there
are two different problems for the information-poor: First,
they must become able to create new information—gain
information wealth—and that is difficult, because as they
create, it can become owned by the information wealthy
(through such measures as requiring the turning over of
copyright as condition for publishing). Further, the means
24. of creation and distribution are controlled by the informa-
tion wealthy. Second, they need to get out from under the
controlling force of information-wealthy, who impose
restrictions on what they can and cannot do with the
information they are given access to. Innovation by the
information-poor is stifled by restrictions and costs
imposed by the information wealthy. But the digital divide
can be overcome—PCs can be given to those who need
them—without necessarily addressing or solving either of
these two problems.
Ultimately a successful information economy will
involve the balancing of interests. The rights of those who
produce, distribute, and maintain information must be
weighed carefully against the rights of the information
consumer. But the equity demanded to allow the infor-
mation-poor a chance to overcome these two challenges
will not spring from increased legislation and stricter
enforcement of intellectual property rights, as is sought by
25. the information wealthy. The solution is to be found
elsewhere.
When we talk about the information poor, are what type
of people—or what grouping of people—are we talking
about? Are they individuals? Or are we talking about
nations? The term could readily be applied to both.
22
But
for the purpose of this paper, I am primarily concerned
with large groups of peoples—nations and regions—that
are, as a whole, information poor. There is a practical
reason for such a choice: Information poverty at a regional
level does very real harm to human wellbeing, and this
damage is done on a broad scale. In contrast, smaller scale
information poverty (such as in south-side Chicago) can be
mitigated to some degree by the relative information
wealth surrounding them.
23
In the following argument, then, my focus shall be on
26. bridging disparities in information wealth at a global scale.
19
Tabuchi (2004).
20
Jamie Dow notes that Aristotle’s preferred form of government
is
not democracy, but a meritocracy or aristocracy. This analogy,
he
points out, carries on to an ethical imperative in the present
context:
In a correctly-balanced system, those who have the ability to
create or
own information take on the ethical responsibility to promote
just
distribution (Dow, Personal correspondence, July, 2007).
21
For one example, see Mossberger et al. (2003). See also Moss
(2002, particularly pp. 161–162), who overtly dichotomizes
‘‘the
divide within nations’’ and the ‘‘global divide.’’
22
Moss (2002) attempts to show this in the context of the digital
divide.
23
27. Mossberger et al. (2003) take the approach that policy-level
corrections in such situations can go a long way toward
mitigating
those factors that diminish wellbeing.
60 M. P. Butcher
123
Rather than attempting a solution that deals with the
individual, the solution I will suggest is addressed to the
regional and state levels. By addressing the information
economy at this level, I can focus less on what might be
deemed individualistic welfare policies, and more on a
solution that will stimulate or even create healthy markets
in these regions.
Given this focus, the question at the heart of the dis-
cussion is, ‘‘How can we reduce information poverty in
regions where there is a noticeable absence of access to
information resources, a noticeable absence of information
28. wealth, and where such absences negatively affect human
wellbeing?’’ A significant way to address this question may
be found in information and computer technologies.
The foundational role of information and computing
technology (ICT)
There are many facets to the issue of information wealth
and control, and one could easily progress from here to
discuss how AIDS medication is unavailable to the mil-
lions of AIDS patients in Africa because of the intellectual
property rights of American pharmaceuticals companies.
Or one might delve into the abuses of information control
as a means of political or social coercion. Or one might
examine how criticism, expression, and competition can be
squelched when organizations exert their absolute rights to
arbitrarily prohibit others’ use of their information—even
in context that might have, in the past, been protected as
fair use.
24
As tantalizing as those possibilities are, though, I will
29. refrain from moving in any of those directions. Instead, I
want to focus on ICT. This is my focus because ICT plays a
critical and foundational role in the contemporary infor-
mation economy in a way that the items listed above do
not. In an era of personal computers and data networks
united by the Internet, information is stored, accessed, and
manipulated in the digital domain. Further, no physical
library can provide the wealth of information accessible on
global networks. But the access points for the global net-
work are devices (primarily in the form of desktop and
laptop computers) running software designed to facilitate
human interaction.
25
And the terms upon which one enters
the information economy are determined by these foun-
dational ICT layers.
To examine how the relation of the individual to the
infosphere (when accessed via ICT) is structured, I want to
30. take the perspective of the individual. That is, I offer a
model that answers the question, what does the information
landscape look like from the perspective of the individual?
Taking such a perspective gives us a sort of consumer’s-
eye-view of the infosphere.
The network information model (Fig. 1) with which I
am working can be divided into four layers, where the
lower tiers support the upper tiers. The top tier is the
information tier. This describes the resources available, in
the form of text, audio, video or even other categories. But
this information is initially not in the possession of the
individual, and a component of solving the problem posed
by the information oligarchy is in providing access to this
information.
26
The second tier is the network. Certainly, not all com-
puter-encoded information requires a network. A computer,
in order to function, contains a great deal of information,
and other media besides the network (such as CD-ROMs
31. and DVDs) can also be used to transmit information. But
with the rise of the Internet, the potential for the network as
the primary information transmission layer is apparent, and
it is the prominence and potential of that medium that I
have sought to capture here.
The third and fourth tiers are located on the physical
device that the person uses to access information.
27
The
term ‘computer applications,’ the third tier, describes the
Fig. 1 The network information model
24
For an amusing explanation of this, see Faden (2007).
25
All devices that run software are considered to be computers.
Hand-held devices such as Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs)
are
computers, as are modern cell phones. But there are many
computers
that are not designed for direct human interaction (servers,
industrial
32. computers, embedded systems, and so on). I am interested only
in
computers intended for human interaction. And for the sake of
simplicity, I speak primarily of desktop and laptop computers,
though
Footnote 25 continued
almost all of what I say can be applied to PDAs, cell phones,
and
other computers intended for human interaction.
26
Software is, properly understood, information. This illustration,
simplistic as it is, might erroneously give the false impression
that it is
not. To correct this perception, consider the act of downloading
a new
software package. The information is initially external (located
on the
network). After the downloading process, it is local. Only when
it is
executed does it perform in the role envisioned on the lower
tiers of
the diagram above. But at all stages, software is information.
27
33. For the sake of simplicity, I will not discuss network-based
applications, such as thin clients running applications on X
servers
and browser-based web applications. These are rightly
considered
‘‘computer applications,’’ though.
