Didactics is the study of teaching and learning processes. It originated from Socrates' questioning teaching method and was further developed by philosophers like Plato, St. Augustine, and Comenius in the 17th century, who established didactics as both an art and science. Didactics has evolved over time from emphasizing standardized teaching methods to focusing on individualized learning. Today, didactics is conceptualized as a discipline committed to designing, implementing, and evaluating teaching and learning programs and situations to provide optimal learning opportunities for all students.
The Nature of Approaches and Methods in Language LearningImtiaz Ahmad
Language Learning Process:
◼ Language learning is an active process that begins at birth and continues throughout
life. When a child learns a first language, we may say that the child learns the
language under natural conditions.
◼ Such a learning situation generally differs greatly from artificial ones, with the most
common one used in second language learning being the school classroom.
◼ A second language can be learned under natural conditions. For example, children
who are taken to live in foreign countries may learn a second language without
formal instructions by associating with speakers of the foreign language, e.g.
playmates, and household personnel.
◼ Students learn language as they use it to communicate their thoughts, feelings, and
experiences, establish relationships with family members and friends, and strive to
make sense and order of their world. Language Learning Methodology:
◼ Methodology informs teachers about different ways to organize teaching
practices. There are three levels of organization at the level of
methodology, namely, approach, method, and technique.
◼ In language teaching, in the general area of teaching methodology, people
talk about approaches, methods, and techniques.
◼ Language teaching involves approaches that lead to methods, methods
that are broken down into procedures, and procedures that are a collection
of techniques.
◼ Understanding how these concepts interrelate can help a teacher to know
the reasons behind their choices in how they choose to teach. Here I will
differentiate these three terms; approach, method, and technique in a
simple way.Approach:
◼ An approach is a way of looking at teaching and learning. Underlying any language
teaching approach is a theoretical view of what language is, and of how it can be
learnt. It gives rise to methods, the way of teaching something, which use classroom
activities or techniques to help learners to learn.
◼ An approach refers to the general assumptions about what language is and about
how learning a language occurs. It is a theory about language learning or even
a philosophy of how people learn in general.
◼ It represents the sum of our philosophy about both the theory of language and the
theory of learning. In other words, an approach to language teaching describes:
The nature of language,
How knowledge of a language is acquired?
And the conditions that promote language acquisition.
◼ Each of these philosophies encouraged the development of the mind in the way of a
muscle. Train the brain and a person would be able to do many different things.
◼ E.g. Watch and fellow teacher, Focus on student’s experiences
Method:
◼ In language learning and teaching method is a way of teaching a language which is
based on systematic and procedures, i.e. which is an application of views
on how a language is best taught and learned and a particular theory of language
and of language learning.
Artículo científico publicado en lengua inglesa acerca de la pedagogía como disciplina científica de la educación.
The purpose of this work is to describe and explain the characteristics of pedagogy as a
science of education, as an object, concepts and research method. The methodology assumed
was the review of the history of pedagogy, especially the classics of pedagogy, those who
built it with their experiences in laboratory schools. Here are listed the main concepts of
pedagogy, its laws and principles; she establishes the opposition that exists between
teaching-learning and education as formation of the personality; she also delimits the fields
of the pedagogical method, of didactics or teaching-learning, and the methodology of
educational labor that organizes the process and the educational context, the regime and the
lifestyle, such as those experienced in the “colonies” or “communes” of children and
adolescents, organized and directed by Neill and Makarenko. Since the present article does
not derive from a primary source or from field work, as an empirical or experimental
research, the results constitute the content of the article, as conclusions.
The Nature of Approaches and Methods in Language LearningImtiaz Ahmad
Language Learning Process:
◼ Language learning is an active process that begins at birth and continues throughout
life. When a child learns a first language, we may say that the child learns the
language under natural conditions.
◼ Such a learning situation generally differs greatly from artificial ones, with the most
common one used in second language learning being the school classroom.
◼ A second language can be learned under natural conditions. For example, children
who are taken to live in foreign countries may learn a second language without
formal instructions by associating with speakers of the foreign language, e.g.
playmates, and household personnel.
◼ Students learn language as they use it to communicate their thoughts, feelings, and
experiences, establish relationships with family members and friends, and strive to
make sense and order of their world. Language Learning Methodology:
◼ Methodology informs teachers about different ways to organize teaching
practices. There are three levels of organization at the level of
methodology, namely, approach, method, and technique.
◼ In language teaching, in the general area of teaching methodology, people
talk about approaches, methods, and techniques.
◼ Language teaching involves approaches that lead to methods, methods
that are broken down into procedures, and procedures that are a collection
of techniques.
◼ Understanding how these concepts interrelate can help a teacher to know
the reasons behind their choices in how they choose to teach. Here I will
differentiate these three terms; approach, method, and technique in a
simple way.Approach:
◼ An approach is a way of looking at teaching and learning. Underlying any language
teaching approach is a theoretical view of what language is, and of how it can be
learnt. It gives rise to methods, the way of teaching something, which use classroom
activities or techniques to help learners to learn.
◼ An approach refers to the general assumptions about what language is and about
how learning a language occurs. It is a theory about language learning or even
a philosophy of how people learn in general.
◼ It represents the sum of our philosophy about both the theory of language and the
theory of learning. In other words, an approach to language teaching describes:
The nature of language,
How knowledge of a language is acquired?
And the conditions that promote language acquisition.
◼ Each of these philosophies encouraged the development of the mind in the way of a
muscle. Train the brain and a person would be able to do many different things.
◼ E.g. Watch and fellow teacher, Focus on student’s experiences
Method:
◼ In language learning and teaching method is a way of teaching a language which is
based on systematic and procedures, i.e. which is an application of views
on how a language is best taught and learned and a particular theory of language
and of language learning.
Artículo científico publicado en lengua inglesa acerca de la pedagogía como disciplina científica de la educación.
The purpose of this work is to describe and explain the characteristics of pedagogy as a
science of education, as an object, concepts and research method. The methodology assumed
was the review of the history of pedagogy, especially the classics of pedagogy, those who
built it with their experiences in laboratory schools. Here are listed the main concepts of
pedagogy, its laws and principles; she establishes the opposition that exists between
teaching-learning and education as formation of the personality; she also delimits the fields
of the pedagogical method, of didactics or teaching-learning, and the methodology of
educational labor that organizes the process and the educational context, the regime and the
lifestyle, such as those experienced in the “colonies” or “communes” of children and
adolescents, organized and directed by Neill and Makarenko. Since the present article does
not derive from a primary source or from field work, as an empirical or experimental
research, the results constitute the content of the article, as conclusions.
EXPERIENCE & EDUCATION John Dewey The .docxgitagrimston
EXPERIENCE & EDUCATION
John Dewey
The great educational theorist's most concise statement of his ideas about the needs,
the problems, and the possibilities of education--written after his experience with the
progressive schools and in the light of the criticisms his theories received.
"No one has done more to keep alive the fundamental ideals of liberal civilization." -
Morris R. Cohen
Experience and Education is the best concise statement on education ever published
by John Dewey, the man acknowledged to be the pre-eminent educational theorist of the
twentieth century. Written more than two decades after Democracy and Education
(Dewey's most comprehensive statement of his position in educational philosophy), this
book demonstrates how Dewey reformulated his ideas as a result of his intervening
experience with the progressive schools and in the light of the criticisms his theories had
received .
Analyzing both "traditional" and "progressive" education, Dr. Dewey here insists that
neither the old nor the new education is adequate and that each is miseducative because
neither of them applies the principles of a carefully developed philosophy of experience.
Many pages of this volume illustrate Dr. Dewey's ideas for a philosophy of experience
and its relation to education. He particularly urges that all teachers and educators looking
for a new movement in education should think in terms of the deeped and larger issues of
education rather than in terms of some divisive "ism" about education, even such an
"ism" as "progressivism." His philosophy, here expressed in its most essential, most
readable form, predicates an American educational system that respects all sources of
experience, on that offers a true learning situation that is both historical and social, both
orderly and dynamic.
"John Dewey is to be classed among those who have made philosophic thought
relevant to the needs of their own day. In the performance of this function he is to be
classed with the ancient stoics, with Augustine, with Aquinas, with Francis Bacon, with
Descartes, with Locke, with Auguste Comte."
--Alfred North Whitehead
"No one who is informed in the educational held can doubt for a moment the profound
influence of John Dewey on both the theory and the practice of American education."
--William Heard Kilpatrick
"John Dewey is unquestionably the preeminent figure in American philosophy; no one
has done more to keep alive the fundamental ideals of liberal civilization; and if there
could be such an office as that of national philosopher, no one else could be properly
mentioned for it."
--"Morris R. Cohen
Preface
ALL SOCIAL movements involve conflicts, which are reflected intellectually in
controversies. It would not be a sign of health if such an important social interest as
education were not also an aren ...