At the foundations of information justice 61
123
programs that run within the digital environment on a
computer. This includes web browsers, word processors,
image editors, messaging and telephony applications, and
so on. It also includes lower-level applications, such as
network management programs, which might not be visible
to the user, but which run on the computer.
The fourth tier, the operating system, is the layer of
software that provides a digital environment in which other
programs may run. The central task of the operating system
is to mediate between the central processing unit (CPU),
34. together with other necessary physical devices (such as
Random Access Memory (RAM), low-level caches, and
bridges), and the computer applications that run on the
computer. The operating system is foundational to the
functioning of most computers.
28
And in the model with
which we are working, where information is stored digi-
tally, the operating system is foundational for accessing
information.
What about computer hardware, such as CPUs, hard
disks, keyboards, monitors and such? Why is it not repre-
sented above? Strictly speaking, hardware is beyond the
scope of this model because it is not, itself, an informa-
tional component. It is the physical medium through which
the information is conducted. Hardware stands in relation
to this model as paper, glue, and cardboard stand in relation
to an information model based on books.
35. Hardware is an important component in establishing an
information model, and clearly cannot be ignored. But
discussion of hardware falls outside of the scope of the
present discussion. It would be remiss, though, to fail to
mention the efforts made in addressing the absence of
hardware for the information poor (both in impoverished
regions, and as isolated individuals within an otherwise
information-wealthy society). The most notable endeavor
is the One Laptop Per Child (OLPC) project, spearheaded
by MIT’s Nicholas Negroponte.
29
The goal of the project is
to provide a portable computer, costing less than $100 to
produce, to every child in the impoverished regions of the
world. These laptops are built to be ultra-rugged. They are
powered by a kinetic generator; the child’s motion gener-
ates electricity which is then stored in the laptop battery.
Monitors are built for indoor and outdoor viewing, and the
laptop is shock-resistant. The laptops can self-organize into
36. an ad hoc network. The pioneering engineering done for
this device is likely to lead to similar low-cost devices that
will function as affordable alternatives to today’s pricey
desktop or laptop computers.
The availability and affordability of hardware is
important, and great strides have been made in address-
ing this. But for this discussion, centered as it is on
information, hardware is beyond the scope. Software, the
third and fourth tiers of the model above, is the basis of
the information model considered here, and it is these
two tiers that I believe provide the most promise for
addressing the problem of information poverty.
30
Free information: an imperative
What does the ICT landscape look like for the individual
who is (initially) an information consumer, but not a pro-
ducer? Such a person is information-poor. She begins in a
state wholly dependent on receiving information from
37. others—even at such a rudimentary level as requiring an
operating system and perhaps a network address. We can
ask the same question in broader terms: What does the ICT
landscape look like to the information-impoverished
region? The illustration with which I opened this paper—
the case of Indonesia and the cost of Microsoft Windows
licenses—is an example: the price is extremely high. Fur-
ther, the money spent does not stay local; it is lost from the
region.
There are many costs in entering the information
economy. Investing in a commercial operating system (tier
4), for example, has a minimum start-up cost of about $200
(and, as we have seen, is generally higher). The price of
commercial applications (in tier 3) varies, but it is not
uncommon for prices to exceed $200 per program
license.31 In order to get the computer to the point where it
can be used to produce digital information, a tremendous
monetary investment must be made. Keeping GDP infor-
38. mation in mind, the price of a single functional computer
seems overwhelming.
But considerations of cost ought not be strictly limited
to the pecuniary details. The license agreements one must
sign for these bits of information will also have opportunity
cost; use of the software almost always comes with a
number of restrictions on how the information may be
28
Certain special-purpose closed systems may not distinguish
between an operating system and a program. There may only be
one monolithic piece of code that performs the task of both.
Such
computers are not generally used in the sorts of complex
information
models discussed herein, and are thus beyond the scope of this
paper.
29
‘‘One Laptop Per Child,’’ http://laptop.org
30
The laptops created by OLPC run only FOSS software
(including
the Linux kernel, the X.org window manager, the Python
39. scripting
language, and many other popular FOSS programs), and to that
extent
my comments here do directly apply to that project.
31
The list price for Adobe Acrobat, used to produce files in the
popular PDF format, is $299. Microsoft Office Standard is
$399.
Macromedia Studio, used to produce graphics, web pages, and
animations, has a list price of $999. And these are not isolated
incidents of rarely-used software; these are popular,
‘‘standard’’ tools!
(Price information collected from http://amazon.com on 31
January,
2007).
62 M. P. Butcher
123
http://laptop.org
http://amazon.com
used.
32
40. What is particularly important in the context of the
information economy, though, is the fact that the individ-
ual’s access to information is restricted when entering the
infosphere in this way. Such parties are made subject to the
control of the information owners through three distinct
measures: through legislated intellectual property law,
through the contractual obligations of the End User License
Agreement (EULA), and through the deterministic infor-
mation-access rules generated by the software application
itself. Each of these three deserves brief discussion.
We have already looked at a few of the considerations
with intellectual property law. International treaties such as
the Berne Convention impose strict guidelines on how
intellectual property may be used.
33
Such conventions are
imposed upon information-poor regions through the col-
lective pressure of coalitions such as the WTO. Such
measures are then actively enforced (as was illustrated in
41. the Indonesia case) by organizations such as the Business
Software Alliance (BSA), which takes legal action against
those who break such intellectual property laws.
EULAs, sometimes called ‘‘click-wrap licenses,’’
require that one accept a license agreement before using
the program. The license agreements, written in highly
technical legal terms, are difficult to read and understand,
and often impose stringent conditions on software use (e.g.
claiming the right to use an individual’s personal infor-
mation or to run monitoring software on the computer to
report information back to the software owner). Such
licenses routinely prohibit sharing the program with
another, making copies of the program (even for personal
use), running the program under certain conditions, and
redistributing the software. While fair use doctrine would
traditionally allow such uses—one might share a book, or
re-sell it when finished reading it—contracts trump fair use.
If the license prohibits the behavior, the licensee—by
42. becoming party to the license—forgoes claims to fair use.
Using contract law, software manufactures can impose
extra-legal conditions within a contract, giving the contract
author the ability to legislate.