Collaboratve Conceptual Change : The Case of RecursionDalit Levy
The paper tries to shed some light on the conceptual development of computer-science concepts by discussing recursion as an interdisciplinary idea and by analyzing the class discourse during an introductive learning activity. Throughout the inductive analysis of the discourse, the students’ expressions were interpreted, refined, and formulated as ‘preconceptions’. After a short theoretical and methodological background (in Secs. 2 and 3), we present these pre-conceptions, suggest an organizing model of conceptual change, and discuss certain implications concerning the issue of understanding recursion by high school students and of the collaborative development of such understanding.
Both the srructural linguist and the behavioral psychologist wVannaSchrader3
Both the srructural linguist and the behavioral psychologist wefe intefested in
description, in answering uhat questions about human behavior: obiective mea-
surement of behayior in conrolled circumstances. The generative linguist and cog-
nitive psychologist wefe, to be sure, interested in the uhat qttestion; trut they were
far more interested in a more ultimate question, u:lt-1': what undedying factors-
innate, psy'chological, social, or environmental circumstances-caused a particular
behavior in a human beiug?
If you were to obrserve someone walk into 1'our house, pick up a chair aud fling
it through your winclow, and then walk out, different kinds of questions could be
asked. One set of quesrions would relate to ubat happened: the physical descrip-
tion of the person, the time of day the size of the chair, the impact of the chair, and
so forth. Another set of questions would ask tt:h.1'the pefson did what he or she
clid: what were the person's motives and psychological state, what might have been
the cause of the behavior, and so on. The first set of questions is very rigorous and
exacting: it allows no flaw, no mistake in measurement; but does it give you ultimate
answers? The second set of qllestions is richeq but obviously riskier. By daring to
ask sotne difficult questions about the unobserved. \!'e may lose some ground but
gain more profound insight about human behavior.
Constructivism: A Multidisciplinary Approach
Constructivism is hardly a rlew school of thought. Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotslqi
names often associated with constructivism, are not by any means new to the scene
of language studies. Yet, in a variety of post-structuralist theoretical positions,
constrlrctivism emerged as a prevailing paradigm onl-v in the last part of the fwen'
tieth century, and is now almost an orthodoxy. A refreshing characteristic of con-
structivism is its integration of linguistic, psychological, and sociological paradigms,
in contrast to the professional chasms that often divided those disciplines in the pre-
vious century. Now, with its emphasis on social interaction and the discovery, or
construction, of meaning, the three disciplines harr muCh lnore common gfound'
What is constructivism, and how does it differ from the other two viewpoints
described above? First, it will be helpftll to think of two branches of constructivism:
cognitive ancl social. In the cognitive version of constructivism, emphasis is placed
on the importance of learners constructing their own repfesentation of realiry
,.Learners must individually discover and transform complex information if they are
to make it their own, [suggesting] a more active role for students in their own
learning than is tpical in many classrooms" (slavin, 2003, pp. 257-258). Sucl]l
claims are rootecl in Piaget's (1954,1955,197o; Piaget & Inhelder, 1969) seminal
work in the midclle of the twentieth centllr)', but have taken that long to become
widety accepted views. For Piaget, ...
The Art Pastor's Guide to Sabbath | Steve ThomasonSteve Thomason
What is the purpose of the Sabbath Law in the Torah. It is interesting to compare how the context of the law shifts from Exodus to Deuteronomy. Who gets to rest, and why?
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
This is a presentation by Dada Robert in a Your Skill Boost masterclass organised by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan (EFSS) on Saturday, the 25th and Sunday, the 26th of May 2024.
He discussed the concept of quality improvement, emphasizing its applicability to various aspects of life, including personal, project, and program improvements. He defined quality as doing the right thing at the right time in the right way to achieve the best possible results and discussed the concept of the "gap" between what we know and what we do, and how this gap represents the areas we need to improve. He explained the scientific approach to quality improvement, which involves systematic performance analysis, testing and learning, and implementing change ideas. He also highlighted the importance of client focus and a team approach to quality improvement.
Digital Tools and AI for Teaching Learning and Research
Didactics
1. MODULEI: Didactics
WEIAT IS DTDACTICS?
Didactics is one of the Sciences of E,ducation. In patticular, it deals rvith the
processes of teachrng and learning. It is different from other Education
Sciences in that it concentfates specifically on horv teachets, learnets and
know-ledge intcract and support one another. Because of th-is reasoo, it is a key
subiecr in rlrr teachcr educetjon cL¡rrictrluln. (iivcn lts emphasis it aets as a
hinge betrveen tire general educ'¿tion subjccts and the subject-specific
cliscipl,ines, r,,,hich make up the core of a teacher's knor'rledge.
Horvel,er, this definition is quite broad and it can be interpreted from many
clifferent perspectives. For example, is Didactics about classroom techniques?
Is it about planning? Is it about er,aluation?
,Uso, the -erv term "Didacdcs" has positive and ncgatire ctrnnc-,tadons
clependrng on where it is used. For example, when you talk about Didactics in a
North American context, it is taken to mean "traditional education" (".g.
^
didactic approach means a teacher-centered approach). On tire other side of
the Atlantic, though, the meaning is similar to the one adopted by Spanish or
T)_- --.- ---- ... ^ ^.^ ^^l-^--^l (,r Lugutr5c sPUdt,LL),
[-lence,gii'rn rhar the fie]J and rhc rrr¡,r tre ¡o¡¡,1¡v ones, w( u'ill first crnlnrr-
the history of Didactics and, in so doing, u,e v'i1l trv to come to understand it as
it is conceir.ed norvada,vs.
Hou.ever, at al1 times, keep in mincl that, as r.vith any othet professional term,
the meanings associated rvith it var1, gir.en the socio-histodcal conditions in
u,hich it is used. After all, anr. field of human activiq, is but the re sponse that
commurrities of ptactice can give to the problems of their dar:
A BRIEF HISTORY OF DIDACTICS
There has ahvavs trecn a concern u.ith teaching and learning, since these two
processes u'ere first established as a forn'r of ascertaining the continuit)'of
civilization. The first accounts of teaching are those of Socrates ancl Plato.
Socrates taught through questioning, a teaching methocl knorvn as "Socratic
questioning" cven to this day This method r.r.as made expLicit b), Socrates's
pupil Plato rn ''f l¡e Republic. " Socrates is genera111, seen as the flrst great teacher
and this may be because of his tumultuous life and death but also because of
his effort to engage students in finding answers on their own (and aiso because
through Piato, rve had the opportunity to reacl about his teaching). Hrs ideas
have pe rmeate d the educational fleld and r¡..ere taken up bv other educators.
C)ne such follorver u,as Saint Augusune (35+-430) rvho, in hLrs D¿ lfagstro
adapts the qr-restions to require afl e,pected, dogmatic anss'er. This x'as in
(
J
f
2. keeping u,ith a catechistic approach to teachrng and learning. X/e must
remember that in ti-ie Niicicile Ages, education r¡.as the task of monks in
monasteries, rvho also held the ke1, ¡s knor.lledge since the1, urete the ones uüo
copied old manuscripts b1. hand, silce there u'ere no prinung presse s.
Education in those clavs rvas a privilege of the rich and pou,erful and it u,as
done mairdy as apprenticeship: a young man would be put in the service of a
wiser, older man rvho would teach him whater-et the voung person needed to
knour. The same vas true for the drfferent tracles that made up commerce in
medicval socictr'.
Hole,er, it is no t until i 613 when the term D i da cti cs is used for the Fust time by
Ratke (157L-1635), one of JanAmos Komenskl:'s ('Comenir-rs' 1592 - rc7A)
teachers, in his Aphoistzi Didactici Praecipui. In tkus particular rvork, Ratke
conceprualizes Didactics as an intuitive kind of iearning about reaLifi'-, stre ssing
the role that incluction, psychology and the absence of pressure have on
expericnce.
But it v,ill be his pupil, Comenius, who ¡¡,i11 define the freld for the first time in
historv and who r,vill establish the basis for Didactics as a science. Comenius'
Diclactica Magna (164q sets a series of classical principles for the discipLine,
amongst which r.ve ma), count:
' Diclactics is both an art and a science.
' Teachirg shc'uld har.e ¿Ls its main air., the learning of
everything by e¡eryofl e.
' Teaching and learrung should be characterlzed by speed and
effectiveness, prioritizing the key 1e1. that language and
images playin each of the tu.o prcce sses.