34
Finally, the software itself can impose restrictions on
those who use it. Software is composed of deterministic
rules, and such rules can be written in such a way as to
limit which ways information may work. Lawrence Lessig
develops this idea broadly when he speaks of software
(code) as a (pseudo-)legislative vehicle through which
works are protected online. ‘‘Code is law,’’ he says, ‘‘In
real space we recognize how laws regulate—through con-
stitutions, statutes, and other legal codes. In cyberspace we
must understand how code regulates—how the software
and hardware that make cyberspace what it is regulate
cyberspace as it is.’’
35
The country of Venezuela, currently
43. struggling to raise itself out of information poverty, pro-
vides a case in point.
The Venezuelan oil company PDVSA (Petróleos de
Venezuela S.A.) relied upon a joint venture called INTESA
(Informática, Negocios, y Tecnologı́a, S.A.)—an operation
run by the U.S. company SAIC (Science Applications
International Corporation)—to handle its IT operations.
INTESA implemented a computing system to manage
PDVSA’s information. INTESA’s services were costly,
and the government-owned oil company could not afford to
continue them over the long term. When PDVSA decided
to slowly phase out INTESA’s involvement in PDVSA,
INTESA went on strike and refused to provide any further
services.
The result was that PDVSA could not transfer its data
processing to new systems, nor could it process its
orders and bills for oil shipments. PDVSA ended up
having to process such things manually, since pass-
44. words and the general computing infrastructure were
unavailable […].36
With the data locked up in proprietary software, PDVSA,
the company that owned the information, could not access
it. Binary data formats combined with software that
intentionally obscured the way it works made it impossible
for PDVSA to gain control of their information, and as a
result PDVSA was forced to fall back on a far less reliable
system of manually entering order and shipment informa-
tion. As one pundit put it: ‘‘The moral of the story: When
you have to hack your way into proprietary software to
keep the mainstay of your economy running, maybe it’s
time to find a better way.’’
37
Lessig’s concept of code as a
form of law is instructive, here: The software created
imposed an arbitrary set of conditions on the use of the
software and the information managed therewith. These
45. conditions deprived PDVSA of the ability to make use of
its own information. And this, coupled with license
agreements and intellectual property rights, precluded
employing technical measures to gain access to the
32
Some of these lost opportunities are made salient by the
licenses.
A network services provider may require that a customer not
download materials deemed illegal. But other lost opportunities
are
less salient. An operating system license, for example, usually
denies
the user the rights to modify, redistribute, resell, or copy the
software.
It also specify what the user can say about the software, or to
what
lengths a user may go to in order to understand how the
software
works (a practice known as reverse engineering). Of course,
there are
other opportunity costs I have not mentioned here.
33
WIPO (1979).
34
46. Accounts of this may be found in Vaidhayanathan (2001) and
Lessig (2004). See especially Vaidhayanathan’s discussion of
pseudo-
copyright, paracopyright, and metacopyright (p. 183).
35
Lessig (2006).
36
Wilpert (2003).
37
Leonard (2006).
At the foundations of information justice 63
123
information. Reverse engineering is stopped, caught in a
triple-bind: it violates international intellectual property
law, it violates the license agreements, and it operates
against the existing code. In short, the combination of
legislation, contract, and code created a set of boundaries
around PDVSA’s information that effectively claimed
outside control over it.
47. As I have emphasized above, the deck of the informa-
tion economy is stacked against the information-poor. If
one is forced, as it were, to enter the information economy
as a member of the lowest caste under terms that will
perpetually keep one indebted to (and, in fact, subject to)
the information oligarchy, then one has no hope of rising
from the status of information poverty. This sort of system,
which does not value equality or liberty, is unjust. Again,
recalling Aristotle, the error lies in the assumption by the
information wealthy that their ownership of the informa-
tion entitles them to encourage and institute measures to
strengthen their control over information. Having made this
assumption, they aggressively pursue policies that are
detrimental to the information poor because these policies
are unbalanced.
Is the best approach to vanquish intellectual property
law? No. As Lessig, an advocate of reforming intellectual
property law, states, ‘‘Intellectual property law is clearly a
48. good. No modern society can flourish unless it accords at
least some protection to creative work.’’
38
But he goes on
to point out the point at which the information oligarchy
fails:
But as our tradition attests, and economists confirm,
just because some intellectual property is good, it
does not follow that more intellectual property is
better. More precisely, just because some protection
is good, it does not follow that increasing that pro-
tection is better.
39
The information oligarchy operates on that assumption that
more is better. More control is more desirable; more
protection is more desirable. This, I argue, stems from the
misconception by the information wealthy that advance-
ment of the cause of ownership is the correct goal, and the
information wealthy are obliged to fulfill that goal.
49. While Lessig’s goal of reforming intellectual property
law is an appropriate response, such changes will occur
only over the long term, and the tide is still against Lessig’s
proposals. A more expedient method of addressing the
problem is desirable.
What about implementing government-sponsored pro-
grams and policies (at an international level) to bring about
change? This solution operates in line with that suggested
by Kate Mossberger, Caroline Tolbert, and Mary Stansbury
in their book Virtual Inequality: Beyond the Digital Divide.
There, they argue that the free market, left to its own
devices, is not capable of overcoming an information oli-
garchy in America:
Information technology skills are ‘public goods,’
because, like education and libraries, they are
capable of providing positive externalities associ-
ated with economic growth and democratic
governance. Economists justify government inter-
50. vention in the market when there are externalities,
or effects that ripple beyond the individuals who
are directly involved in a transaction. Positive
externalities mean that the market, left to its own
devices, will likely underprovide such commodities.
Because individuals fail to ‘capture’ all of the
benefits of the knowledge and skills they acquire,
they will tend to undervalue them and underinvest
from the point of view of society as a whole. Public
subsidy or public provision in such cases is more
efficient than the market, because governments are
able to act in the public interest and to realize the
additional social benefits.
40
The suggestion made in this passage is that the market will
not make available the materials necessary for the infor-
mation-poor to educate themselves. But as we shall see
shortly, the evidence does not necessarily support this
51. conclusion. Perhaps a solution in the arena of the
information economy may in fact be possible without
recourse to special-purpose government-initiated policy.
That, in fact, is the thesis for which I argue.
What sort of solution can be considered a just solution?