Comerrius' greatest achievement was the systemaLization of the consrruction
of Didactics as a r.alid science and att. He sets Didactics as seperate from
Pedagogy and introduces de concept of "method." Horvever, his approach to
the matter is a very specific one. He proposes that each discipline should
develbp its own didactic methods congruent r.rrith the purpose s ancl content of
the discipline. Ttris stands in stark contrast with pr-evious proposals, rvhich salv
the existence of one soie method that could be appJied to any atea of
knov,lcdge. If one looks at Comenius' proposal one can cleatly perceive a
change from standatdization to individuabzatton. To him, each person has the
potential to learn anything in so far as the right methods and resources are
orgarrized in such a way that allorv for the person's intuition to cone into
contact with a specific atea of knorvledge. Thrs stands in stark contrast r.r,ith
previous elaborations of the field which saw it as more standard.
Comenius' r.vork s.i1l be folior¡,ed by further efforts tor,vards the
individualization of education as those proposed bv Rousseau (1712-1778),
Pestalozzi (1746-1827) and Froebel (1782-1852). A-lso, from thrs moment on,
rve rvili be able to perceive a consrant swing of a penrluium betw-ecn two
etre me positions: those r.vho sarv education as dea[ng u.ith the transmissicn
rE
n
§
;
t
i
:!
aa
l
l
3. F'
of knowledge via a sole ¡r¡1ro¿ and those who saw it as happeningvia specific
indir-idualized means. Incredibly enough, even today', there is no agreement
and neither should there be, because one *L1ng is certain: there is no best
method. Teaching should be at the service of learning and, as Comenius said,
teachers should look for aJI possible alternatiyes to help er-eryone leatn'
DIDACTICS IN THE CONTEXT OF THE, EDUCATION
SCIENCES
Because Didactics relates to the pfocesses of teaching and learnjnE, the
inflr-rence of other education sciences has been fathef overwhelming. For
exampie, Psychology helps teachers undefstand how students learn so they
claim that Didactics is part of Psychologlt By the same token, Pedagogf is
concerned with how people are educated and they also claim that f)idactics is
part of Pedagog;,.
k was not until the trventieth century that Didactics could ascertain its rightful
toie amongst the sciences of education, independent from Pedagogy, Biologl;
Socioiog,v, Anthropology or Psychology (Frabboni, 1998). Duting that
century, the process of vaüdation of Didactics as a self-standing and essential
discipline in education, oscillated amongst three main perspectives: a
traditional perspective emphasizing a technical and ptescriptive vieu, of the
process of teaching (this is the era of the methoci and perpefuate s the tradition
set by St Augustine), a cognitive perspectiv.e rvhich positit'rned the discipiine as
a p,roblern soir,-ing approach to the task of turning krro-wlc,igc ilt¡ ¿n ob¡eci of
teachinq (this second vierv was more in keeping with the vie.¡-s of Contenius
and hLrs Íollorvers), and a "new dimension" (Fiore and Leymonié,2007) which
focuses on the analysis of the processes of teaching and learning through
specific curricuium contents in order to develop new sttategies for the
appropriation of knowtedge by students in highly sj.tuated contexts.
The constant state of flux to which the üscipline has been submitted has
rendered it difficult to conceptualtze, and has acted in detriment of its
epistemological identity, at best.
The advent of the twenty-ffst cenrury has seen different authors (Vadilio &
Klinger, 2004; Cad)koni, et. al., 2007; Imen, 2007; Tenrt Fantini, 2009)
advocating for a reconceptualization of the field which positions it as a theorl.
"necessarily committed to social practices which are oriented towards the
design, implementation and evaluation of teaching and learning programs, the
design of teaching and learning situations and the orientation and support of
students' learning, while identifying and analyzing problems stemming from
the teaching and learning pfocesses with a vj.ew to providing the best possible
learning opportunities for all students and in an)¡ educadonal ilstitution"
(Camilloni, 2007 22).
In this seflse, Didactics has evoived from a position of subservience to other
<J.isciplines into a subject-specifrc field of inquity into teachng and learning
serving the purpose of developing situated theories and practices as
potential-though tentative-solutions to the problems stemming from the
::
,11
I
;j:'
4. encountef of individuals rvith tr.vo complemefltaty drives: the drive to share
r.vhat the1, knorv and tl"ie drive to gain nerv knowiedge.
It can be tightly claimed that Didacucs has transitioned from being a di5gipli¡.
r,vhose sole putpose was the description and prescription of the "art of
reaching" to beconring a discipJine, which is deeply concerned with the
elaboration of context and subject-specific knor,','1edge. This elaboration-be
it consffuction or transmission-¡65s]¡5 from the interpiay of situated
cognitions (Feldman, 1999). To this author, cognition does not reside in the
minds of indrviduals, but emelges in the possibilitie s for theirinteraction.
This r-Lerr. scenatio, might serve as the backdrop to positioning the cliscipline,
within the teacher education curriculllm) as the space where theorizing
ptactice and practicin¡J theoq. @uLlough, 1997) wi1-t happen' In othet rvords, in
thi.s context, Subject Didactics becomes the realm of ptaxis, (Freire, 1972)
action and reflection v,hich transform the rl.orld, and by doing so, claims 2
crucial tole in the der.elopment of socially just practices.
If, as Horace Mann claimed, Education "is the great equali zer of the condition
of man," then Subject Diclactics, the preeminent curriculum afea dealing with
teaching and learning, should be understood as a space uüere teacher capacitl''
for social iustice can be constfucted, negotiated and developed. Giroux (2005:
99) explains that "A social ]ustice stance is, in part, a disposition through which
teachers reflect upon theif oiv'n actions and those pfesented by others. Rather
than passively accepting information or embracing a fals: consciousness,
rcachers rake a nruch rriorc acúve rr-,lc irr leatling, learning and rcflcctillg upon
their relationship with their practice and the social context in which the
pracrice is siruated."
DIDACTICS: GENERAL OR SPECIFIC?
So, r.vhat constitutes the field of Didactics? How do teaching and learning
interact with knowledge? §íhat is, in short, the sttucture of l)irlactics? Is
Didactics the same as Nfethodology? These and other related questions have
guided developments in the field of Didactics. For many )'ears, it was
considered that Didactics possessed a generaLiry of Pufpose. If, as many
authors claimed, it had to do with teaching and learning, then it could be
defined in terms of things that teachers do and things that students do in the
classroom. In fact, teaching and learning wefe seen as one and the same
pfocess, a two-way stteet rvhere knowledge was tfansmitted from the teacher
to the student who, in turn, returned his or her understanding of the teacher's
transmission as proof of learning. In tlus paradigm then, we talk of the
teaching and learning process (singular).
Ho§,ever, if rve go back to the conceptions of Comenius, we can readily see
that each discipline is, in fact, made up on inherently particular knowledge
(concepts, facts, ski11s and dispositions), rvb,rch is unique and makes the
discipline unique as x.eli. For example, the n'a¡. jrr u.hich histodans approach
the stud1, of historv is not the same way in u,hich a physisis¡ approaches the
study of
^
nafirfalphenomenon. If we take tlus example , §/e can ciearly see that
5. a hístorian u,ill look for artifacts and documents, which provide accounts of a
certain e-ent. They may interr-ieu, u,'itnesses, look at photos, tead documents,
and once thel: i121's collected all this information, thev ri,il1 provicle their or','n
interpretation of the event. This interpretation can be the same that orher
historian may pror-ide or not.
In the case of the physicist, he ot she rvi-ll first of all observe a certain natural
phenomenon in orcler to develop a hlpothesis. This hlpothesis rvill guide the
sra. in which the phr.sicist s,i1i coliect infotmation and come to conclusions. If
the conclusions are in line rvith the hlpothe sis, then w-hatwill be cieveloped is a
thesis, a general statement, u,hich will hold true for aLl occurrcnce s of this kind
of natur al phenornena. It the hypothe sis ptove s falsc, then the physicists,ill go
on ro reformulate the hypothesis and collect further data until a plausible,
generaltzalcle explanation of the phenomenon can be given.
As 1.ou can see, the r.,er,rr nature of the discipline (Histor1, or Physics), as weLl as
its modes of thinking about and perceiving teahqi is inherendy different and
r-rnique for each area of human knolrrledge.. Hence, in teaching, we should be
able to account frrr this difference so that iearners can have access to the mocles
of thinl«ng uüich are specific to each discipline rn the curriculum. In this
sense, it can be cleatl,v seen that different approaches are needed for- each
discipline. As a resuit of this realtzatton, the concept of General Dida.ctics, a
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in al-l the diff-erent üscipünes, ceases to make sense. §7hat is neecled., then is a
Specific I)idactir:s, r,vhici-r aliol",,s teacirers of a certain Cisciplinc or sublect t<t
help their learners Ie arn it s.ith rigor and efficacl,.
DIDAC:TIC INTERACTIONS
Didactics is the science of education concerne d u,'ith the proce sses of teaching
and learning. These are two different processes even though, to some authors,
thev are two sides of the same process.