And can social justice be implemented without the sort of
policy changes suggested in the quote above by Mossber-
ger, Tolbert, and Stansbury? In this paper, I take the view
of social justice that jurist Cass Sunstein defends in his
book Free Markets and Social Justice. There, Sunstein
argues that the free market and social justice are not anti-
thetical. In fact, the opposite seems, in many cases, to be
true: ‘‘A system aspiring to social justice aspires to liberty,
and a system of free markets seems to promise liberty,
because it allows people to trade goods and services as they
wish.’’
41
Where possible, we ought to take advantage of a
free market when addressing social justice issues. How-
52. ever, sometimes the interests in service of one conflict with
the interests of the other. In such cases, we ought to prefer
social justice over free markets. ‘‘Achievement of social
justice is a higher value than the protection of free markets;
38
Lessig (2003, p. 2).
39
Ibid.
40
Mossberger et al. (2003, p. 5).
41
Sunstein (1997, p. 3).
64 M. P. Butcher
123
markets are mere instruments to be evaluated by their
effects.’’
42
The solution I offer is one that makes use of the free
market in order to promote more market activity—but
53. activity of a sort that promotes social justice in developing
nations. This solution involves voluntarily freeing certain
information of the constraints usually imposed on intel-
lectual property. Certain information—here, the software
source code to foundational software applications—should
be made universally available in a form that prohibits any
one group from asserting control over this software. Sun-
stein’s emphasis on liberty is important, here: it is a value
we want to protect and promote. And the solution I propose
is liberty-sensitive, following a dictum like Mill’s, where
liberty is limited only in the name of the protection from
threats to objective well being (such as food insecurity,
injury, and so on).
43
Surprisingly, a viable solution does not necessarily
require policy-level changes at an international level
(which would require nearly global cooperation of the
information oligarchy—an unlikely possibility). Rather,
existing international intellectual property law can be
54. harnessed in such a way as to provide protecting the
freeness of designated software, but without taking away
from the information-wealthy. No software company, for
instance, needs to be coerced into making its software
available under such terms. Instead, interested parties may
voluntarily create this liberty-centered software. Does this
sound too reliant on altruism? In fact it is not.
44
Such a
paradigm has already been implemented, and to a sur-
prisingly successful degree, in the form of FOSS.
45
It is the
FOSS model that I will promote as a viable solution.
What is FOSS? For a piece of software to be con-
sidered FOSS, it must grant the user at least the
following four freedoms (as specified in the ‘‘Free Soft-
ware Definition’’):
(1) The freedom to run the program, for any purpose.
55. (2) The freedom to study how the program works, and
adapt it to your needs.
(3) The freedom to redistribute copies so you can help
your neighbor.
46
(4) The freedom to improve the program, and release
your improvements to the public, so that the whole
community benefits.
47
To fulfill the second and forth freedoms above, one must be
given access to the software source code. Source code is an
intermediate language that a computer program can read
and write, and that a computer can interpret as a series of
instructions specifying the behavior of the program from
start to finish. The source code can be compiled into a form
that is machine-readable and executable, but which a
programmer cannot edit. This format, called the binary or
executable format, is how most non-FOSS applications are
distributed.
56. One who has access to only the binary format of a
program is limited in what she or he may do with the
software. Modification is difficult, requiring the intensive,
error-prone technique called reverse engineering—a strat-
egy usually prohibited by law (such as the Digital
Millennium Copyright Act), and by EULAs and other
contracts. The Venezuelan case of PDVSA is an illustration
of how binary-only proprietary software can prevent cer-
tain uses of the software.
In contrast, one who has unbridled access to the
source code can figure out how a program works, modify
the software, or even take pieces of that software and use
them to create or modify other software programs. Cus-
tomizing how an application works—even by simply
translating the text from a foreign language to a local
one—can turn an application with otherwise limited
appeal and make it accessible and useful to a much
broader audience.
57. Software applications are constructed to solve particular
problems, and often such problems are bound to particular
assumptions—sometimes societal, cultural, or regional.
Under the proprietary model, the creator of the software
sets the assumptions, and the software operates according
to those assumptions. Under the FOSS model, anyone is
42
Ibid., p. 9.
43
It is undeniable that there are subjective components to well
being,
and these subjective components as well have been debated in
the
context of Mill’s harm principles (cf. Joel Feinberg’s Limited
Offense
Principle). But given the scope of this paper, I will forgo
discussion
of that debate. There is a broad, cross-disciplinary discussion of
the
concepts of happiness, well-being, welfare and flourishing. See
Gasper (2004).
44
There is a growing literature devoted to discussion of why,
58. exactly,
people do contribute to FOSS projects. For collections of papers
on
the topic, see Ghosh (2004). Also see Feller (2005).
45
Following convention, I refer to the Free Software and Open
Software movements collectively as FOSS. There are ethical
differences between the two movements, but for the purposes of
this
paper, such details have no substantive impact on the discussion
at
hand. For more on the ethical differences, Samir Chopra and
Scott
Dexter elucidate the Free Software movement’s ethics in the
second
chapter of Decoding Liberation. In my review of that book, I
focus on
the different perspective offered by the Open Source movement
(Chopra and Dexter 2007). And also Butcher (2009).
46
I believe this is not to be read non-restrictively, as ‘‘The
freedom to
distribute the software in such cases as it helps your neighbor,’’
but as
59. ‘‘The freedom to distribute the software, which allows you to
help
your neighbor.’’
47
Originally these freedoms were numbered from 0, 1, 2, and 3
(according to programming conventions). Another codification
of the
same principles is present in the ten-point Open Source
Definition
(Stallman et al. 2006; Perens et al. 2006).
At the foundations of information justice 65
123
allowed to modify the software and redistribute changes.
48
FOSS applications that provide some of the desired fea-
tures, but need adjustment for a particular environment, can
be modified by anyone with the requisite skills. A piece of
software can be re-engineered to fit a different environment
than the one originally intended, and this is done without
60. requiring the intervention of the original authors of the
software.
The point on language should not be lost, either. In
proprietary (non-FOSS) applications, the work of translat-
ing an application to a specific human language is done by
the owner of the application. If translation is not eco-
nomically worthwhile for the information owner, then it is
not done. Those who wish to use the software, but whose
native tongue is not supported, have no recourse. They
must either learn the foreign language or forgo using the
software. On the other hand, translation of a FOSS appli-
cation may be done by anyone with the requisite skills.