For our intents anci purpc-rses) ve will concepLua)lze them as t§'o separate
although jnterrelatcd processes: one dealing rvith the transformation of
knorvleclge into teachable objects (teaching), and the other dealing rvith the
construction of knou.ledge vta interaction urith knorvledge but also r.vith
teachers and peers (earners). Teachrng is concelned with how the teacher
adapts his or her knowleclge of the subject matter in order to transfotm it into
an obiect of iearning. Teachers generally knorv much more than theit srudents
and their 1inou.1e dge is b,oth complex and diverse.
For example, back in 1990, Grossman pror.ided a charactetizaúon of teacher's
knov,iedge, based on the r,vork of Rlbaz and ShuLman, which cleadv clepicts
this complexity and üversiry To this authof, teacher's knorviedge evoives out
of the intetacLion of fout intetrelated and mutuallr.. inclusive areas:
a. Subjecr matter knorvledge: ..vhich includes the various
paradigms uritl-rin a field xüjch :rffect both hou'thc field is
6. otgarllzed and the questions that guide furthet inquiry
together u,rth an.understancling of the canons of evidence
and proof within a ihsciphne rvhich heip members of the
discipline evaluate the knou.ledge claims tnade. If a teacher
orr1r, possesses tlris kind of knowledge, we caff]ot claim that
person is a teacher, but a subject expert.
Pedagogical knowleclge : to include knowledge about
leatners and learning, classroom management, curriculum
and instruction. Agarn, this kind of knowiedge is not
suffjcient to make a teacher. Those who posscss strong
pedagogical knowledge but lack the necessary content
knor.vledge cannot be calLed teachets but a pedagogues or
activiry desi¡lners.
I{nowledge of context: e ncompassing students'
backgrounds and identiry configurations, knowledge of the
educational institution and the communiry within which it
develops its social role and last, but not least, knowledge of
the requirements of the school system and the purposes of
education in sociery If teachers only possess this kind of
knorr,'ledge then they cannot be called teachers either, but
socialworkers.
Y/hrt sorr cf k-no..r-ledgr makes a rercher, rhen? To Grossrnrn (op. ci.), besides
a strong grounding on all the previously mentioned kinds of knowledge,
teachers need to possess -r fourth kind of knowledgc uniquc to the profession
d. Pedagogical Content l(norvleclge: the kind of knowledge
that distinguishes between the subject matter expert, the
actir'-it!' designer, the social §¡orlier and the experienced
teacher. It includes a multitude of facets and is, in itself, an
integtal part of a teacher's professionai landscape.
Pedago gical C ontent I(norvledge encomp as s e s : knowle dge
and beiiefs about the purposes for teaching a subject at
different grade levels; knorvledge of students'
understanding, conceptions and misconceptions of
particular topics in the sr-ibject matter; knou4edge of
curriculum materials available fot reaching the subject
matter; knowledge of both horizontal and vertical
curriculum alignments for the sub,ject and, know-ledge of
istructional strategies and representations for teaching
parúculat topics, etc.
b.
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7. The follou.ing diagtam summarizes these points
Teachers ate also influenced by other fu.toir. One such factor is what we can
call Teaching Sry1.. A teacher's teaching style is their preferred way of teaching,
or, in other rr,'ords, the teacher's own "method." One basic and classic
depiction of teaching styles is the one distinguishing between traditionai
teachers and progressi":e tea.chers. One u,ord of caution a-bout this kind of
ciassifications: Reaüry is seldom dichotomous, so we cannot claim that only
rhese nvo sryles eúst.
Perhaps it wouid be more usefui to conceive of C . se terms as tu/o ends of a
continuum alongwhich teachers move throughout their careers, depending on
theit needs, the context in which they teach and the challenges posed by their
students. Further on in these materials, we will see that, in the same rvay that
teachers have teaching style preferences, students have learning st),les
pteferences and there can be potential conflicts betrveen the teacher's
preferred style and that of the students'.
This brings us to the issue of students and the learrung process. If we
conceptualize the learning process as one in which learners interact with
knowledge, their peers, teachers and other school personnel in order to
construct neu, understandings, then we have to pay special attention to what is
brought to beat in learning. For a start,learning originates in ¡¡üat the learnet
alreadyknows.
Human beings are not tabala rasa, they are members of social groups and
participants in social activities which are meaningful to them. In paruciparing
in these activities, learners accrue abaggage of knowledge, rvhich constitutes
w'hat we can call background knowledge. This comprises everything that a
human being learns ínside and outside the classroom, formally or informalll',
because of observation or as a consequence of interaction with other human
beings. This knowledge is neither s-stematic nor organized. Hence,
background knowledge is prone to contain both mistakes and correct
information. These are brought to bear when srudents begin to learn
8. something new. If their background knorvledge has a positive correlarion to
r,hat $,e ¡ant to teach them, then u,e caLl this knor¡,ledge a pre-requisite.