And to facilitate this, large FOSS communities have
developed tools and methodologies to expedite translations
of FOSS applications.
49
By ensuring basic liberty-sensitive rights to the soft-
ware and its source code, the inequalities at the
foundational ICT layers (tiers 3 and 4 in the capitalist
61. model presented in the previous section) can, to a large
extent, be eliminated. Through the FOSS model, many of
the constraints, in terms of lost opportunity and limited
access to (and use of) information, can be avoided. As
individuals take part in the information economy, they
will not be immediately and irrevocably subject, in virtue
of their participation through ICT, to the controlling
interest of the information elite as a precondition for their
taking part in the information economy. How does this
work to overcome an unjust system? I suggest three
different ways.
First, FOSS makes free what needs to be free, while still
allowing for private or entrepreneurial interests where such
endeavors are supportable. In other words, there is nothing
in my proposal which will prevent economic growth
through capitalist measures—one can still, for example,
sell software and ICT services. But it does ensure that a
certain foundational level of the ICT infrastructure comes
62. with a guarantee of freedom. FOSS software will always be
free to use, modify, and redistribute.
Second, FOSS plays a pedagogical role. Source code
can become the basis for learning how to produce soft-
ware, and FOSS guarantees access to the source code of
the software. Thus, a FOSS application is a learning
environment for technology. And not only can the code
be read, but it can be used as a model. The venerable
tradition of learning by imitation, a tradition which is
suppressed in an information oligarchy, once again
becomes available.
50
In addition to the code itself, many
FOSS applications have manuals also licensed under non-
restrictive licenses. These resources serve a pedagogical
role, while also being liberty-sensitive.
51
Third, FOSS is customizable by whoever wants to cus-
tomize it. What that means is that FOSS applications can be
63. fitted to context, and in a way that is free of external
reliance. Countries and cultural groups can tailor the soft-
ware to reflect their standards, goals, and values.
Individuals can tailor the software to meet their own needs.
Entrepreneurs can take the base software, add features, and
build sustainable business models on their services or
customizations.
52
Because of this customizability, FOSS
software not only fulfills a need, but can serve as a platform
for further innovation—and this platform does not leave
one indebted to an external organization.
53
The net result is that FOSS, when instituted at the
foundational layer, can provide a certain basic level
equality. But beyond just the equality, it provides an
opportunity in the form of tools that one can work with to
become a productive member of the information economy.
Thus, not only can FOSS eliminate the caste-like nature of
64. information poverty, but it can encourage the growth of
healthy information societies by encouraging localization,
personalization, and entrepreneurship.
As information-poor communities and regions work in a
FOSS environment, benefits will accrue locally. As healthy
48
For a discussion of the importance of this difference between
proprietary and FOSS software, see Truscello (2003). Note that
neither the Free Software definition nor the Open Source
definition
require that redistributed software remain under the same
licensing
terms. A common misconception on the difference between Free
Software and Open Source Software is that Free Software
requires
redistribution of code under the same license. While this is a
feature
of the GNU Public License, it is not in fact required by the Free
Software definition.
49
For an example, see the Rosetta project, maintained by Ubuntu.
65. See https://translations.launchpad.net/ for more information.
50
Samir Chopra and Scott Dexter provide a sustained discussion
of
the pedagogical aspects of FOSS in the fourth chapter of
Decoding
Liberation. There, they examine the issue in much more detail
than
my meager sketch here (Chopra and Dexter 2007, 111ff).
51
For example, see the Creative Commons project (http://
creativecommons.org/) and the GNU Free Documentation
License
(http://www.gnu.org/licenses/fdl.html). The Creative Commons
ini-
tiative bears many affinities with the FOSS movement. The
initiative
promotes a set of copyright-related licenses that attempt to
equitably
balance the interests of the copyright holder and those who use
the
work. Unlike FOSS, it is focused on a broader range of artistic
endeavors—not just software production. See Lessig (2004) for
66. background.
52
Krishnamurthy (2005).
53
Some non-FOSS software companies allow others to build on
their
code, but only under costly conditions. Royalties, extended
licensing
fees, intellectual property rights, and the like, for example, may
be
required as recompense for permissions to use their code.
66 M. P. Butcher
123
https://translations.launchpad.net/
http://creativecommons.org/
http://creativecommons.org/
http://www.gnu.org/licenses/fdl.html
local economies grow, quality of life can be improved. A
stronger economy, evidence suggests, is better able to
provide for the basic needs of its people, and when basic
needs are met, the quality of life is higher.
54
67. This, I sug-
gest, is the link between implementing the FOSS model
and supporting human flourishing through the reduction of
information poverty.
Conclusion
I began with a sketch of the dangers of an information
oligarchy, particularly as it pertains to ICT, which I see as a
foundational layer of the information economy. I argued
that an information oligarchy left unchecked leads to
widespread injustice and inequality. But the negative
effects can be stymied without radical changes to the
economic or policy landscape. I propose that this be done
by introducing FOSS in foundational positions, making it
available to those who might otherwise find themselves
forced into a caste of information-poor. But making this
plan feasible will require the effort by those who are
already amongst the information-wealthy.
Such a proposal, by its very nature, will require partic-
68. ipation of some members of the information-wealthy. The
code must be there, and must be robust and reliable before
it will be of use to the information-poor. But who will
produce the code? The majority of contributions to existing
FOSS software comes from the information-wealthy
regions of North America and Western Europe (though
participation by other regions is on the rise).
55
And this
trend must continue for some time if the goal is to reduce
information poverty through promoting FOSS.
56
However,
FOSS is now entrenched enough in the programming
world, having grown, over the last few decades, from niche
to mainstream, that there seems to be no reason at present
to think that FOSS will suddenly disappear.
The major difficulty in writing such a paper is the
shortage of empirical data on the topic. While economic
69. literature on the subject of FOSS is rich and diverse (and,
indeed, there is a wealth of computer science texts on the
subject as well), little work in other areas has been done.
Clear policy investigations and empirical analysis of the
impacts of FOSS on information-poor regions would
greatly increase the strength of the argument made
herein. In particular, the link I have suggested between
information wealth and objective well-being, while
strongly supported by anecdotal evidence (‘‘the library of
Alexandria is one of the great achievements of the
ancient world!’’), appears not to have been tested in a
more structured way. Studies done on subjective well-
being and technology do not directly apply to the thesis
at hand, either.
57
In some ways, the literature on the ‘‘digital divide’’ has
introduced confusion into the debate, as the problem of an
emerging information economy has been conflated with the
unequal distribution of computer technology. The result of
70. this is that the significance of the role of intellectual
property rights and legislation has been obscured or
ignored, overshadowed by the much more salient question
of who owns computers. I believe that by re-framing the
problem in terms of an information economy, details that
are not salient in the other model, but are causally
involved, receive due attention.
To a large extent, the possibility of empirical studies of
FOSS has been limited by the fact that few information
poor regions have a history of employing FOSS. But this
situation is changing. China now has a government-spon-
sored version of the FOSS operating system Linux
(a version so popular that American computer giant Hewlett-
Packard officially supports it).
58
Venezuela is in the second
year of its two-year transition to Linux.
59
Vietnam is in a
71. similar position, where government computers now pri-
marily run FOSS software, and commercial computer
vendors pre-install FOSS software, rather than proprietary
alternatives.
60
And these are not the only countries making
such a move, either. The One Laptop Per Child project, if it
comes to fruition, might also serve as an invaluable
resource for collecting such data. As data becomes avail-
able, the largely suppositional argument made here can be
replaced by one grounded in evidence.
Finally, the main focus of this paper has been on the ICT
information model—and only on the lowest tiers, at that.
There are many other topics in this simple model that
deserve attention. How can networks be extended to the
54
Trout (2009).
55
Lerner and Tirole (2005, pp. 55–56).
56
72. Thus, we could make the following normative recommendations
for academic and research institutions: (1) Institutions should
educate
students in FOSS, (2) those who develop software in such an
environment should be encouraged to release the code under a
FOSS
license, (3) institutions should fund research and work in these
areas,
not only internally, but with established FOSS projects, and (4)
research about FOSS should be encouraged. This last point
applies
beyond the computer lab: research into economics, sociology,
psychology, and other such areas can provide valuable insights
into
FOSS methodologies, communities, and so on.
57
Jackson et al. (2004) conclude in their study on subjective well-
being along the digital divide suggests that there is no
correlation
between subjective well-being and Internet access. The
suggested
reason? Those information-poor who do get computers don’t
73. have
peers with whom to communicate. It is to be suggested, then,
that for
such resources to improve subjective well-being, access must be
made
pervasive.
58
Red Flag Software, http://www.redflag-linux.com/eindex.html.
59
Sojo (2004).
60
Khiem (2004); ‘‘Vietnam government opts for open source’’,
2003.
At the foundations of information justice 67
123
http://www.redflag-linux.com/eindex.html
information poor? How can artistic works such as music
and literature be produced in a way that makes it both
accessible to those who cannot afford it (in geographically
isolated areas) while not undercutting the incentives for
producing? And there are behemoth questions about the
74. availability of other sorts of intellectual property—drug
patents, seed patents, and so on—that will take significant
thought to resolve (if it is even possible to resolve such
problems). Might FOSS serve as an inspiration for solving
such difficulties? These are questions that fell outside of
the scope of this paper, but which are nonetheless worthy
topics of investigation.
Acknowledgements Thomas Wren, George Thiruvathukal, Samir
Chopra, and Scott Dexter each made valuable comments on
early
drafts of this paper. J.D. Trout turned me on to some of the
sources
that became the basis of the argument presented here. Attendees
at the
Viterbo Values conference in 2007 provided insights into
aspects of
social justice that I had not before considered. Comments made
during the NA-CAP 2007 conference, especially Jamie Dow’s
com-
ments, led me to hone key aspects of the argument. Thanks also
to
Paul Leisen, who broadened my perspective on the social and
75. polit-
ical implications of FOSS.
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89. Science and Engineering Ethics, Volume 9, Issue 1, 2003 49
Keywords: knowledge economy, corporate funding of academic
research, commercial
confidentiality, Foresight Panels, scientific freedom
ABSTRACT: The belief that science is “a driver of growth in
the knowledge
economy” has led in recent decades to increasing
encouragement by government of the
involvement of industry and of commerce in the sponsorship
and direction of research
in universities, and to the increasing influence of industrial
representatives on advisory
panels associated with the publicly funded scientific research
councils. By extending
the doctrine of commercial confidentiality into university
laboratories, inconvenient
findings have been suppressed, and both free endeavour and free
speech undermined.
This has narrowed our scientific horizons and compromised
government advisors.
It is argued that scientific freedom is a guarantor of our wider
liberties. Science,
which tells us who we are and how we can live better, is being
distorted so twisting our
understanding of the ways in which we might progress, shutting
off alternatives to
existing models of development. Business now stands as a guard
dog at the gates of
perception. Only the inquiries which suit its needs are allowed
to pass.
Science, the government insists, is “a driver of growth in the
knowledge economy”.1 I
91. G. Monbiot
50 Science and Engineering Ethics, Volume 9, Issue 1, 2003
quests which might lead to major scientific breakthroughs. In
the long-term, this
constriction could damage not only scientific success, but also
economic
competitiveness.