Othenvise, if it does not correlate to w-hat ¡e want to teach, we call it a
prcconceptjon.
E,xample:
The teacher is explaining something to sfudents and she uses the wotd
"international" f fntar'nr{enel/ . One student corrects her by saying: "It's
7'rntor'nerfonolf ." To which, the teacher replies u,ith "No, it's
f lnter'otr.lanalf " Then, the student says "But I heard it on TV and on üe
tadiol" uüich is truc, jn all likelihood, as this rvord tends to be mispronounced
b]. anchors rvho do not knou, Engüsh.
Because preconceptions are generally developed outside thb classroom, and
because students have not had them questioned before, they constitute a very
por,verful coflstruct, rvhich is dif{icu1t to break. However, the skillful teacher
urill help the students see why their preconceptions are nor correct, and also
hclp them build srrong pre-rcquisires.
Another important issue ar play in the learning process is that of learning
strategies. Learning Strategies are thoughts or actions that we use in order to
help ourselves learn. ExampJes of strategies are planning for a task at hand,
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al1 the time when we are learning. Some of us may sing to ourselves so as to
remetnLer some jaformation, others mal¡ rirarv ot order infotmation in a- r.isua-1
rvay while others prefcr to plan and think before commitring to action. These
are all ways w'e have del,eloped to help us remember information, í.rlpe i/ith
nerv situations or develop an idea. Hov-ever, not everyone has the correct
strategy for the right situation or ls able to applv strategies in rhose contexts
rvhete they are most needed. Hence it is importantthatteachers help students
see what strategies are neecled in order to accompJish certain tasks.
x/e can depict the interactivc processes of teaching and learning as a triangle
where teachers, learners and knowledge constitute the angles, and the
relationships which are estabLished between rwo of the angles are the place
rvhere interactions surface. The following diagram makes this expücit:
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9. Looking at the rliagram, we can see that LEARNING is the process in rvhich
stlrdents interact rvith knorviedge and r.vith learners constructing neu'
meanings from experience. That is to say, each new experience learners have,
puts into plav the learnets' previous knowledge (both pre conceptions and
pre-requisites) as weil as theirlearning strategies. This knowleclge is contrasted
wiür the ne'w experience and accommodated into what students knov,.
Learning then, is about constructirig new meanings from experience and
incorporating those new meanings into our background knowiedge.
'IEACHING on the other hand is a process teachers go through in their
ilteractiorr v-ith knorvledge bv which teachers ttansform "scientific" or
"acadenic" knowledge into objects of learning. However, in order to do
this, teachers need to understand hov, students iearn, and, more importanti¡,
hor.v these particuiar students learn, what learning strategies the1, use, ¡¡,kLich
are the most suitable strategies to teach these students this specific conterrt,
etc. As lve have said before, teachers need to possess high ievels of
peclagogicai content knowledge in order to be able to transpose disciplinary
knowiedge in such a wav that it results in positir,-e student learning.
Finallv. out of the intetaction betrveen teachers and students, a third form of
relating to one another is born. We will call this the "Didactic contract." This
refers to the unsaid but ever-presentv/ays in rvhich teachers reiate to students.
lhen we talk of discipiine in the ciassroom and also reachet--student
rapport, ñ'e are talking about th.is contract. In er,,eryclay terms, we say that
str:dents "test" hor.r, far they can go v'ith one teacher during the f;rst.¡eeks cf
class, üese "testing" results in implicit rules which govern classroom culnrre.
One should be vigilant of the didactic corrtract implicit in one's teachi^::
because, many times, ít may be counter productive in terms of srudents'
learning.
CONCLUSION
In this module we have defined Didactics as the Science of Education, which
most directly addresses the processes of teaching and learning. X/e
conceptual,ized teaching as a process of intetaction berween teachets and
knowledge by which teachers make successive adaptations to scientific or
academic knowledge so that it becomes an object of leaming. Learning, on
the other hand, is a process of interaction between students and knowledge in
rvhich learners construct new meanings from expedence. In order to do this,
they resort to their background or prior knowledge to make sense of üe nerv
experiences.
Read Appendices I & II in this Self-Access Booklet
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