But for the past ten years, government science policy has
steadily de-prioritised
basic research and prioritised commercial imperatives. Many of
the profound changes
in the way science in Britain is funded were introduced by the
Conservative
Government’s 1993 White Paper on science, called Realizing
Our Potential.2 Its
purpose was “to produce a better match between publicly-
funded strategic research and
the needs of industry.”2 The research councils, which distribute
most of the money for
science, would be obliged to develop “more extensive and
deeper links … with
industry”.2 In 1994, the Government established its “Foresight
Panels”, teams of
business people and academics who would “identify …
emerging opportunities in
markets”3 and advise ministers and guide the allocation of
government money. In
1995, the Office of Science and Technology was moved from
the Government’s
Cabinet Office to the Department of Trade and Industry. “What
the change means,” the
92. science minister explained, “is that we in Government recognise
the vital need to bring
industry and academe closer together.”4
These reforms were extended by the Labour administration. Its
1998 White Paper
on competitiveness launched a “reach-out fund”, to encourage
universities to “work
more effectively with business”.5 In the same year the
Government resuscitated the
dormant Council for Science and Technology, its most
important source of scientific
advice. Appointed by the Prime Minister, this council contains
seven university
academics and six industrialists. The role of the higher
education funding councils,
which provide the core money for the universities, was
redefined “to ensure that higher
education is responsive to the needs of business and industry.”6
The July 2000 white paper on science and innovation policy
took this a step
further, announcing a “Higher Education Reach Out to Business
and the Community
fund” whose purpose is “to increase universities’ capabilities to
work with industry”,1 a
doubling of the number of new Faraday Partnerships, “to link
the science base to
business networks”1 and a further £15 million for Science
Enterprise Centres, “to bring
business skills into the science curriculum.”1 The government,
it revealed, would
“support 20 Business Fellows who will lead their academic
colleagues in working with
business.”1
93. All this has a profound effect on both academic freedom and
scientific integrity. In
December 1998, the Committee of Vice-Chancellors and
Principals announced that the
universities they ran would no longer take money for cancer
research from the tobacco
industry. The companies’ backing, they had decided, “is not
likely to be viewed as
disinterested and will consequently damage the university’s
standing and reputation.”7
It seems astonishing that they had been taking this money in the
first place. But while
this, the most controversial source of industrial funding, was
discontinued, the business
sponsorship of other areas of research has expanded. Why
funding from other
corporate sectors should “be viewed as disinterested” and not
likely to “damage the
university’s standing and reputation” has never been
satisfactorily explained by the
vice-chancellors. But I have been unable to find a university
anywhere in the United
Guard Dogs of Perception: The Corporate Takeover of Science
Science and Engineering Ethics, Volume 9, Issue 1, 2003 51
Kingdom which does not accept corporate money for research in
which the companies
involved have an immediate interest.
The University of Cambridge, for example, possesses a Shell
Chair in chemical
94. engineering, BP professorships in organic chemistry and
petroleum science, an ICI
chair in applied thermodynamics, a Glaxo chair of molecular
parisitology, a Unilever
chair of molecular science, a Price Waterhouse chair of
financial accounting, a Marks
and Spencer chair of farm animal health and food science and a
GKN Professor of
Manufacturing Engineering. It accepted a £1.6 million
endowment from BAT
Industries to establish the “Sir Patrick Sheehy Chair of
International Relations”. (Sir
Patrick Sheehy was British American Tobacco’s chairman).
Rolls-Royce, AT&T,
Microsoft and Zeneca have all set up laboratories in the
university.
In June 1999, BP gave the university £25 million, to fund work
across five
departments. In November 1999, Cambridge set up an £84
million joint venture,
funded largely by the British government, partly by industry,
with the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology. Its purpose is to “change the face of
business and wealth
creation in the UK”,8 by stimulating “research spin-offs” and
“training the business
leaders of the future”.9 Cambridge’s vice-chancellor explained,
“We may once have
been thought of as an ivory tower—today we are a tower of hi-
technology and business
prowess.”8
The independent researchers Greg Muttitt and Chris Grimshaw
have examined the
influence of oil companies on British science.10 They identified
95. nearly 1000 research
projects being conducted for oil and gas firms. Some university
faculties, they
discovered, had become largely dependent upon industrial
money. Aberdeen’s Geology
Department for example, boasts that “Industrial contracts and
sponsorship now account
for more than two thirds of our research income, support over
one third of our lecturing
staff, fund nearly all our postgraduates, and even provide
appropriate components of
our undergraduate training.”11 There are BP professorships,
fellowships or lectureships
at seven British universities, including both Oxford and
Cambridge. A director of BP
sits on the Council for Science and Technology. Until 1998, the
Director General of the
UK’s Research Councils was Sir John Cadogan, formerly BP’s
research director. The
chairman and chief executive of Esso UK sits on the Higher
Education Funding
Council for England.
One result of such corporate involvement, Muttitt and
Grimshaw found, was a
significant distortion of the research agenda. Five times as
much money is spent in
British universities on research into oil and gas than on research
into renewable sources
of energy. This establishes an inverse relationship between
research needs and research
funds.10 Renewable energy, which is an emerging industry,
requires a great deal of
research as it approaches its take-off phase. Oil and gas
extraction, a mature industry,
could be expected to need far less.
96. David Whyte of Liverpool John Moores University recorded a
conversation with a
health and safety researcher at a university department partly
funded by oil companies.
The researcher had discovered that one of the companies had
been falsifying its own
accident figures. “When I ask these guys [the senior managers
of oil companies] about
why the accident rates are changed for their own records,” the
researcher revealed,
G. Monbiot
52 Science and Engineering Ethics, Volume 9, Issue 1, 2003
“they tell me to shut up. Of course I do. Because you can’t
challenge what they say if
you want to keep credibility.”12
Some government funding bodies appear to share this belief.
After exposing the
way in which university departments funded by the oil industry
have adapted their
work to suit the needs of their patrons, David Whyte was called
into the office of a
senior manager at the Health and Safety Executive, a
government body which funds
university research into safety on the oil rigs. He accused Dr.
Whyte of
“misrepresenting the truth” and lectured him on the importance
of the North Sea oil
industry to the British economy. “We have a large pool of
research funds,” he revealed.
97. “Six million pounds is a lot of money, you know. … It would be
very difficult to win
this money for Merseyside.” “Obviously,” he warned, “you
would have to be very
careful about the way you put things.”12
Money buys influence throughout the scientific community. In
1998, a team of
Canadian researchers studied a series of contributions to
academic journals on the
subject of a class of drugs called “calcium channel blockers”.13
The drugs, which are
used to treat high blood pressure and heart disease, are
controversial: some doctors
believe that at least one of them is dangerous, increasing the
risk of heart attacks. The
researchers examined 70 articles in medical journals by
scientists studying these drugs.
They found that 96 percent of those who supported their use had
financial relationships
with the manufacturers, as opposed to just 37 percent of those
who criticised them.
Disturbingly, only two of the authors of these papers divulged
their connections.13
A survey conducted by the Institute of Professionals, Managers
and Specialists in
2000 found that 30 percent of the scientists working for
Government agencies or newly
privatised laboratories reported that they have been asked to
adjust their conclusions to
suit the sponsors of their research.14 Seventeen percent said
they had been asked to
change their conclusions to suit the customer’s preferred
outcome. Ten percent said
they had been asked to do so to obtain further contracts. Three
98. percent had been asked
to change their conclusions in order to “discourage publication
of their results”.14
It’s not hard to see how such distortions affect the public as
well as the integrity of
science. One of the most disgraceful recent examples was the
British Dental
Association’s endorsement of a drink called Ribena Tooth Kind,
produced by
SmithKline Beecham. The manufacturer used the BDA’s
accreditation to claim in its
£10 million advertising campaign that Ribena Tooth Kind “does
not encourage tooth
decay” and is “scientifically proven not to promote tooth
erosion.”15 Hundreds of
thousands of parents bought it for that reason.
In the High Court in January, a judicial review found that these
claims were not
justified by expert evidence. Independent tests at the University
of Zurich should that
Ribena Tooth Kind has “cariogenic potential”.16 Tests at the
University of Glasgow
showed that the erosion caused by the drink as “virtually
identical” to that of ordinary
Ribena.15
So why on earth had the British Dental Association endorsed it?
Well it might have
something to do with the fact that two of the four members of
its food and drink
accreditation panel had been paid by SmithKline Beecham to
conduct research on
Ribena Tooth Kind.15
99. Guard Dogs of Perception: The Corporate Takeover of Science
Science and Engineering Ethics, Volume 9, Issue 1, 2003 53
But while the acceptance of corporate money might encourage
researchers to
change the way they view the world, the acceptance of public
money is now scarcely
less hazardous.
The main source of public funds for the biologists working in
Britain’s universities
is the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council,
or BBSRC. When I
conducted a survey of its membership eighteen months ago, its
chairman was Peter
Doyle, who was also an executive director of the biotechnology
company Zeneca.
Among the members of its council were the chief executive of a
pharmaceutical firm; a
former director of the controversial food company Nestlé; the
President of the Food
and Drink Federation; a consultant to the biochemical industry
and the general manager
of Britain’s biggest farming business. The BBSRC’s strategy
board contained
executives from SmithKline Beecham, Merck Sharpe and
Dohme and AgrEvo UK, the
company hoping to be the first to commercialise genetically
engineered crops in
Britain. The research council had seven specialist committees,
overseeing the dispersal
of money to different branches of biology. Employees of
Zeneca, according to the
100. council’s website, sat on all of them.17
The BBSRC’s purpose, according to its mission statement, “is
to sustain a broad
base of interdisciplinary research and training to help industry,
commerce and
Government create wealth and improve the quality of life.”17
Public statements by the
research council’s chief executive, Professor Ray Baker,
suggest that he is taking this
mandate seriously. The council’s press releases fall into three
categories: news about
the research grants it allocates; news about the findings
resulting from those grants; and
fierce attacks on the critics of genetic engineering.
When, for example, Friends of the Earth and the BBC’s
Newsnight programme
released the results of research showing that pollen from
genetically modified rape was
being carried four and half kilometres by bees, Ray Baker used
a BBSRC press release
to claim that the finding was “a distraction from the key
issues”.18 When the trustees of
a farm carrying out a field trial of GM rape decided to stop the
experiment, Professor
Baker issued a statement insisting that there was “no risk of
cross-pollination” with
“organic oilseed rape, as it is not grown in the UK”.19
Unfortunately he forgot to add
that there was a near certainty that the GM rape would cross-
pollinate with non-
organic, unmodified, rape plants, as well as a clear possibility
that it would exchange
genetic material with its wild relatives. Professor Baker, in
other words, has been using
101. a government research body as a platform for contentious and in
some cases
misleading political statements, which appear to favour the
interests of the
biotechnology companies. It is worth noting that one of the
tasks of the chief executive
of the BBSRC is to provide impartial scientific advice to the
Government.
Unlike Professor Baker, the scientists working in university
departments receiving
BBSRC grants are formally gagged to prevent them becoming
“involved in political
controversy in matters affecting research in biotechnology and
biological sciences.”20
In practice the gagging order is used only against scientists who
rock the corporate
boat. This became clear when Dr. Arpad Puzstai, a geneticist
working at an institute
funded by the research council, challenged the safety of
genetically engineered foods.
His claims may not have been supportable, but nor were some of
those made by the
G. Monbiot
54 Science and Engineering Ethics, Volume 9, Issue 1, 2003
scientists from BBSRC-funded laboratories who spoke out
against him. Unlike Dr.
Puzstai, none of them was suspended for speaking to the media.
“Political controversy”
appears to mean positions with which the BBSRC council
102. members disagree.
Far more disturbing than the infiltration of the research
councils, however, are the
priorities of the Office of Science and Technology’s 16
Foresight Panels.
The Foresight Panels scarcely pretend to promote either
academic objectivity or the
wider public interest. Though they are official sources of
scientific advice to both
central Government and to the research councils, they are
largely controlled not by
scientists but by business people.
The Food and Drink Foresight Panel, for example, is composed
of eight
representatives of food companies and trade bodies, and three
members of university
departments, as well as members of the BBSRC and the Medical
Research Council,
which are expected to respond to its demands. It has several
sub-committees, whose
purpose is to identify “research priorities”. One is called the
Alcoholic Drinks panel.
The report it produced was drawn up in consultation with five
trade associations, three
industry-sponsored research institutes, fifteen drinks companies
and no one else. Its
report called for “a sophisticated understanding of individuals’
eating and drinking
behaviour” to assist “product development”.21 It called for
research which would help
drinks companies to resist “unnecessary barriers to innovation
and burdens on the
industry” caused by regulation.21
103. The report of the Fruit and Vegetables sub-committee suggested
that “Irradiation
may be re-examined for extending shelf life.”22 The Meat sub-
committee complained
bitterly that “criticisms of meat production from an animal
welfare and environmental
impact perspective, and of high levels of red meat consumption
as potentially
damaging to human health, gained credence from some
scientific work”.23
Until the day before he became minister for science and
technology, another sub-
committee, called “The Food Chain Group”, was chaired by
Lord Sainsbury. His
report, published by the Government’s Department of Trade and
Industry, hoped that
in the future “the expensive precautionary principle is
abandoned”.24 Lord Sainsbury
attended a “Food Chain Group Summit” in March 1998, which
concluded that this
Government-funded research programme should involve
“Influencing and anticipating
future behaviour of consumers.”25 Interestingly, the summit
went on to lament the
“falling consumer confidence in science”.25 It wouldn’t have
had to look far to see why
this might be happening.
The Food and Drink Foresight Panel’s recommendations are
already bearing fruit.
“The Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food,” the panel
notes, “has undertaken a
comprehensive review of its programmes in the light of the
panel’s report. Much of the